Problems and Solutions

Reviewed work(s):
Source: The American Mathematical Monthly, Vol. 118, No. 5 (May 2011), pp. 463-470
Published by: Mathematical Association of America
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.4169/amer.math.monthly.118.05.463 .
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 PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS
Edited by Gerald A. Edgar, Doug Hensley, Douglas B. West
with the collaboration of Mike Bennett, Itshak Borosh, Paul Bracken, Ezra A. Brown,
Randall Dougherty, Tamás Erdélyi, Zachary Franco, Christian Friesen, Ira M. Ges-
sel, László Lipták, Frederick W. Luttmann, Vania Mascioni, Frank B. Miles, Bog-
dan Petrenko, Richard Pfiefer, Cecil C. Rousseau, Leonard Smiley, Kenneth Stolarsky,
Richard Stong, Walter Stromquist, Daniel Ullman, Charles Vanden Eynden, Sam Van-
dervelde, and Fuzhen Zhang.

Proposed problems and solutions should be sent in duplicate to the MONTHLY

problems address on the back of the title page. Proposed problems should never
be under submission concurrently to more than one journal. Submitted solutions
should arrive before September 30, 2011. Additional information, such as gen-
eralizations and references, is welcome. The problem number and the solver’s
name and address should appear on each solution. An asterisk (*) after the num-
ber of a problem or a part of a problem indicates that no solution is currently
available.

PROBLEMS
11572. Proposed by Sam Sakmar, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL. Given a
circle C and two points A and B outside C, give a Euclidean construction to find a
point P on C such that if Q and S are the second intersections with C of A P and B P
respectively, then Q S is perpendicular to AB. (Special configurations, including the
case that A, B, and the center of C are collinear, are excluded.)
11573. Proposed by Rob Pratt, SAS Institute, Cary, NC. A Sudoku permutation matrix
(SPM) of order n 2 is a permutation matrix of order n 2 with exactly one 1 in each of the
n 2 submatrices of order n obtained by partitioning the original matrix into an n-by-n
array of submatrices. Thus, for n = 2, the permutation 1324 yields an SPM, but the
identity permutation 1234 does not. Find the number of SPMs of order n 2 .
11574. Proposed by M. Farrokhi D. G., Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad,
Iran. Let F be a field with characteristic zero, let p ∈ F[x] be a polynomial over F,
and let D p be the set of all polynomials q in F[x] that divide p ◦ r for some r in F[x].
Prove that D p is closed under multiplication.
11575. Proposed by Tuan Le (student), Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA.
Prove that if a, b, and c are positive, then
 3  1/3
16 a b c abc 5
+ + + ≥ .
27 b + c c + a a + b (a + b)(b + c)(c + a) 2

11576. Proposed by László Tóth, University of Pécs, Hungary. Let ω(n) denote the
number of distinct prime factors of n. Let P(x, k) be the set of integers in [1, x] that
are relatively prime to k, and let φ(x, k) = |P(x, k)|. Let
(−1)ω(n) .
X
S(x, k) =
n∈P(x,k)

doi:10.4169/amer.math.monthly.118.05.463

May 2011] PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS 463

Show that for all real x in [1, ∞),

(−1)ω(n) φ(x/n, n) =
X X
S(x/n, n) = 1.
1≤n≤x 1≤n≤x

11577. Proposed by Pál Péter Dályay, Szeged, Hungary. Let n be a positive

P even
integer and let p be prime. Show that the polynomial f given by f (x) = p + nk=1 x k
is irreducible over Q.
11578. Proposed by Roger Cuculière, Clichy la Garenne, France. Let E be a real
normed vector space of dimension at least 2. Let f be a mapping from E to E, bounded
on the unit sphere {x ∈ E : kxk = 1}, such that whenever x and y are in E, f (x +
f (y)) = f (x) + y. Prove that f is a continuous, linear involution on E.

SOLUTIONS

Rounding Down
11428 [2009, 365]. Proposed by Walter Blumberg, Coral Springs, FL. Let p be a prime
that is congruent to 3 mod 4, and let a and q be integers, with p - q. Show that
p p
X X
2
b(qk + a)/ pc = 2a + 1 + b(qk 2 − a − 1)/ pc.
k=1 k=1

Solution by Julien Grivaux (student), Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France.
Let N (x) be the number of congruence classes y such that y 2 ≡ x mod p. Since p ≡
3 mod 4, the value −1 is not a quadratic residue modulo p, so {x, −x} contains exactly
one quadratic residue modulo p when p - x. Thus always N (x) + N (−x) = 2.
Define
p p
X X
S(a) = b(qk 2 + a)/ pc and T (a) = b(qk 2 − a − 1)/ pc.
k=1 k=1

Let [ p] = {1, . . . , p}. Now

S(a + 1) − S(a) = {k ∈ [ p] : p | (qk 2 + a + 1)} = N (−q −1 (a + 1)),

 

T (a) − T (a + 1) = {k ∈ [ p] : p | (qk 2 − a − 1)} = N (q −1 (a + 1)).

