CHAPTER-1

I. INTRODUCTION

1.1. OVERVIEW THE PROJECT

HARMONIC pollution is becoming increasingly serious due to extensive use of non-

linear loads, such as adjustable speed drives, uninterruptible power supply systems, battery
charging system, etc. This equipment usually uses diode or the restore rectifiers to realize
power conversion because of lower component cost and less control complexity. However,
the rectifiers will contribute a large amount of harmonic current flowing into the power
system, and the resulting harmonic distortion may give rise to malfunction of sensitive
equipment or interfering with communication systems in the vicinity of the harmonic sources.
Normally, tuned passive filters are deployed at the secondary side of the distribution
transformer to provide low impedance for dominant harmonic current and correct power
factor for inductive loads [1], [2]. However, due to parameter variations of passive filters,
unintentional series and/or parallel resonances may occur between the passive filter and line
inductance. The functionality of the passive filter may deteriorate, and excessive harmonic
amplification may result [3], [4]. Thus, extra calibrating work must be consumed to maintain
the filtering capability.
Various active filtering approaches have been presented to address the harmonic
issues in the power system [5]- [7]. The active filter intended for compensating harmonic
current of non-linear loads is the most popular one, but it may not be effective f or
suppressing harmonic r resonances [8]. Bhattacharya and Divan proposed a hybrid series
active filter to isolate harmonics between the power system and the harmonic source [9]. As
called “active inductance” hybrid filter was presented to improve the performance of the
passive filter [10]. Fujita et al. proposed a hybrid shunt active filter with filter-current
detecting method to suppress the fifth harmonic resonance between the power system and a
capacitor bank [11]. A hybrid filter in series with a capacitor bank by a coupling transformer
was proposed to suppress the harmonic resonance and to compensateharmonic current [12],
[13]. However, this method needs extra matching transformer sorted. Passive filters to
guarantee filtering functionality. Recently, a transformer less hybrid active filter was
presented to compensate harmonic current and/or fundamental reactive current [14]- [19].

1
Design consideration of the hybrid filter for current compensation has been extensively
studied. A hybrid active filter with damping conductance was proposed to suppress harmonic
voltage propagation in distribution power systems [20]. Nevertheless, this method did not
consider the resonance between the passive filter and the line inductance. The fixed
conductance may deteriorate the damping performances. An ant resonance hybrid filter for
delta-connected capacitor bank of power-factor-correction applications was presented [21].
This circuit was limited to three single-phase inverters, and the filtering performance was not
considered. In addition, the hybrid active filter was proposed for the unified power quality
(PQ) conditioner to address PQ issues in the power distribution system [22]. Several case
studies of the hybrid active filter considering optimal voltage or current distortion were
conducted in [23]. In previous work, the authors have presented a transformer less hybrid
active filter to suppress harmonic resonances in the industrial power system [24], [25]. The
hybrid filter is constructed by a seventh-tuned passive filter and an active filter in series
connection. It operates as a variable conductance at harmonic frequencies according to the
voltage THD, so that harmonic distortion can be reduced to an acceptable level in response to
load change and power system variation.
Since the series capacitor is responsible for sustaining the fundamental component of
the grid voltage, the active filter is able to operate with a very low dc bus voltage, compared
with the pure shunt active filter [14], [20]. Hence, both the rated kVA capacity and the
switching ripples are reduced accordingly. Moreover, the proposed harmonic conductance is
able to avoid over current of the passive filter in the case of mistuning parameters. These
features will benefit practical applications. In this paper, we further present designing
consideration of the hybrid filter. A prototype circuit of the hybrid filter based on 220-V/10-
kVA system has been established to verify theoretic analysis, including steady-state
behaviour, transient response, and stability analysis. Thefiltering performance of the hybrid
filter is discussed considering X/R ratio and magnified variations of line impedance.
We also focus on filtering deterioration due to line resistance, voltage unbalance, and
capacitive filters in the power system. In many cases, an active power filter is designed to
compensate harmonic current produced by a specific non-linear load, in such a way that it
needs to measure the load current to be compensated [14], [26]. In this paper, the active filter
is designed as a harmonic conductance to suppress both harmonic resonance and harmonic
distortion by using inverter-side voltage and current measurements. Notice that it does not
require current information of the non-linear loads. Thus, this approach can be suitable in
power distribution networks in which the loads may be distributed along afeederin addition,

2
compensating fundamental reactive power due to unbalanced load is possible, but it is outside
the scope of this paper.

LITERATURE SURVEY:

J. E. Plizga, and H. N. Nelson, “Harmonic resonance at a medium-sized industrial

plant”
Harmonic resonance is a concern for industrial plants because approximately 50% of the
normal electrical load consists of computer equipment, switch mode power supplies and AC
induction motor adjustable speed controllers. Due to the nonlinear characteristics of these loads,
significant harmonic voltages and currents are produced on the electrical distribution system.
Measurements were made with a harmonic analyzer at several locations in an electrical
distribution system to quantify harmonic currents and voltages

T. Dionise and V. Lorch, “Voltage distortion on an electrical distribution system,”

This article described a harmonic analysis study that determined that the proposed
midfrequency welder would produce unacceptable voltage distortion on the utility electrical
distribution system, especially an adjacent manufacturing facility with extensive electronic
controls as well as on the house load associated with the midfrequency welder This knowledge of
the harmonics nature of the midfrequency welder load and effective harmonic mitigation methods
provided valuable data to the welder manufacturer so that changes could be made in the design
stage to achieve the utility criteria.

T.-L. Lee, Y.-C. Wang, and J.-C. Li,Design of a hybrid active filter for harmonics
suppression in industrial facilities,”

Harmonic voltage amplification, due to unintentional series or parallel resonance of

power factor correction capacitors, is a significant issue in the industrial power system. This
feature provides a vital advantage of the active filter, in terms of both the kVA rating and the
switching ripples. Operation principles are explained in detail, and computer simulations validate
the effectiveness of the proposed approach.

B. Singh, K. Al-Haddad, and A. Chandra, “A review of active filters for power quality
improvement,”

Active filtering of electric power has now become a mature technology for harmonic and
reactive power compensation in two-wire (single phase), three-wire (three phase without neutral),
and four-wire (three phase with neutral) AC power networks with nonlinear loads. This Project
presents a comprehensive review of active filter (AF) configurations, control strategies, selection
of components, other related economic and technical considerations, and their selection for
specific applications

3
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT:

In this project, we further present designing consideration of the hybrid filter. A

prototype circuit of the hybrid filter based on220-V/10-kVA system has been established to
verify theoretic analysis, including steady-state behavior, transient response, and stability
analysis. The filtering performance of the hybrid filter is discussed considering X/R ratio and
magnified variations of line impedance.We also focus on filtering deterioration due to line
resistance, voltage unbalance, and capacitive filters in the power system. In many cases, an
active power filter is designed to compensate harmonic current produced by a specific
nonlinear load, in such a way that it needs to measure the load current to be compensated
[14], [26]. In this projet the active filter is designed as a harmonic conductance to suppress
both harmonic resonance and harmonic distortion by using inverter-side voltage and current
measurements. Notice that it does not require current information of the nonlinear loads.
Thus, this approach can be suitable in power distribution networks in which the loads may be
distributed along a feeder [20]. In addition, compensating fundamental reactive power due to
unbalanced load is possible, but it is outside the scope of this project includes over view of
the project,literature survey,objectives of the project

4
 CHAPTER-2

ACTIVE FILTER

2.1. AN ACTIVE FILTER

An Active Filter is a type of analog electronic filter, distinguished by the use of one or
more active components i.e. voltage amplifiers or buffer amplifiers. Typically this will be a
vacuum tube, or solid-state (transistor or operational amplifier).

Active filters have three main advantages over passive filters:

 Inductors can be avoided. Passive filters without inductors cannot obtain a high Q
(low damping), but with them are often large and expensive (at low frequencies), may
have significant internal resistance, and may pick up surrounding electromagnetic
signals.
 The shape of the response, the Q (Quality factor), and the tuned frequency can often
be set easily by varying resistors, in some filters one parameter can be adjusted
without affecting the others. Variable inductances for low frequency filters are not
practical.
 The amplifier powering the filter can be used to buffer the filter from the electronic
components it drives or is fed from, variations in which could otherwise significantly
affect the shape of the frequency response.

Active filter circuit configurations (electronic filter topology) include:

Sallen and Key, and VCVS filters (low dependency on accuracy of the components)

 State variable and biquadratic filters

 Twin T filter (fully passive)
 Dual Amplifier Bandpass (DABP)
 Wien notch
 Multiple Feedback Filter
 Fliege(lowest component count for 2 op amp but with good controllability over
frequency and type)
 Akerberg Mossberg (one of the topologies that offer complete and independent
control over gain, frequency, and type)

5
  All the varieties of passive filters can also be found in active filters. Some of them
are:
 High-pass filters – attenuation of frequencies below their cut-off points.
 Low-pass filters – attenuation of frequencies above their cut-off points.
 Band-pass filters – attenuation of frequencies both above and below those they allow
to pass.
 Notch filters – attenuation of certain frequencies while allowing all others to pass.
Combinations are possible, such as notch and high-pass (for example, in a rumblefilter where
most of the offending rumble comes from a particular frequency), e.g. Elliptic filters.