 

Thus S(a + 1) − T (a + 1) − S(a) − T (a) = 2. We conclude that S(a) −

   
T (a) = 2a + [S(0) − T (0)]. Furthermore, using p - q, we have
p p
X  2  X
S(0) − T (0) = qk / p − (qk − 1)/ p = {k ∈ [ p] : p | qk 2 } = 1
 2   

k=1 k=1

Thus S(a) − T (a) = 2a + 1.

Also solved by R. Chapman (U.K.), P. P. Dályay (Hungary), D. Fleischman, O. Geupel (Germany), D. Gove,
O. Kouba (Syria), J. H. Lindsey II, O. P. Lossers (Netherlands), M. A. Prasad (India), J. Simons (U.K.),
N. C. Singer, R. Stong, R. Tauraso (Italy), M. Tetiva (Romania), K. S. Williams (Canada), GCHQ Problem
Solving Group (U.K.), Microsoft Research Problems Group, and NSA Problems Group.

464 c THE MATHEMATICAL ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA [Monthly 118

 A Triply-Determined Point on the Sphere
11433 [2009, 463]. Proposed by Marius Cavachi, University “Ovidius,” Constanţa,
Romania. Let n be a positive integer, and let A1 , . . . , An , B1 , . . . , Bn , and C1 , . . . , Cn
be points on the unit sphere S 2 . Show that there exists P on S 2 such that
n
X n
X n
X
2
|P − Ak | = 2
|P − Bk | = |P − Ck |2 .
k=1 k=1 k=1

Solution I by Omran Kouba, Higher P Institute for Applied P Science and Technol-
ogy, Damascus, Syria. Let U = nk=1 (Bk − Ak ) and V = nk=1 (Ck − Ak ). Since
dim span(U, V ) ≤ 2, there is aPpoint Q 6 = 0 in RP 3
that is perpendicular to U and
n 2 n 2
V . Let P = Q/|Q| and d = k=1 |P − A k | − k=1 |P − Bk | . Expanding, d =
k=1 (|P| · Ak ) − k=1 (|P| + |Bk | − 2P · Bk ) = 2P · U = 0. Sim-
Pn 2 2
Pn 2 2
P + |Ak | − 2P P
ilarly, nk=1 |P − Ak |2 − nk=1 |P − Ck |2 = 0.
Solution II by Dan Jurca, California State University East Bay, Hayward, California.
Define f : S 2 → R2 by
n n
!
X X
f (P) = |P − Ak |2 − |P − Bk |2 , |P − Ak |2 − |P − Ck |2 .



k=1 k=1

Note that |P − Ak |2 − |P − Bk |2 = −(|−P − Ak |2 − |−P − Bk |2 ) and similarly

|P − Ak |2 − |P − Ck |2 = −(|−P − Ak |2 − |−P − Ck |2 ). Thus f (P) = − f (−P)
for all P ∈ S 2 . Since f is continuous on S 2 , the Borsuk–Ulam theorem implies that
there exists P ∈ S 2 such that f (P) = f (−P) = (0, 0). The result follows.
Also solved by R. Bagby, M. Bataille (France), R. Chapman (U.K.), P. P. Dályay (Hungary), R. Garmanjani
(Portugal), M. Goldenberg & M. Kaplan, D. Grinberg, E. A. Herman, B.-T. Iordache (Romania), Y. K. Jeon
(Korea), H. Katsuura & E. Schmeichel, J. C. Linders (Netherlands), O. P. Lossers (Netherlands), K. McInturff,
J. H. Nieto (Venezuela), J. Schaer (Canada), J. Simons (U.K.), N. C. Singer, R. Stong, M. Tetiva (Romania),
CMC 328, Szeged Problem Solving Group “Fejéntaláltuka” (Hungary), GCHQ Problem Solving Group (U.K.),
Microsoft Research Problems Group, and the proposer.

Diagonal Intersections Not Collinear

11436 [2009, 463]. Proposed by Y. N. Aliyev, Qafqaz University, Khyrdalan, Azerbai-
jan. In a triangle ABC, let B 0 and C 0 be points on sides AC and AB, respectively. Let
M be the intersection of B B 0 and CC 0 . Let distinct lines k and l intersecting inside
triangle M BC meet segments C 0 B, M B, MC, and B 0 C at K 1 , K 2 , K 3 , K 4 and L 1 , L 2 ,
L 3 , L 4 , respectively. Show that the intersection points of the diagonals of K 1 K 2 L 2 L 1 ,
K 2 L 2 K 3 L 3 , and K 3 L 3 L 4 K 4 are not collinear.
Solution I by Oliver Geupel, Brühl, Germany. If u and v are lines, let u.v denote their
intersection. Let Q = K 1 L 2 .K 2 L 1 , O = k.l, and P = K 3 L 4 .K 4 L 3 . Without loss of
generality suppose that L 1 lies on the line segment C 0 K 1 .
Let U = K 1 Q.K 4 P and V = Q L 1 .P L 4 . Then U = K 1 L 2 .K 4 L 3 = L 2 Q.L 3 P
and V = K 2 L 1 .K 3 L 4 = Q K 2 .P K 3 . If the points at issue, Q, O, P, are collinear,
then lines K 1 K 4 , L 1 L 4 , and Q P are concurrent at O. Hence triangles K 1 L 1 Q and
K 4 L 4 P are perspective from O, as are K 2 L 2 Q and K 3 L 3 P. By Desargues’ theorem,
K 1 L 1 .K 4 L 4 (i.e., A), U , and V are collinear, as are K 2 L 2 .K 3 L 3 (i.e., M), U , and V .
Thus A, U, V, M are collinear, so U lies on AM. Triangle AK 1 K 4 contains K 1 Q.AM
in its interior but is disjoint from K 4 P. This contradicts our assumption that Q, O, P
are collinear.

May 2011] PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS 465

Solution II by the GCHQ Problem Solving Group, Cheltenham, U.K. With the above
notation, let k and l denote unit vectors in the directions O K 1 and O L 1 , respec-
tively. For 1 ≤ j ≤ 4, let O K j = α j k and O L j = β j l. Now P = K 3 L 4 .K 4 L 3 , so
O P = λα3 k + (1 − λ)β4 l = µα4 k + (1 − µ)β3 l. Thus λα3 = µα4 and (1 − λ)β4 =
(1 − µ)β3 . Therefore (α3 β3 − α4 β4 )O P = α3 α4 (β3 − β4 )k + β3 β4 (α3 − α4 )l. Sim-
ilarly, (α1 β1 − α2 β2 )O Q = β1 β2 (α1 − α2 )k + β1 β2 (α1 − α2 )l, (α1 β2 − α2 β1 )O B =
α1 α2 (β2 − β1 )k + β1 β2 (α1 − α2 )l, and (α3 β4 − α4 β3 )OC = α3 α4 (β4 − β3 )k +
β3 β4 (α3 − α4 )l. Note that O P k O N if and only if O B k OC, i.e., if and only if
β1 β2 α3 α4 (α1 − α2 )(β3 − β4 ) = α1 α2 β3 β4 (β1 − β2 )(α3 − α4 ). Since O = k.l lies in-
side MBC, we conclude O B ∦ OC, so O P ∦ O Q, as desired.
Also solved by R. Chapman (U.K.), P. P. Dályay (Hungary), O. Kouba (Syria), J. H. Lindsey II, O. P. Lossers
(Netherlands), C. R. Pranesachar (India), J. Simons (U.K.), R. Stong, and the proposer.

Zeros of Polynomials with Unit Coefficients

11437 [2009, 464]. Proposed by Tamás Erdélyi, Texas A&M University, College Sta-
tion, TX. Let Lk denote the set of all polynomials of degree k in x with each of their
k + 1 coefficients in {−1, 1}. Let Mk denote the largest multiplicity that a zero of a
P in Lk can have at 1. Let hCk i be a sequence of positive integers tending to infinity.
Show that
1 
lim {k : 1 ≤ k ≤ n and Mk ≥ Ck } = 0.
n→∞ n