2.2 Design of active filters

To design filters, the specifications that need to be established include:

 The range of desired frequencies (the pass band) together with the shape of the
frequency response. This indicates the variety of filter (see above) and the centre or
corner frequencies.
 Input and output impedance requirements. These limit the circuit topologies available;
for example, most, but not all active filter topologies provide a buffered (low
impedance) output.
 However, remember that the internal output impedance of operational amplifiers, if
used, may rise markedly at high frequencies and reduce the attenuation from that
expected. Be aware that some high-pass filter topologies present the input with almost
a short circuit to high frequencies.
 The degree to which unwanted signals should be rejected.
 In the case of narrow-band band pass filters, the Q determines the -3dB bandwidth but
also the degree of rejection of frequencies far removed from the centre frequency; if
these two requirements are in conflict then a staggered-tuning band pass filter may be
needed.

For notch filters, the degree to which unwanted signals at the notch frequency must be
rejected determines the accuracy of the components, but not the Q, which is governed by
desired steepness of the notch, i.e. the bandwidth around the notch before attenuation
becomes small.

For high-pass and low-pass (as well as band-pass filters far from the centre frequency),
the required rejection may determine the slope of attenuation needed, and thus the "order" of
the filter. A second-order all-pole filter gives an ultimate slope of about 12 dB per octave
(40dB/decade), but the slope close to the corner frequency is much less, sometimes
necessitating a notch be added to the filter.

6
 The allowable "ripple" (variation from a flat response, in decibels) within the passband
of high-pass and low-pass filters, along with the shape of the frequency response curve near
the corner frequency, determine the damping factor (reciprocal of Q). This also affects the
phase response, and the time response to a square-wave input. Several important response
shapes (damping factors) have well-known names:

Chebyshev filter – slight peaking/ripple in the pass band before the corner; Q>0.7071 for
2nd-order filters

Butterworth filter – flattest amplitude response; Q=0.7071 for 2nd-order filters

Paynter or transitional Thompson-Butterworth or "compromise" filter – faster fall-off than

Bessel; Q=0.639 for 2nd-order filters

Bessel filter – best time-delay, best overshoot response; Q=0.577 for 2nd-order filters

Elliptic filter or Causer filters – add a notch (or "zero") just outside the passband, to give a
much greater slope in this region than the combination of order and damping factor without
the notch.

7
 CHAPTER-3
HARMONIC
3.1 HARMONIC

The typical definition for a harmonic is “a sinusoidal component of a periodic wave or

quantity having a frequency that is an integral multiple of the fundamental frequency.”

1. Some references refer to “clean” or “pure” power as those without any harmonics.
But such clean waveforms typically only exist in a laboratory. Harmonics have been
around for a long time and will continue to do so. In fact, musicians have been aware
of such since the invention of the first string or woodwind instrument. Harmonics
(called “overtones” in music) are responsible for what makes a trumpet sound like a
trumpet, anda clarinet like a clarinet.

Electrical generators try to produce electric power where the voltage waveform has
only one frequency associated with it, the fundamental frequency. In the North America, this
frequency is 60 Hz, or cycles per second. In European countries and other parts of the world,
this frequency is usually 50 Hz. Aircraft often uses 400 Hz as the fundamental frequency. At
60 Hz, this means that sixty times a second, the voltage waveform increases to a maximum
positive value, then decreases to zero, further decreasing to a maximum negative value, and
then back to zero. The rate at which these changes occur is the trigonometric function called a
sine wave, as shown in figure 1. This function occurs in many natural phenomena, such as the
speed of a pendulum as it swings back and forth, or the way a string on a violin vibrates when
plucked.

Fig3.1. Sine wave

8
 The frequency of the harmonics is different, depending on the fundamental frequency.
For example, the 2nd harmonic on a 60 Hz system is 2*60 or 120 Hz. At 50Hz, the second
harmonic is 2* 50 or 100Hz.

300Hz is the 5th harmonic in a 60 Hz system, or the 6th harmonic in a 50 Hz system.

Figure 2 shows how a signal with two harmonics would appear on an oscilloscope-type
display, which some power quality analysers provide.

Figure3.2. Fundamental with two harmonics

In order to be able to analyse complex signals that have many different frequencies
present, a number of mathematical methods were developed. One of the more popular is
called the Fourier Transform. However, duplicating the mathematical steps required in a
microprocessor or computer-based instrument is quite difficult. So more compatible
processes, called the FFT for Fast Fourier transform, or DFT for Discrete Fourier Transform,
are used.

These methods only work properly if the signal is composed of only the fundamental
and harmonic frequencies in a certain frequency range (called the Nyquist frequency, which
is one-half of the sampling frequency). The frequency values must not change during the
measurement period. Failure of these rules to be maintained can result in miss-information.
For example, if a voltage waveform is comprised of 60 Hz and 200Hz signals, the FFT
cannot directly see the 200 Hz. It only knows 60, 120, 180, 240which are often called “bins”.
The result would be that the energy of the 200 Hz signal would appear partially in the 180Hz
bin, and partially in the 240 Hz bin. An FFT- based processor could show a voltage value of
115V at 60 Hz, 18 V at the 3rd harmonic, and 12 V at the 4th harmonic, when it really should
have been 30 V at 200 Hz.

9
 These in-between frequencies are called “inter harmonics”. There is also a special
category of inter harmonics, which are frequency values less than the fundamental frequency
value, called sub-harmonics. For example, the process of melting metal in an electric arc
furnace can result large currents that are comprised of the fundamental, inter harmonic, and
sub harmonic frequencies being drawn from the electric power grid. These levels can be quite
high during the melt-down phase, and usually effect the voltage waveform.

3.2 Why Worry About Them?

The presence of harmonics does not mean that the factory or office cannot run
properly. Like other power quality phenomena, it depends on the “stiffness” of the power
distribution system and the susceptibility of the equipment. As shown below, there are a
number of different types of equipment that can have miss operations or failures due to high
harmonic voltage and/or current levels. In addition, one factory may be the source of high
harmonics but able to run properly. This harmonic pollution is often carried back onto the
electric utility distribution system, and may affectfacilities on the same system which are
more susceptible.
Some typical types of equipment susceptible to harmonic pollution include: -
Excessive neutral current, resulting in overheated neutrals. The odd triple harmonics in three
phase wye circuits are actually additive in the neutral. This is because the harmonic number
multiplied by the 120degrees phase shift between phases is an integer multiple of 360
degrees. This puts the harmonics from each of the three phase legs “in-phase” with each
other in the neutral, as shown in Figure 3.3

Figure3.3 Additive Third Harmonics

10
 Incorrect reading meters, including induction disc W-hr meters and averaging
type current meters.
 Reduced true PF, where PF= Watts/VA.
 Overheated transformers, especially delta windings where triple harmonics
generated on the load side of a delta-wye transformer will circulate in the
primary side. Some type of losses goes up as the square of harmonic value (such
as skin effect and eddy current losses). This is also true for solenoid coils and
lighting ballasts.
 Zero, negative sequence voltages on motors and generators. In a balanced system,
voltage harmonics can either be positive (fundamental, 4th, 7th,.), negative (2nd,
5th, 8th...) or zero (3rd, 6th, 9th.) sequencing values. This means that the voltage at
that particular frequency tries to rotate the motor forward, backward, or neither
(just heats up the motor), respectively. There is also heating from increased
losses as in a transformer.

Table3.4 Harmonic Sequencing Values in Balanced Systems

 Nuisance operation of protective devices, including false tripping of relays and

failure of a UPS to transfer properly, especially if controls incorporate zero-
crossing sensing circuits.
 Bearing failure from shaft currents through uninsulated bearings of electric motors.
 Blown-fuses on PF correction caps, due to high voltage and currents from
resonance with line impedance.
 Miss-operation or failure of electronic equipment
 If there are voltage sub harmonics in the range of 1-30Hz, the effect on lighting is
called flicker. This is especially true at 8.8Hz, where the human eye is most
sensitive, and just 0.5% variation in the voltage is noticeable with some types of
lighting. [2]

11
3.3 Where They Come From?

How this electricity is used by the different type of loads can have an effect on

“purity” of the voltage waveform. Some loads cause the voltage and current waveformsto

lose this pure sine wave appearance and become distorted. This distortion may consist of

predominately harmonics, depending on the type of load and system impedances.

Since this article is about harmonics, we will concentrate on those types of sources.

“The main sources of harmonic current are at present the phase angle controlled rectifiersand

inverters.” [3] These are often called static power converters. These devices take AC power

and convert it to another form, sometimes back to AC power at the same or different

frequency, based on the firing scheme. The firing scheme refers to the controlling mechanism

that determines how and when current is conducted. One major variation is the phase angle at

which conduction begins and ends.

A typical such converter is the switching-type power supplies found in most personal

computers and peripheral equipment, such as printers. While they offer many benefits in size,

weight and cost, the large increase of this type of equipment over the past fifteen years is

largely responsible for the increased attention to harmonics.