Solution by Richard Stong, Center for Communications Research, San Diego, CA . We

claim that Mk < 2r , where 2r is the largest power of 2 dividing k + 1. Let P(x) =
Pk n r
n=0 en x , where en ∈ {−1, 1}. If P has a zero of multiplicity at least 2 at 1, then 1
also is a zero of the (2 − 1)th derivative. Thus
r

k  
1 (2r −1)
X n
0= r P (1) = en r .
(2 − 1)! n=2r −1
2 −1

Since en = ±1 ≡ 1 (mod 2), we conclude that

k   k    
X n X n k+1
0= ek r ≡ = (mod 2).
n=2r −1
2 −1 n=2r −1
2r − 1 2r
r

By Lucas’s theorem, 22rs is odd when s is odd. Thus we have a contradiction and
Mk < 2r .
If Ck → ∞, then for any r there exists N such that Ck ≥ 2r for k > N . If Mk ≥ Ck ,
then either k ≤ N or 2r divides k + 1. Hence

{k : 1 ≤ k ≤ n and Mk ≥ Ck } ≤ N + n + 1 .
 
2r
We conclude that
1
lim sup {k : 1 ≤ k ≤ n and Mk ≥ Ck } ≤ 2−r .

n→∞ n

Since the desired limit is nonnegative and r is arbitrary, the limit must be 0.
n−1
Editorial comment. The proposer noted that (1 − x)(1 − x 2 ) · · · (1 − x 2 ) is in L2n −1 ,
and its zero at 1 has multiplicity n − 1. He also proved the much stronger result that

466 c THE MATHEMATICAL ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA [Monthly 118

for  > 0, and for almost every natural number k, every polynomial in Lk has at most
(1 + ) log k log log k zeros at 1.
Also solved by R. Chapman (U.K.), P. P. Dályay (Hungary), O. Geupel (Germany), O. Kouba (Syria),
J. H. Lindsey II, O. P. Lossers (Netherlands), J. Simons (U.K.), GCHQ Problem Solving Group (U.K.), and
the proposer.

A Triangle Inequality
11448 [2009, 647]. Proposed by Wei-Dong Jiang, Weihai Vocational College, Weihai,
China. Let a, b, c be the side-lengths of a triangle, and let α, β, γ respectively denote
half the measures of the angles opposite those sides. Show that
a b c 1
tan2 β tan2 γ + tan2 γ tan2 α + tan2 α tan2 β ≤ .
b+c c+a a+b 6

Solution by Cosmin Pohata, “Tudor Vianu” National College, Bucharest, Rumania.

√ s be the semiperimeter of the triangle with side lengths a, b, c. Recall that tan α =
Let
(s − b)(s − c)/s(s − a), with similar formulas for tan β and tan γ . The required
inequality then becomes
X a s2
· (s − a)2 ≤ .
cyc
b+c 6

Let s − a = x, s − b = y, and s − c = z. Note that x, y, z are positive reals, with

y + z = a, z + x = b, x + y = c. The inequality to be proved is now
X x 2 (y + z) (x + y + z)2
≤ .
cyc
2x + y + z 6

We show that this inequality holds

P for all positive real numbers x, y, z. This
 is equiv-
alent to A ≤ B, where A = 6 cyc x 2 (y + z)(2y + z + x)(2x + y + z) and B =
(x + y + z)2 · cyc (2x + y +z).
Q
Simply expanding B − A yields

B − A = [5, 0, 0] + 5[4, 1, 0] + 6[3, 1, 1] − 5[2, 2, 1] − 7[3, 2, 0],

where [ p, q, r ] is defined to be sym x p y q z r .

P
By Schur’s inequality, we have [5, 0, 0] + [3, 1, 1] ≥ 2[4, 1, 0]. Hence

B − A ≥ 7[4, 1, 0] + 5[3, 1, 1] − 5[2, 2, 1] − 7[3, 2, 0].

From Muirhead’s inequality, we have [4, 1, 0] ≥ [3, 2, 0] and [3, 1, 1] ≥ [2, 2, 1]. This
proves that B − A ≥ 0 and thus A ≤ B.
Editorial comment. Solvers Enkel Hysnelaj and Elton Bojaxiu point out that this prob-
lem by the same proposer appears at the RGMIA Problem Corner, at http://www.
staff.vu.edu.au/RGMIA/pc.asp, with a solution by Miwa Lin.
Also solved by A. Alt, R. Bagby, D. Beckwith, E. Braune (Austria), R. Chapman (U.K.), C. Curtis, Y. Dumont
(France), O. Faynshteyn (Germany), O. Geupel (Germany), J. Grivaux (France), E. Hysnelaj & E. Bojaxhiu
(Australia & Germany), B.-T. Iordache (Romania), O. Kouba (Syria), K.-W. Lau (China), J. H. Lindsey II,
P. Nüesch (Switzerland), J. Oelschlager, C. R. Pranesachar (India), R. Stong, R. Tauraso (Italy), M. Tetiva
(Romania), M. Vowe (Switzerland), S. Xiao (Canada), J. Zacharias, and GCHQ Problem Solving Group (U.K.).