Figure shows below how a switching-type power supply works. The AC voltage is

converted into a DC voltage, which is further converted into other voltages that the

equipment needs to run. The rectifier consists of semi-conductor devices (such as diodes) that

only conduct current in one direction. In order to do so, the voltage on the one end must be

greater than the other end. These devices feed current into a capacitor, where the voltage

value on the cap at any time depends on how much energy is being taken out by the rest of

the power supply.

12
 When the input voltage value is higher than voltage on the capacitor, the diode will

conduct current through it. This results in a current waveform as shown in Figure 5, and

harmonic spectrum in Figure 6. Obviously, this is not a pure sinusoidal waveform with only a

60 Hz frequency component.

Figure3.5. Current Waveform

Figure3.6. Harmonic Spectrum of Current Waveform Shown in Figure

13
 If the rectifier had only been a half wave rectifier, the waveform would only have every
other current pulse, and the harmonic spectrum would be different, as shown in Figure.

Fluorescent lights can be the source of harmonics, as the ballasts are non-linear inductors.
The third harmonic is the predominate harmonic in this case. (See Table 3) As previously
mentioned, the third harmonic current from each phase in a four-wire wye or star system will
be additive in the neutral, instead of cancelling out Some of the newer electronic ballasts have
very significant harmonic problems, as they operate somewhat like a switching power supply,
but can result in current harmonic distortion levels over 30%.

Table3.1 Sample of Harmonic Values for Fluorescent lighting [4]

Low power, AC voltage regulators for light dimmers and small induction motors
adjust the phase angle or point on the wave where conduction occurs. Medium power
converters are used for motor control in manufacturing and rail road applications, and include
such equipment as ASDs (adjustable speed drives) and VFDs (variable frequency drives).
Metal reduction operations, like electric arc furnaces, and high voltage DC transmission
employ large power converters, in the 2-20MVA rating.

This type of 3-phase equipment may also cause other types of power quality
problems. When the semiconductor device is supposed to turn-off, it does not do so abruptly.
This happens under “naturally” commutated conditions, where the voltage that was larger on
the anode side compared to the cathode is now the opposite. This occurs each cycle as the
voltage waveform goes through the sine waveform. It also happens under “forced”
commutation conditions, where the semi-conductor device has a “gate”-type control
mechanism built in to it. This commutation period is a time when two semiconductor devices

14
are both conducting current at the same time, effectively shorting one phase to the other and
resulting in large current transients.
When transformers are first energized, the current drawn is different from the steady
state condition. This is caused by the inrush of the magnetizing current. The harmonics
during this period varies over time. Some harmonics have zero value for part of the time, and
then increase for a while before returning to zero. An unbalanced transformer (where either
the output current, winding impedance or input voltage on each leg are not equal) will cause
harmonics, as will over voltage saturation of a transformer.

Where to look for them?

Wherever the aforementioned equipment is used, one can suspect that harmonics are
present. The amount of voltage harmonics will often depend on the amount of harmonic
currents being drawn by the load, and the source impedance, which includes all of the wiring
and transformers back to the source of the electricity. Ohm’s Law says that Voltage equals
Current multiple by Impedance. This is true for harmonic values as well. If the source
harmonic impedance is very low (often referred to as a “stiff” system) then the harmonic
currents will result in lower harmonic voltages than if the source impedance were high (such
as found with some types of isolation transformers).

Like any power quality investigation, the search can begin at the equipment effected
by the problem or at the point-of-common-coupling (PCC), where the utility service meets
the building distribution system. If only one piece of equipment is affected (or suspected), it
is often easier to start the monitoring process there. If the source is suspected to be from the
utility service side (such is the case when there is a neighbouring factory that is known to
generate high harmonics), then monitoring usually begins at the PCC.

The phase voltages and currents, as well as the neutral-to-ground voltage and neutral
current should be monitored, where possible. This will aid in pinpointing problems, or
detecting marginal systems. Monitoring the neutral will often show a high 3rd harmonic
value, indicating the presence of non-linear loads in the facility.

If the source is suspected to be from the utility service side (such is the case when
there is a neighbouring factory that is known to generate high harmonics), then monitoring
usually begins at the PCC.This will aid in pinpointing problems, or detecting marginal
systems. Monitoring the neutral will often show a high 3rd harmonic value, indicating the
presence of non-linear loads in the facility.

15
3.4 How do you find them?

Hand-held harmonic meters can be useful tools for making spot checks for known
harmonic problems. However, harmonic values will often change during the day, as different
loads are turned on and off within the facility or in other facilities on the same electric utility
distribution system. This requires the use of a harmonic monitor or power quality monitor
with harmonic capabilities (such as shown in Figure 8), which can record the harmonic
values over a period of time.

Figure3.7. Power Quality Monitor with Harmonic Analysis

Typically, monitoring will last for one business cycle. A business cycle is how long it
takes for the normal operation of the plant to repeat itself. For example, if a plant runs three
identical shifts, seven days a week, then a business cycle would be eight hours. More
typically, a business cycle is one week, as different operations take place on a Monday, when
the plant equipment is restarted after being off over the weekend, then on a Wednesday, or a
Saturday, when only a Skeleton crew may be working.
Certain types of loads also generate typical harmonic spectrum signatures that can
point the investigator towards the source. This is related to the number of pulses, or paths of
conduction. The general equation is h = (n * p) +/- 1, where h is the harmonic number, n is

16
any integer (1,2,3,) and p is the number of pulses in the circuit, and the magnitude decreases
as the ration of 1/h (1/3, 1/5, 1/7, 1/9,). Table 4 shows examples of such.

Table3.2. Typical Harmonics Found for Different Converters.

3.5 When are they a problem?

Most electrical loads (except half-wave rectifiers) produce symmetrical current
waveforms, which mean that the positive half of the waveform looks like a mirror image of
the negative half. This results in only odd harmonic values being present. Even harmonics
will disrupt this half-wave symmetry. The presence of these even harmonics should cause the
investigator to suspect there is a half-wave rectifier on the circuit. This also results from a full
wave rectifier when one side of the rectifier has blown or damaged components. Early
detection of this condition in a UPS system can prevent a complete failure when the load is
switched onto back-up power.

To determine what is normal or acceptable levels, a number of standards have been

developed by various organizations. ANSI/IEEE C57.110 Recommended Practice for
Establishing Transformer Compatibility When Supplying No Sinusoidal Load Currents is a
useful document for determining how much a transformer should be de-rated from its
nameplate rating when operating in the presence of harmonics. There are two parameters
typically used, called K-factor and TDF (transformer dreading factor). Some power quality
harmonic monitors will automatically calculate these values.

IEEE 519-1992 Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control in

Electrical Power Systems provides guidelines from determining what acceptable limits are.
The harmonic limits for current depend on the ratio of Short Circuit Current (SCC) at PCC
(or how stiff it is) to average Load Current of maximum demand over 1 year, asillustrated in

17
Table 5. Note how the limit decreases at the higher harmonic values, and increases with
larger ratios.

Table 3.3. Current Harmonic Limits as per IEEE 519-1992

For voltage harmonics, the voltage level of the system is used to determine the
limits, as shown in Table 6. At the higher voltages, more customers will be effective,
hence, the lower limits.

Table3.4. Voltage Harmonic Limits as per IEEE 519-1992

The European Community has also developed susceptibility and emission limits for\
harmonics. Formerly known as the 555-2 standard for appliances of less than 16 A, a more
encompassing set of standards under IEC 1000-4-7 are now in effect.

3.6 How do you get rid of them?

Care should be undertaken to make sure that the corrective action taken to minimize
the harmonic problems don’t actually make the system worse. This can be the result of
resonance between harmonic filters, PF correcting capacitors and the system impedance.
Isolating harmonic pollution devices on separate circuits with or without the use of
harmonic filters are typical ways of mitigating the effects of such. Loads can be relocated to

18
try to balance the system better. Neutral conductors should be properly sized according to the
latest NEC-1996 requirements covering such. Whereas the neutral may have been undersized
in the past, it may now be necessary to run a second neutral wire that is the same size as the
phase conductors. This is particularly important with some modular office partition-type
walls, which can exhibit high impedance values. The operating limits of transformers and
motors should be de-rated, in accordance with industry standards from IEEE, ANSI and
NEMA on such. Use of higher pulse converters, such as 24-pulse rectifiers, can eliminate
lower harmonic values, but at the expense of creating higher harmonic values.

19
 CHAPTER-4

NONLINEAR LOADS
4.1 NONLINEAR LOADS

Due to the changes in the operating conditions and the rapid growth of advanced
power conversion devices, electronics equipment, computers, office automation, air-
conditioning systems, adjustable speed heating ventilation can cause current distortions. This
is due to increase in harmonics drastically. According to the Electric Power Research (EPR)
in 1995, 35-40% of all electric power flows through electronic converters. This is expected to
increase to 85% by the year 2012 [11]- [15]. All these devices are named as non-linear loads
and become sources of harmonics. The simple block diagram in Fig.2 illustrates the current
distortion problem due to harmonic at low voltage levels.

Fig.4.1. Current distortions at point of common coupling

Fig.2 shows that the voltage waveform at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC) is distorted due
to harmonic current generated by the power electronic or non-linear load. The measurement results for
the several modems set of non-linear based on Figure 2 is tabulated in Table.1 [11]

20
 Table.4.1 The measured results for the modern set of nonlinear loads

In this paper a survey is done for various non-linear loads to know the levels of
harmonics present in each load. These surveys are generally conducted with the objectives
such asIdentify the trends of harmonic distortion level present in the system, Identify the
future trends of metering in the presence of non-sinusoidal current and voltage waveforms.
And increased awareness and concern for customer's quality of service. Here various loads
and its harmonics are studied in detail.

4.1 A. Rectifiers
Rectifiers are the basic load employed in every system. Rectifiers are used to convert
AC to DC current, while converting due to the involvement of thyristors (non-linear load)
produces harmonics. It consumes the current in the circuit and which at last will have dc
output with ac components (i.e. harmonics). This distorted current also leads to distortion in
line voltage. Total harmonic distortion in line current in single phase rectifier is 88.81%. But,
three phase diode rectifiers have total harmonic distortion of 52.84% [16]. Comparison of the
line-current waveforms shows that the line current in a single-phase rectifier contains
significantly more distortions compared to a three-phase rectifier.

A 3 phase, six pulse (per cycle) converter produces the 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th, 17th, etc.,
and contains no harmonic lower than the 5th; for a 12-pulse converter the lowest is the 11th
harmonic [17]. These are represented below in Table4.2.

21
 Generally lower order harmonics are significant and most dominant one is 3rd harmonics
in rectifier [18] - [21].

B. Fluorescent lamps
Recent governmental initiatives of a number of countries to ban selling of
incandescent light bulbs have brought some attention on the question of the quality of current
drawn by energy saving lamps. Energy saving lamps requires considerably smaller amounts
of active power than incandescent lamps when they have the same luminous flux. On the
other hand, due to their non-linear characteristics, energy saving lamps injects harmonic
currents into the network. That creates a concern that a very high penetration level of these
types of lamps may increase the overall voltage harmonic distortion considerably

1. In order to compare the different harmonic behaviour of the various ceiling light the
current total harmonic distortion (ITHD) has been also calculated with many
measurements [23]. The results are shown in Table.4.3.

22
 In order to inform utilities how current distortion varies among today’s CFLs, EPRI
(Electric Power Research Institute) carried out extensive testing in its lab. Fig.3illustrates the
spread of input total harmonic current distortion for the 51 samples of CFLs that were used in
the project. These CFLs were purchased off-the-shelf from retail establishments where end
users commonly shop for CFLs. From the figure one can see that the ITHD ranges from 20 %
to 170 %. The trend among this sample set is higher ITHD as the majority of the CFLs tested
had ITHD above 100 [24]- [27].

Fig.4.2. Input THD for 2009 Market sample CFLs

C. Electric arc furnace

ARC furnaces are used for melting and refining metals, and highly efficient steel-
making process achieved with electric furnace led to their widespread development and
together with the large increase in their individual ratings enabled the electric furnace to
become one the most important non-linear loads in the electric power network. So, it is a time
varying, non-linear loads.

Fig.4.3. Electrical network supplying the arc

In fact, arc furnaces may be the most prominent harmonic producers because of their
great capacity lumped together at one place. Using a program developed in MATLAB, based

23
on a Fourier analysis of the time-domain waveforms, the Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) is
computed at the PCC and Arc Furnace (Table.4 and Table.5). Results are presented in
percentage of the 50 Hz component.

The content of harmonics which is dominant is 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th and 7th. The
waveform of the electric current is badly distorted containing a large number of higher order
harmonics [30] – [32]

D. Television
Television receivers have power supplies which create current harmonics. Whilst the
harmonic current levels are small in magnitude, the cumulative effect of large numbers of
receivers can be significant. One way to examine the effect of television receivers on network
harmonic levels is to monitor harmonic levels during periods of increased television viewing
[33]

In this a television is served by the small wall outlet. The corresponding current
spectra are given in Table.6. Because of phase cancellation; the current flowing through the
wall outlet has lower THD.

24
 The problem of the 3rd-harmonic tuning of the television horizontal-deflection circuit
has been examined experimentally, as well as theoretically. A well-known method is to use
the 2-8th harmonic to obtain good pictures without ringing oscillations and with high fly back
pulses. The resonant-frequency ratio recommended by this method, however, seemed to show
some discrepancies with empirically determined conditions. As this problem isdirectly related
to the quality of television pictures, the optimal conditions to attain good results have been
sought by television manufacturers.

E. Personal computers
Computer loads and systems are being increasingly used in all industrial, commercial
and residential sectors. The nature of these loads is such that they not only draw distorted
current from the source, but can significantly distort the supply voltage waveformcausing
disruption in system performance. The SMPS used in computer loads draw highly distorted
current from the source. Significant amount of odd harmonics including triples are present.
The THD observed in personal computers is shown in Table4.7

The proliferation of personal computer (PC) loads in residential, commercial and

industrial buildings has increased the harmonics levels found on electrical power distribution
networks. Generally, in computers as load, 3rd and 5th harmonics are dominant.

4.2 Industrial power system

Introduction The power system plays an important role in a process plant. The plant
operations and production depend on a safe and reliable power system. Each plant power

25
system design, whether new or an expansion to an existing system, must be analysed to
ensure that it is safe, reliable, meets the present objective, and permits expansion for future
needs. This chapter outlines the system planning considerations and provides guidelines.
References [S1] and [S2] provide guidelines for planning and designing a reliable power
system.

Basic Design Considerations

The industrial power system planning and design must include the following considerations
at the initial and planning or design stage.

Safety of Life Human

Life is of utmost importance, and safety shall never be compromised. Electrical codes
prescribe minimum installation practices, such as working space, clearance from live parts,
minimum protection against over current, etc. Major applicable electrical codes for North
America are: National Electrical Code (NEC) [S17], Canadian Electrical Code (CEC) [S18],
National Electrical Safety Code, etc. Sometimes states, provinces, or municipalities institute
local codes in addition to NEC and CSA. Insurance underwriters such as Factory Mutual
institute their standards and guidelines, which are over and above the relevant electrical codes
and standards. Electrical equipment minimum quality standards are prescribed in the
standards and guides of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), the
National Electrical Manufacturer’s Association (NEMA), Underwriters Laboratories (UL),
and the International Electro Technical Commission (IEC). UL maintains a continuing
service in testing and certifying the products of electrical manufacturers, principally those to
be used for industrial and commercial applications. The system planning and design shall
include the following to ensure the safety of personnel and preservation of plant property:

 Equipment and installation shall conform to relevant codes and standards.

 Provide adequate working space and safe clearances around the electrical equipment,
dead-front equipment for low- and medium-voltage systems, insulated bus and
connections for metal-enclosed equipment, and adequate system and equipment
grounding.
 Design the system to permit maintenance of equipment and circuits in a de-energized
state without plant shut down.
 Provide fully rated and protected equipment to withstand maximum short circuit and
load currents.
 Provide personnel protective equipment (PPE) such as insulated gloves, fire-retardant
or fireproof clothing, and warning signs.

26
  Provide operations and maintenance instructions, such as built-in wiring and
interlocking diagrams.
 Install emergency lighting for the safety and safe exit of personnel during power
outage.

Reliability of Utility Power Supply

Ensure that the quantity, quality, and reliability of the utility power supply meets the
plant power requirements. A dedicated line is more reliable and is subject to fewer power
interruptions than a shared line. Distribution lines may have interruption rates of about 12
times per 100 km when compared with a 120-kV transmission line of the same length. Hence
power supply at transmission voltage such as 120 kV or 230 kV is recommended. Utility
power systems, including transmission and distribution lines, are subject to disturbances such
as lightning strokes and ground faults that cause voltage sags. These voltage sags may cause
the under voltage and control devices to trip and motors to stall, resulting in plant shut down.

Cost (Last Priority)

The cost of an electric power system is small compared with the total cost. Safety,
reliability, voltage regulation, maintenance, and provision for future expansion shall be given
priority.

4.3 Plant Distribution Systems

4.3.1 An Overview
A typical process plant distribution system in a single (one)-line diagram form is
shown in fig. 2.1. This is composed of a main substation, primary distribution, secondary
distribution, and in-plant generation. Electric utility companies supply power at high voltages
(HV) via transmission lines or sometimes insulated power cable. HV power is stepped down
to medium voltage for primary distribution to different plant facilities or load centres. Each
industry has implemented some specific and unique features in its plant electrical systems
that have evolved with time and are based on experience. System planners and designers are
advised to study a few typical plant distribution systems of similar installations before
developing their own. IEEE guides are an excellent help for everyone involved with this task.

27
Plant Main Substation
High-voltage power from the utility is stepped down in the plant main substation for
the primary distribution system. The electrical and non-electrical items include:

Non-electrical:
Gantry for terminating incoming and outgoing transmission lines, support structures,
equipment foundation, perimeter fence, control building, grounding, underground oil
containment, etc.
Electrical items:
Power transformers, circuit breakers, disconnect switches, instrument transformers,
reactors, capacitors, power and control cable, protection and control, communications,
lighting, heating, etc.