May 2011] PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS 467

 Vandermonde Strikes Again
11459 [2009, 747]. Proposed by Pál Péter Dályay, Deák Ferenc High School, Szeged,
Hungary. Find all pairs (s, z) of complex numbers such that
  
∞ X n k n−k−1
X 1 Y
 (s j − z) 
Y
(s j + z)
n=0 k=0
k! (n − k)! j=1 j=0

converges.
Solution by Oliver Geupel, Brühl, NRW, Germany. We claim that (s, z) has the desired
property if and only if |s| < 1. Let
  
n k n−k−1
X 1 Y Y
αn (s, z) =  (s j − z)  (s j + z) .
k=0
k! (n − k)! j=1 j=0

First consider s = 0. For n ≥ 1 we have αn (0, z) = (z n /n!) nk=0 nk (−1)k = 0; hence

P

n=0 αn (0, z) converges for each z. Now suppose s 6 = 0. Applying Vandermonde’s

P∞
convolution formula
n     
X x y x+y
= ,
k=0
k n−k n

we obtain
  
n k n−k−1
X Y z/s − j Y −z/s − j
αn (s, z) =    (−s)n
k=0 j=1
j j=0
j + 1
n     
X z/s − 1 −z/s −1
= (−s)n = (−s)n = sn.
k=0
k n−k n

s n converges if and only if |s| < 1. This completes the proof.

P∞
However, n=0
Also solved by M. S. Ashbaugh & F. Vial (U.S.A. & Chile), D. Beckwith, R. Chapman (U.K.), E. A. Herman,
M. E. H. Ismail, O. Kouba (Syria), M. E. Larsen (Denmark), O. P. Lossers (Netherlands), D. K. Nester, J.
Simons (U.K.), N. C. Singer, R. Stong, M. Tetiva (Romania), GCHQ Problem Solving Group (U.K.), and the
proposer.

Asymptotics for an Elliptic Integral

11462 [2009, 844]. Proposed by Nadezhda Alexandrova, Institute of Mining, Novosi-
birsk, Russia. Find
Z π
dx
lim log α + p .
α→0+ x=0 sin2 x + iα

Solution by Richard Bagby, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM. We show
that
Z π !
dx π
lim log α + p = 4 log 2 − i
α→0 +
x=0 2
sin x + iα 2
by splitting the integrand up into two parts, one having an elementary antiderivative
and the other remaining bounded as α → 0+ . In the calculation below, mutliple-valued

468 c THE MATHEMATICAL ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA [Monthly 118

functions should be interpreted as the versions which are analytic in the plane with the
negative real-axis removed and that are positive on (1, ∞).
By symmetry, we may write
Z π Z π/2
dx dx
p =2 p
2 2
0 sin x + iα 0 sin x + iα
Z π/2 Z π/2
cos x d x (1 − cos x) d x
=2 p +2 p .
0 sin2 x + iα 0 sin2 x + iα
p
On [0, π/2] we have |1 − cos x| ≤ sin2 x ≤ | sin2 x + iα|, so by the dominated con-
vergence theorem
Z π/2 Z π/2 Z π/2
(1 − cos x) d x (1 − cos x) d x sin x d x
lim 2 p =2 =2
α→0+ 0 2
sin x + iα 0 sin x 0 1 + cos x
π/2
= −2 log(1 + cos x)|0 = 2 log 2.
Recognizing the elementary antiderivative, we have
Z π/2 π/2
cos x d x  p
2 = 2 log sin x + sin2 x + iα 

p
2 0
0 sin x + iα
 √ 
= 2 log 1 + 1 + iα − log i − log α.

The stated result now follows immediately.

Editorial comment. Many solvers proceeded by recognizing the integral as √2iα K i


α
and applying the known limiting behavior of the complete elliptic integrals.
Also solved by V. Adamchik, G. Apostolopoulos (Greece), K. N. Boyadzhiev, R. Chapman (U.K.), Y. Dumont
(France), O. Kouba (Syria), G. Lamb, K. McInturff, M. Omarjee (France), O. G. Ruehr, J. Simons (U.K.),
N. C. Singer, R. Stong, D. B. Tyler, Microsoft Research Problems Group, and the proposer.