Figure 4.4 Typical one-line (single line) diagram

28
Primary Distribution System
This includes distribution from the plant main substation or generating station to the
primary load centres or switchgear located in different plant facilities. A radial system with
two feeders to each area is used for greater reliability. The following voltage levels can be
considered as a guide:

 13.8 kV for medium and large plants (load exceeding 20 MVA)

 34.5 kV for large plants where individual facilities are remote from each other

Secondary Distribution System

This includes distribution from the primary load centres to secondary load centres, unit
substations, low-voltage switchgear, and utilization equipment such as motor control centres,
motors, heating, and lighting. For greater reliability, a secondary selective arrangement is
recommended for the load centres.

In-Plant Generation
In-plant generation is used when one of the following conditions is present:

 Steam is available at a suitable pressure and temperature. (It is economical to build a

power plant using electric generators driven by steam turbines.)
 Power is not available from a utility company.
 Purchased power from the utility company is unreliable or the cost is very high.

Emergency Power Supply

Emergency power is required where an outage of normal source will be detrimental to
process and equipment. This may include motors, valves, emergency lighting, controls, etc.
Electric generators driven by diesel engines are used. The unit is started automatically after
about a 20-s delay upon loss of power. The diesel generator is started periodically to ensure
that it is in a proper operating condition. The diesel engine kW rating is selected to meet the
active power demand. However, the generator kVA rating, reactance (Xu and Xu), and
excitation system shall be selected to suit the following:

 Continuous load is the kVA vector sum of active and reactive power
 Motor starting kVA is at a very low power factor.

29
Non-linear loads such as a variable-frequency drive (VFD) are present. Since the generator is
designed for a sinusoidal load with a 5% harmonic distortion, the kVA rating needs to be de-rated
or the design altered for higher distortion factors.

Apply resistance grounding for the generator neutral. (This subject is covered in chapter 4.)
Power Supply for Monitoring and Control Systems
Power supply for monitoring and control systems shall be reliable, unaffected by
voltage dip or sag and transients, and shall meet the requirements of load characteristics
including voltage, frequency, and harmonics. An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) is
required for electronic, analogue, and digital control and monitoring systems. This consists of
a rectifier to convert AC source to DC, battery, inverter, and static transfer switch. Normal
AC power for control is through the inverter, which is filtered, regulated, and isolated from
system disturbances. Typical no redundant and redundant UPS systems are shown in figs. 2.2
and 2.3, respectively.

Fig 4.5 Non-redundant UPS

30
 Fig4.6 Redundant UPS

In a non-redundant UPS, one charger and one inverter are used. In a redundant UPS,
two chargers, two inverters, and an alternated AC source from an emergency or standby
diesel generator are used to maintain the power supply under multiple contingencies.

DC Power Supply for Protection and Control

Power supply at 125 V DC is used for HV circuit breaker, medium-voltage switchgear,
protection, control, monitoring, communications, emergency lighting, and emergency backup
loads such as DC lube oil pump, etc. DC power supply consists of station battery, battery
charger, and DC distribution. Selection and application of a station battery is covered in
chapter.

Distribution Types
Distribution systems commonly used in industrial plants are briefly described here.

Simple Radial
The simple radial system (fig. 2.4) has no redundancy and can be used where loss of
power for an extended period is not detrimental to the process.

31
Expanded Radial
The expanded radial scheme (fig. 2.5) is an expansion of the above and has been used
in many industries. The industrial power system at medium voltage (2.4 to 34.5 kV) is low-
resistance (100–400 A) grounded, and power cable (insulated) is used for distribution.

Fig Simple radial Fig Expanded radial

Fig 4.7 Primary selective

The majority of the faults with cable systems starts as a line-to ground fault and
escalate to a three-phase fault if not cleared within a reasonable time. On a line-to-ground
fault, the fuse will either not see the fault current or will take a long time to melt. However,

32
the ground-fault relay at the switchgear set at about 5% will trip the feeder breaker. The
power is lost in a large area, and a longer time is required to detect and isolate the fault.

Primary Selective
In the primary selective arrangement (fig. 2.6), two primary feeders are brought to
each substation transformer. Half of the transformers are connected to each of the two
feeders. Each primary feeder is designed to carry the entire load. Though the problem caused
by the line-to-ground faults is the same as with the expanded radial system, the power to the
load centres can be restored quickly by transferring to the alternate feeder. Though the
problem caused by the line-to-ground faults is the same as with the expanded radial system,
the power to the load centres can be restored quickly by transferring to the alternate feeder.

Secondary Selective
The secondary selective arrangement (fig. 2.7) can be achieved between two single
transformer stations or double-ended stations by using a tie-circuit breaker. For low-voltage
systems, the tie breaker is normally kept in open position, and an interlock between the main
and the tie prevents paralleling of the transformers. An electrically operated manual transfer
scheme can be used to close the tie breaker for a few cycles before tripping the selected main
breaker. This scheme permits a planned shutdown of one transformer or primary feeder
without dropping any load.
However, the fault level may exceed the equipment rating during this brief period.
Because both low-voltage buses are in an energized state, the possibility of developing a fault
during this period is remote. For medium-voltage systems, the tie breaker may operate in
normally open or normally closed position. However, the relaying becomes more complex
with parallel operation. The preferred and a commonly used arrangement is to operate the
system with the tie breaker open and provide an auto- or manual-transfer scheme. The
application of an auto-transfer scheme is common in thermal power plants.

Sparing Transformer
The sparing transformer scheme (fig. 2.8) is used where several low-voltage
transformer stations of the same capacity are installed in one area. The load is transferred to
the spare transformer upon the loss of any unit in the system. This minimizes the spare
transformer capacity

33
 Fig4.8 Secondary selective

Fig4.9 Sparing transformer

4.4. Plant Power Demand and Load Estimateof Power Demand and Energy
Cost
Estimates of power consumption, power demand, and total power cost are carried out
during the project feasibility stage and during the contract negotiations with the power utility.
The results of the power cost study, the power consumption of utilization equipment, and the
approximate location of equipment is required for system planning and sizing the electrical
equipment. The plant power demand, power cost, electrical load estimate in different areas,
and selection of major electrical equipment can be made using the following approach.

Energy Consumption or Average Kilowatt Hours Required for One Unit of

Production
Historical data on energy consumption or average kilowatt hours required to produce
one unit of product can be used for estimating:

34
  Energy consumption based on the plant output and operating hours

 Average power for the period

 Power demand for each facility and net demand for the plant

Monthly and yearly power cost consisting of energy cost and demand charge:

An example illustrating the method for estimating the power requirement and power
demand for an alloy steel plant producing 60,000 tons/year of finished product is given in
tables 2.1 and 2.2, respectively. A plant producing Fe Cr (ferro chromium) operates 24 hours
per day and 365 days per year, whereas the operating period for other plant facilities depends
on the production requirement. These tables provide the plant operating period for each
facility, including the number of shifts per day and number of days per week. Load factors
and coincidence factors are based on past experience with similar plants. Table 2.1 has been
used to estimate the energy consumption and maximum power demand for each facility and
total plant. Table 2.2 shows the plant facilities arranged in groups based on their operating
period and shifts, which helps in organizing the plant operations and estimating plant
manpower requirements. Tariff as agreed with the power utility:

 $6.00/kW of maximum power demand

 $6.50/kW in excess or less than 80% of contract demand

 $0.04/kW for energy consumed.

Estimate of power cost: Power demand (based on a 30-min period) as derived from
table 2.1 = 39,200 MW Energy consumption per year = 166.3 × 106 kWh Energy
consumption per month = 13,860 × 103 kWh (based on an average 730 h) Energy cost per
month = $0.04 × 13,860 × 103 = $554,400 Demand charge per month = $6.0 × 39,200 =
$235,200 Total power cost per month = $789, 600

35
 Typical Demand Factors for Utilization Equipment Typical demand factors for
utilization equipment are given in table 2.3. Total Power Demand = ∑ (Equipment Rating
× Demand Factor) added space between equipment and rating.

Estimate of Power Demand from Equipment List

Load data extracted from the equipment list prepared by the process and mechanical
engineers is used for sizing the secondary distribution equipment, including transformers and
motor control centres.
Factors Used for Load Estimate and Power Demand

36
4.5Voltage Considerations

Voltages Used in North America

The most common (preferred) system and utilization voltages used in the United
States and Canada for industrial power systems are given in table 2.4. The power supply
frequency is 60 Hz. Reference [S1] provides the voltages and their ranges. For utilization
equipment, the voltage variation is defined in the relevant standards.

Voltage Drop and Flicker

The performance of the utilization equipment (motors, lighting, etc.) is guaranteed
when the voltage and frequency applied to its terminals is within the limits specified in the
standards. Because the variation in power frequency is negligible during steady state
conditions, the voltage spread from no load to full load, transient voltage dips during
switching operations (such as starting a large motor), and voltage flicker caused by cyclic
loads such as reciprocating compressors need to be checked. Chapter 2 of ref. [1] has covered
the effect of voltage spread on different utilization equipment
Steady-State Voltage Drop

The steady-state voltage drop is caused by the variation in utility power supply and by
voltage drop in the transformer and feeders connected to the utilization equipment. The
spread from the utility power supply is generally remedied by utilizing main step-down
transformers with load tap changers. The electrical safety codes, NEC and CSA, have
specified the allowable voltage drop at the maximum load current; these are 5% for feeders
and 3% for branch circuits. The steady-state voltage drop can be calculated or estimated
using one of the following methods

Formula

Phase-to-neutral voltage drop is given by the formula:

Where

ES = sending end voltage, phase to neutral

cos θ = power factor

R = sum of the resistance component in the circuit, ohms

37
X = sum of the reactance component in the circuit, ohms A commonly used formula for
percent voltage drop is

Ampere-foot Method
This method can be used in computing the voltage drop in low-voltage feeders and branch
circuits that have not been included in load-flow runs. In this method, the load current is
multiplied by the one-way cable length to get the value in ampere-feet. The voltage drop can
be read from the graphs in ref. [1] or estimated from the tables in ref. [11] against the cable
size. The conductor size can be increased or the load can be fed from a different bus to reduce
the voltage drop. Table 2.7, extracted from ref. [11], can be used for estimating voltage drop
in a three-phase system with the load current at 0.8 power factor
Load Flow

This is a system planning and study activity, and it is covered in chapter 3. The output
files provide bus voltage summary for light or no load, full load, and contingency operations.
The output files also highlight the bus voltage when it is in violation of the specified range.
The transformer voltage spread or voltage drop from no load to full load is reduced by
adjusting the transformer taps.

Voltage Flicker
The voltage changes of a transient nature, such as turning loads on and off, which last
only a short duration, are generally referred to as voltage flicker. The rapid voltage
fluctuations affect the light output from incandescent lamps, which can irritate the human
eye. Flicker-limit curves adopted by IEEE and used by many power utilities in North
America are shown in fig. 2.9 [S1]. These curves are the composite of the flicker on
incandescent lamps studied by General Electric Co., Kansas City Power and Light Company,
T&D Committee, Detroit Edison Company, and West Pennsylvania Power Company
Flicker is divided into four groups based on their frequency of occurrence:

Cyclic flicker:

38
 Is that resulting from periodic voltage fluctuations, the range of frequency of fluctuation
is 10 per second to 2 per second. Reciprocating compressors and pumps, arc furnaces, and
automatic spot welders fall into this category

Fig. Range of observable and objectionable voltage flicker vs. time (From IEEE 1993,

 IEEE Recommended Practice for Electric Power Distribution for Industrial Plants
(IEEE
Red book), chap. 2. With permission.)
 Cyclic low frequency: The frequency of fluctuation ranges from 2 per second to 12
per minute. Arc welders, drop hammers, saws, and manual spot welders fall into this
category.
 Non-cyclic frequent: The frequency of fluctuation ranges from 12 per minute to 1 per
minute. Hoists, cranes, single elevators fall into this category.
 Non-cyclic infrequent: The frequency of fluctuation ranges from 1 per minute to 3 per
hour. Motor starting falls into this category
The utilization of equipment that may cause voltage flicker in industrial power plants is
summarized here:
 Starting of large motors: Starting of large synchronous or induction motors draws four
to seven times their rated current at a very low factor (0.10 to 0.3). The highly
inductive current causes a voltage dip that may exceed the flicker limit. This can be
remedied by utilizing an assisted starting method.

39
  Arc furnace: An electric arc furnace is a problem load for the network, especially
during the period when the scrap metal is converted into molten steel for refining. The
meltdown period lasts about 70 to 90 minutes, followed by the refining period. The
refining period lasts between 0.5 and 2.0 hours, depending on the quality of the
finished steel. The characteristics of the meltdown period are:

For an optimum arc, the active power must be at 0.707 power factor. The circuit
constants for maximum arc power are: Optimum current I0 = 1.45 × I, where I is the rated
rms current Short-circuit current, ISC = 1.58 × I0 = 2.3 × I Power factor for maximum arc =
0.707 Power factor during short circuits = 0.25

Frequently recurring short circuits occur at the electrodes; two phases are generally
short-circuited, and one phase is with no current. The frequent short circuits during the
meltdown period cause voltage fluctuations in the power system at a frequency of about four
to seven times per second. The rapid change in current during meltdown period causes
voltage flicker. The furnace is connected to a dedicated bus, and a static VAR compensator is
utilized to eliminate the flicker (fig. 2.10). The voltage flicker for an arc furnace is defined as
a short-circuit voltage depression (SCDV) and can be estimated using the formula:

where MWF = the furnace rating in MW MVASC = the three-phase fault level at the point of
common coupling. The recommended short-circuit voltage depression is SCDV < 1.9% for
systems where lamps are at 230 V SCDV < 2.5% for systems where lamps are at 120 V

40
 Fig4.10. Power system for an arc furnace

Reciprocating compressors or pumps:

Reciprocating compressors and pumps operate at a very low speed (300 to 450 rpm),
and the torque requirement varies in each revolution. This motor load fluctuates in each
revolution, thus causing current pulsations. The standards allow a variation of up to 66% of
the maximum motor full-load current. The motor size must be selected based on the system
short-circuit capacity, or a lower limit of 25% or 40% on current pulsation must be specified.

Electric shovels:
Mining operations using electric shovels cause problems for the power distribution
system. A typical duty cycle lasts about 25 to 30 s. This includes digging, hoisting, swinging
back to the truck, dumping in the truck, and swinging back to the pit. The power drawn from
the system is about 200% of the equipment rating during digging and hoisting periods, and
there is some regeneration during lowering and stopping. Power system design and
equipment rating must take the duty cycle into consideration, and voltage flicker must be
checked to ensure that the limits are not exceeded.

Other loads:

These include electric welders, electric shovels and strippers, heavy rolling, etc. The
system must be studied to check whether the voltage fluctuations exceed the flick limit, and if
they do, corrective measures must be taken accordingly.
Voltage Sag and Threshold Voltage

A voltage sag is defined as a decrease in rms voltage of 0.1 to 0.9 P.U. at the power
frequency for a duration of 0.5 cycles (8.3 ms) to 1.0 min. The threshold voltage is the critical
voltage at which the equipment stops working; for example, a starter coil may drop out at 0.6
per-unit (P.U.) voltage, and a variable-frequency drive may trip at 0.8 to 0.85 P.U. voltage.
Disturbances such as faults on utility transmission or distribution systems cause momentary
voltage dips or voltage sags. The utilization equipment in the plant may trip or stop
functioning if the voltage sag is below the equipment threshold voltage. Sag response curves
have been published in ref. [S15]. The following measures
can help to survive such voltage dips or provide ride through≅ capability:

 High breakdown torque for induction motors, T V2

41
 Higher pull-out torque for synchronous motors and field-forcing capability
 Lower threshold voltage for control system, drives, monitoring, etc.
 Uninterruptible power supply (UPS) for critical control and monitoring

42
 CHAPTER-5

RESONANCE

5.1 Resonance

In physics, resonance is a phenomenon that occurs when a given system is driven by

another vibrating system or external force to oscillate with greater amplitude at a specific
preferential frequency. Frequencies at which the response amplitude is a relative maximum
are known as the system's resonant frequencies, or resonance frequencies. At resonant
frequencies, small periodic driving forces have the ability to produce large amplitude
oscillations. This is because the system stores vibrational energy. Resonance occurs when a
system is able to store and easily transfer energy between two or more different storage
modes (such as kinetic energy and potential energy in the case of a pendulum).
However, there are some losses from cycle to cycle, called damping. When damping
is small, the resonant frequency is approximately equal to the naturalfrequency of the system,
which is a frequency of unforced vibrations. Some systems have multiple, distinct, resonant
frequencies. Resonance phenomena occur with all types of vibrations or waves: there is
mechanical resonance, acousticresonance, electromagnetic resonance, nuclear magnetic
resonance (NMR), electron spinresonance (ESR) and resonance of quantum wave functions.
Resonant systems can be used to generate vibrations of a specific frequency (e.g., musical
instruments), or pick out specific frequencies from a complex vibration containing many
frequencies (e.g., filters). The term Resonance (from Latin resonant, 'echo', from resonate,
'resound') originates from the field of acoustics, particularly observed in musical instruments,
e.g. when strings started to vibrate and to produce sound without direct excitation by the
player.

43
Examples
One familiar example is a playground swing, which acts as a pendulum. Pushing a
person in a swing in time with the natural interval of the swing (its resonant frequency) will
make the swing go higher and higher (maximum amplitude), while attempts to push the
swing at a faster or slower tempo will result in smaller arcs. This is because the energy the
swing absorbs is maximized when the pushes are "in phase"with the swings natural
oscillations, while some of the swings energy is actually extracted by the opposing force of
the pushes when they are not.
Resonance occurs widely in nature, and is exploited in many man made devices. It is
the mechanism by which virtually all sinusoidal waves and vibrations are generated. Many
sounds we hear, such as when hard objects of metal, glass, or wood are struck, are caused by
brief resonant vibrations in the object. Light and other short wavelength electromagnetic
radiation is produced by resonance on an atomic scale, such as electrons in atoms. Other
examples are:

 Timekeeping mechanisms of modern clocks and watches, e.g., the balance wheel in a
mechanical watch and the quartz crystal in a quartz watch

 Tidal resonance of the Bay of Fundy

 Acoustic resonances of musical instruments and the human vocal tract

44
  Shattering of a crystal wineglass when exposed to a musical tone of the right pitch (its
resonant frequency)

 Electrical resonance of tuned circuits in radios and TVs that allow radio frequencies
to be selectively received

 reed receiver

 frequency meters

 Creation of coherent light by optical resonance in a laser cavity

 Orbital resonance as exemplified by some moons of the solar system's gas giants

 Material resonances in atomic scale are the basis of several spectroscopic techniques
that are used in condensed matter physics

Electrical resonance
Electrical resonance occurs in an electric circuit at a particular resonant frequency
when the impedance of the circuit is at a minimum in a series circuit or at maximum in a
parallel circuit (or when the transfer function is at a maximum).