A Generalization? Not!
11468 [2009, 940]. Proposed by Cosmin Pohoata, Tudor Vianu National College of
Informatics, Bucharest, Romania. Let A1 A2 A3 be a triangle, let H be a dilation map-
ping of the plane, and let R be a right angle rotation of the plane. Let P1 , P2 , and P3
be the images under H ◦ R of A1 , A2 , and A3 , respectively, and suppose that P1 , P2 ,
and P3 lie inside or on the boundary of A1 A2 A3 .
Let Hi for i ∈ {1, 2, 3} be the foot of the perpendicular from Pi to the side of
A1 A2 A3 opposite Ai . Generalize the Erdős–Mordell inequality: show that
P1 A1 + P2 A2 + P3 A3 ≥ P1 H2 + P1 H3 + P2 H3 + P2 H1 + P3 H1 + P3 H2 ,
with equality if and only if A1 A2 A3 is equilateral and each Pi is equal to the circum-
center of A1 A2 A3 .
Solution by GCHQ Problem Solving Group, Cheltenham, U.K. The result does not hold
in general. Consider the isosceles right-angled triangle with A1 = (0, 0), A2 = (0, 4),
and A3 = (4, 0). Consider a dilation such that P1 = (0, 2), P2 = (2, 2), and P3 =
(0, 0).√Now H1 = (1, 3),√ H2 = (2, 0), and H3 = (0, 0), so P1 A1 + P2 A2 + P3 A3 =
2√+ 2 2 + 4√= 6 √ + 2 2, √ but P1 H2 + P1√H3 + P2 H3 + P2 H1 + P3 H1 + P3 H2 =
2 2 + 2 + 2 2 + 2 + 10 + 2 > 6 + 2 2. The claim is false in this case.
Also solved by R. Stong.

May 2011] PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS 469

 A Series Estimate
11469 [2009, 940]. Proposed by Slavko Simic, Mathematics Institute SANU, Belgrade,
Serbia. Let hxi i be a sequence of positive numbers, and let h pi i be a sequence of
nonnegative numbers summing to 1. Let
∞ ∞
!−1
X X
A= pi xi , H = pi /xi .
i=1 i=1
√
Show that if s and t are nonnegative numbers such that s ≤ xi ≤ s + t for all i ≥ 1,
then H ≤ A ≤ t 2 + H .
Solution by Allen Stenger, Alamogordo, NM. First note that it is enough to prove the
result in the finite case; that is, when pi = 0 for large i. Indeed: assume the finite case,
and in the general case set
n n n
!−1
X X pi X pi 1
Pn = pi , An = xi , Hn = .
i=1 i=1
Pi i=1
Pi xi

By the finite case, Hn ≤ An ≤ Hn + t 2 , and taking the limitP as n → ∞ yields the

desired result. Also note that the limit argument applies when ( pi /xi ) diverges and
we take H = 0.
Now assume pi = 0 for i > n. Of course H ≤ A is well known; this is a comparison
of harmonic and arithmetic means. We must prove the √ other inequality. Write
√m =
√
min
√ i≤n ix and M = max x
i≤n i , so m > 0, s ≤ m ≤ M ≤ s + t, and 0 ≤ M−
m ≤ t.
The function 1/x is convex for x > 0, so its graph lies below the secant line passing
through the points (1/M, M) and (1/m, m). The equation of this line is y = L(x),
where L(x) = M + m − Mmx, so x ≤ L(1/x) for m ≤ x ≤ M. Then
X   
X X X pi pi 1
A= pi xi ≤ pi L(xi ) = M + m − Mm
−1
=L =L .
xi xi H
From m ≤ xi ≤ M we have m ≤ H ≤ M, and therefore
     
1 1
A−H ≤ L − H ≤ max L −x .
H m≤x≤M x
√ √
This maximum
√ occurs when x = Mm, where the value is M + m − 2 Mm, which
√
equals ( M − m )2 ≤ t 2 .
Also solved by P. P. Dályay (Hungary), J. Grivaux (France), S. J. Herschkorn, O. P. Lossers (Netherlands),
Á. Plaza (Spain), B. Schmuland (Canada), J. Simons (U.K.), N. C. Singer, R. Stong, GCHQ Problem Solving
Group (U.K.), and the proposer.

470 c THE MATHEMATICAL ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA [Monthly 118