Optical resonance
An optical cavity, also called an optical resonator, is an arrangement of mirrors that
forms a standing wave cavity resonator for light waves. Optical cavities are a major
component of lasers, surrounding the gain medium and providing feedback of the laser light.
They are also used in optical parametric oscillators and some interferometers. Light confined
in the cavity reflects multiple times producing standing waves for certain resonant
frequencies. The standing wave patterns produced are called "modes". Longitudinal modes
differ only in frequency while transverse modes differ for different frequencies and have
different intensity patterns across the cross-section of the beam. Ring resonators and
whispering galleries are examples of optical resonators that do not form standing waves.

Different resonator types are distinguished by the focal lengths of the two mirrors and
the distance between them; flat mirrors are not often used because of the difficulty of aligning
them precisely. The geometry (resonator type) must be chosen so the beam remains stable,
i.e., the beam size does not continue to grow with each reflection.

45
 Resonator types are also designed to meet other criteria such as minimum beam waist
or having no focal point (and therefore intense light at that point) inside the cavity. Optical
[13]
cavities are designed to have a very large Q factor; a beam will reflect a very large number
of times with little attenuation. Therefore the frequency line width of the beam is very small
compared to the frequency of the laser. Additional optical resonances are guided-mode
resonances and surface Plasmon resonance, which result in anomalous reflection and high
evanescent fields at resonance. In this case, the resonant modes are guided modes of a
waveguide or surface Plasmon modes of a dielectric-metallic interface. These modes are
usually excited by a sub wavelength grating.

Orbital resonance
In celestial mechanics, an orbital resonanceoccurs when two orbitingbodies exert a
regular, periodic gravitational influence on each other, usually due to their orbitalperiods
being related by a ratio of two small integers. Orbital resonances greatly enhance the mutual
gravitational influence of the bodies. In most cases, this results in an unstable interaction, in
which the bodies exchange momentum and shift orbits until theresonance no longer exists.
Under some circumstances, a resonant system can be stable and self-correcting, so that the
bodies remain in resonance. Examples are the 1:2:4 resonance of Jupiter's moons Ganymede,
Europa, and Io, and the 2:3 resonance between Plutoand Neptune. Unstable resonances with
Saturn's inner moons give rise to gaps in the rings of Saturn. The special case of 1:1
resonance (between bodies with similar orbital radii) causes large Solar System bodies to
clear the neighborhoodaround their orbits by ejecting nearly everything else around them; this
effect is used in the current definition of a planet.

5.2 Atomic, particle, and molecular resonance

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is the name given to a physical resonance
phenomenon involving the observation of specific quantummechanical magnetic properties
of an atomic nucleus in the presence of an applied, external magnetic field. Many scientific
techniques exploit NMR phenomena to study molecular physics, crystals, and non-crystalline
materials through NMRspectroscopy. NMR is also routinely used in advanced medical
imaging techniques, such as in magnetic (MRI).

All nuclei containing odd numbers of nucleons have an intrinsic magneticmoment and
angular momentum. A key feature of NMR is that the resonant frequency of a particular
substance is directly proportional to the strength of the applied magnetic field. It is this
feature that is exploited in imaging techniques; if a sample is placed in a non-uniform

46
magnetic field then the resonant frequencies of the sample's nuclei depend on where in the
field they are located. Therefore, the particle can be located quite precisely by its resonant
frequency. Electron paramagnetic resonance, otherwise known as Electron Spin Resonance
(ESR) is a spectroscopic technique similar to NMR, but uses unpaired electrons instead.
Materials for which this can be applied are much more limited since the material needs to
both have an unpaired spin and be paramagnetic.
The Mossbauer effect is the resonant and recoil-free emission and absorption of
gammaray photons by atoms bound in a solid form. Resonance in particle physics appears in
similar circumstances to classical physics at the level of mechanics and quantum fieldtheory.
However, they can also be thought of as unstable particles, with the formula above valid if
the is the decay rate and replaced by the particle's mass M. In that case, the formula
comes from the particle's propagator, with its mass replaced by the complex
number . The formula is further related to the particle's decayrate by the optical theorem.
LC circuits
Resonance of a circuit involving capacitors and inductors occurs because the
collapsing magnetic field of the inductor generates an electric current in its windings that
charges the capacitor, and then the discharging capacitor provides an electric current that
builds the magnetic field in the inductor. This process is repeated continually. An analogy is a
mechanical pendulum.

At resonance, the series impedance of the two elements is at a minimum and the
parallel impedance is at maximum. Resonance is used for tuning and filtering, because it
occurs at a particular frequency for given values of inductance and capacitance. It can be
detrimental to the operation of communications circuits by causing unwanted sustained and
transient oscillations that may cause noise, signal distortion, and damage to circuit elements.
Parallel resonance or near-to-resonance circuits can be used to prevent the waste of electrical
energy, which would otherwise occur while the inductor built its field or the capacitor
charged and discharged. As an example, asynchronous motors waste inductive current while
synchronous ones waste capacitive current. The use of the two types in parallel makes the
inductor feed the capacitor, and vice versa, maintaining the same resonant current in the
circuit, and converting all the current into useful work.

Since the inductive reactance and the capacitive reactance are of equal magnitude,
ωL = 1/ωC, so:

47
where ω = 2πf, in whichfis the resonance frequency in hertz, L is the inductance in henries,
and C is the capacitance in farads when standard SI units are used.

The quality of the resonance (how long it will ring when excited) is determined by its
Qfactor,which is a function of resistance. A true LC circuit would have infinite Q, but all real
circuits have some resistance and smaller Q and are usually approximated more accurately by
an RLC circuit.

RLC circuit
An RLCcircuit (or LCR circuit) is an electricalcircuit consisting of a resistor, an
inductor, and a capacitor, connected in series or in parallel. The RLC part of the name is due
to those letters being the usual electrical symbols for resistance, inductance and capacitance
respectively. The circuit forms a harmonic for current and resonates similarly to an LC
circuit. The main difference stemming from the presence of the resistor is that any oscillation
induced in the circuit decays over time if it is not kept going by a source. This effect of the
resistor is called damping. The presence of the resistance also reduces the peak resonant
frequency. Some resistance is unavoidable in real circuits, even if a resistor is not specifically
included as a component. A pure LC circuit is an ideal that exists only in theory.
There are many applications for this circuit. It is used in many different types of
oscillatorcircuits. An important application is for tuning, such as in radio receivers
ortelevisionsets, where they are used to select a narrow range of frequencies from the ambient
radio waves. In this role the circuit is often referred to as a tuned circuit. An RLC circuit can
be used as a band-pass filter, band-stop filter, low-pass filter or high-pass filter. The tuning
application, for instance, is an example of band-pass filtering. The RLC filter is described as
a second-order circuit, meaning that any voltage or current in the circuit can be described by
a second-order differential equation in circuit analysis.

The three circuit elements can be combined in a number of different topologies. All
three elements in series or all three elements in parallel are the simplest in concept and the
most straightforward to analyse. There are, however, other arrangements, some with practical
importance in real circuits. One issue often encountered is the need to take into account

48
inductor resistance. Inductors are typically constructed from coils of wire, the resistance of
which is not usually desirable, but it often has a significant effect on the circuit.

Fig5.1. A series RLC circuit: a resistor, inductor, and a capacitor

BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Fig. 5.2. Proposed HAFU in the industrial power system and its associated control.
(a)Circuit diagram of the HAFU.
(b) Control block diagram of the HAFU

II. OPERATION PRINCIPLE

49
 Fig. 1(a) shows a simplified circuit diagram considered in this paper, where Ls
represented the line inductance plus the leakage inductance of the transformer. The hybrid
active filter unit (HAFU) is constructed by a seventh-tuned passive filter and a three-phase
voltage source inverter in series connection. The passive filter Lf − Cf
isIntendedforcompensatingharmoniccurrent and reactive power. The inverter is designed to
suppress harmonic resonances and improve the filtering performances of the passive filter.
Fig. 1(b) shows the overallcontrolblockdiagram of the HAFU, including harmonic loop,
fundamental loop, current regulator, and conductance control. A detailed principle will be
presented as follows.

A. Harmonic Loop

To suppress harmonic resonances, the HAFU is proposed to operate as variable

conductance at harmonic frequencies as follows:

component eh is obtained by using the so-called SRF transformation [9], where a

phase-locked loop (PLL) is realized to determine the fundamental frequency of the power
system [28]. In the SRF, the fundamental component becomes a dc value, and other
harmonic components are still ac values. Therefore, harmonic voltage component eeqd, h
can be extracted from eeqd by using high pass filters. After transferring back to a three-

B. Fundamental Loop
In this paper, the q-axis is aligned to a-phase voltage. Since the passive filter is
capacitive at the fundamental frequency, the passive filter draws fundamental leading
current from the grid, which is located on the d-axis. The proposed inverter produces slight
fundamental voltage on the d-axis, which is in phase with the fundamental leading current.
Therefore, the control of dc bus voltage is able to be accomplished byshows the harmonic
voltage drop on the passive filter due to the compensating current of the HAFU [20], where
Ih represents the maximum harmonic current of the active filter, and the voltage drop on
filter resistance Rf is neglected. As can be seen, a large filter capacitor results in the
reduction of the required dc voltage. On the other hand, the filtercapacitor determines
reactive power compensation of the passive filter at the fundamental frequency. Thus, the
dc voltage v d c can be determined based on this compromise. Note that the compensating
current should be limited to ensure that the hybrid filter operates without undergoing
saturation,

50
C. Current Regulator
The current command i is consisted of i h and i f. Based on the current command
i and the measured current i, the voltage command v can be derived by using a proportional
controller as follows:
v = K.i − i

(3)
where Kc is a proportional gain. According to the voltage command v , space-vector
pulse width modulation (PWM) is employed to synthesize the required output voltage ofthe
inverter. Fig. shows the model of the current control. The computational delay of digital
signal processing is equal to one sampling delay T, and PWM delay approximates to half
sampling delay T/2. Hence, the proportional gain Kc can be simply evaluated fromboth
open-loop and closed-loop gains for suitable stability margin and current tracking
capability.

Note that PI parameters need to be tuned for required response and stability. For example,
the proportional gain can be tuned for transient behaviour, and the integral gain is responsible
for suppressing the steady-state error. The band width should be lower than one-tenth of the
cut-off frequency of the current loop to assure stable allowable level

51
 CHAPTER-6
SIMULATION RESULTS

SIMULINK DESIGN AND RESULTS

FIG: SIMULINK BLOCK DIAGRAM

Figs. show the grid voltagee, the source currentis, the filter currenti, and the load
currentiLfor NL1=1.8 kW and NL2 = 2.8 kW, respectively. When the HAFU is in the OFF
state, the HAFU becomes a passive filter. Since the resonant frequency between the passive
filter Lf−Cf and line inductance Ls is close to the fifth harmonic frequency, fifth harmonic
distortion one, is, if are significantly amplified as shown in Figs. 9(a) and 10(a). As can be
seen, the passive filter loses its filtering functionality and even causes excessive harmonic
current in is or harmonic voltage one. It is worth noting that the resonant frequency could be
shifted toward the lower frequency due to the existence of the leakage inductance of the
transformer.

After the start of the HAFU, the harmonic distortion is clearly improved as shown in
Figs. 9(b) and 10(b). The THD of e is reduced to 2.0% with G* = 0.97 p.u. for NL1 and G* =
3.05 p.u. for NL2, respectively. The THD of isis also improved below 5% in both cases.
Tables IV and V summarize THD data of e, is, and i, iL measured by a PQ analyser (HIOKI

52
3196). High-order harmonics (>13) are not included here due to insignificance. Seventh
harmonic voltage distortion is increased after the HAFU is started. This is because the HAFU
emulates conductance for all harmonic frequencies. This feature can be used to avoid the
overloading of the passive filter at the tuned (seventh) frequency. We also observe that fifth
harmonic component of load current iL is slightly increased. This may result from
improvement of the fifth voltage distortion one.

The detailed results indicate that the proposed HAFU is able to suppress harmonic
resonances and to reduce harmonic distortion. More importantly, the HAFU only consumes
470 VA, which is approximately 4.7% of the system rating or 16.7% of NL2. Obviously, the
required kVA rating of the filter is significantly reduced, in comparison with the use of a pure
shunt active power filter.

Fig9a: Line voltage e, source current is, load current iL, and filter current i in the case of NL1
initiated. X-axis: 5 ms/div. (a) HAFU is off. (b) HAFU is on.

After the start of the HAFU, the harmonic distortion is clearly improved as shown in
Figs. 9(b) and 10(b). The THD of e is reduced to 2.0% with G* = 0.97 p.u. for NL1 and G* =
3.05 p.u. for NL2, respectively. The THD of isis also improved below 5% in both cases.
Tables IV and V summarize THD data of e, is, and i, iL measured by a PQ analyser (HIOKI
3196). High-order harmonics (>13) are not included here due to insignificance. Seventh
harmonic voltage distortion is increased after the HAFU is started. This is because the HAFU
emulates conductance for all harmonic frequencies. This feature can be used to avoid the
overloading of the passive filter at the tuned (seventh) frequency. We also observe that fifth

53
harmonic component of load current iL is slightly increased. This may result from
improvement of the fifth voltage distortion one.

The detailed results indicate that the proposed HAFU is able to suppress harmonic
resonances and to reduce harmonic distortion. More importantly, the HAFU only consumes
470 VA, which is approximately 4.7% of the system rating or 16.7% of NL2. Obviously, the
required kVA rating of the filter is significantly reduced, in comparison with the use of a pure
shunt active power filter.

Fig9b: Line voltage e, source current is, load current iL, and filter current i in the case of NL1
initiated. X-axis: 5 ms/div. (a) HAFU is off. (b) HAFU is on.

54
 Fig10: Line voltage e, source current is, load current iL, and filter current i in the
case of NL2 initiated. X-axis: 5 ms/div.
a. HAFU is off.
b. HAFU is on.

Fig10: Line voltage e, source current is, load current iL, and filter
current i in the case of NL2 initiated. X-axis: 5 ms/div.
a. HAFU is off.
b. HAFU is on.

Fig. shows the transient waveforms ofG*, THD ofe, andvdcas the non-linear load is
changed by a stepped increase from NL1 to NL2 at T. Large non-linear current will result in
large voltage distortion one. Due to the proposed tuning control, the conductance command
G* is increased to 3.05 p.u. to draw more harmonic current shown in Fig. 11(b) in order to
maintain voltage THD at 2%. Fig. 11(a) also demonstrates vdc is well controlled to 50 V to
ensure proper operation of the active filter. Additionally, time-domain simulations have been
carried out to compare filtering performances between current

55
Transient response when the non-linear load is increased at T.
(a)Waveforms of vdc, Voltage THD, G . X-axis: 100 ms/div; Y -axis: vdc(V),
G (1.21p.u./div), and THD (1.25%/div). (b) Current waveforms

Single-Phase Load:

In addition, filtering experiment considering single-phase non-linear load is

conducted. The set up of three-phase diode rectifier is changed to a single phase one by
adding a smooth dc capacitor of 560 μF. Since the non-linear load is connected between a-
phase and b-phase, large third-order harmonic cur-rent is generated between them. As shown
in Fig. 13, harmonic current is amplified between the source current is and the filter current i.
After the HAFU is started, harmonic resonance is suppressed, and current distortion is
reduced as indicated in Fig. 14. Test results are summarized in Table VI. Voltage distortion
of e is reduced from 4.6% to 3.0% with conductance command G = 0.5 p.u. Since the
passive filter is tuned at the seventh-order harmonic frequency, the proposed hybrid filter is
not able to suppress third-order harmonic distortion effectively for single-phase non-linear
load. In this case, the passive filter might be tuned at fifth-order harmonic frequency to
improve filtering performance for third-order harmonic.

Fig:HAFU is off for single-phase non-linear load.

(a) Terminalvoltage. (b) Source current. (c) Filter current. (d) Load current.

Fig. Test results are summarized in Table VI. Voltage distortion of e is reduced from
4.6% to 3.0% with conductance command G* = 0.5 p.u. Since the passive filter is tuned at the
seventh-order harmonic frequency, the proposed hybrid filter is not able to suppress third-
order harmonic distortion effectively for single-phase non-linear load. In this case, the
passive filter might be tuned at fifth-order harmonic frequency to improve filtering
performance for third-order harmonic.

56
fig:HAFU is on for single-phase non-linear load.
(a) Terminalvoltage. (b) Source current. (c) Filter current. (d) Load current

57
 VII. CONCLUSION

This paper presents hybrid active filter to uppers harmonic resonances in industrial
power systems. The proposed hybrid filter is composed of a seventh harmonic-tuned passive
filter and an active filter in series connection at the secondary side of the distribution
transformer. With the active filter part operating as variable harmonic conductance, the
filtering performances of the passive filter can be significantly improved. Accordingly, the
harmonic resonances can be avoided, and the harmonic distortion can be maintained inside an
acceptable level in case of load changes and variations of line impedance of the power
system. Experimental results verify the effectiveness of the proposed method. Extended
discussions are s summarized as follows.

 Large line inductance and large non-linear load may result in severe voltage distortion.
The conductance is increased to maintain distortion to an acceptable level.
 Line resistance may help r educe voltage distortion. The conductance is decreased
 High-frequency resonances resulting from capacitive filters is possible to be suppressed
by the proposed method.
 I n case of unbalanced voltage, a band-rejected filter is needed to filter out second-order
harmonics if the SRF is realized to extract voltage harmonics.

58
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