CHAPTER 4: DATA ANALYSIS

CASE STUDY
Runway means an area, whether or not paved, which is prepared for the take-off or
landing run of aircraft. It can be grass or packed dirt or a hard surface such as asphalt or
concrete. Runways have special markings on them to help a pilot in the air to tell them that it
is runway and to help them when they are landing or taking off. Mostly runway markings are
in white colours because it can easily for the pilot to land the aircraft.

Kuala Lumpur International Airport has three parallel runways (14L/32R, 14R/32L,
15/33), one from the city. Aircraft movements on these runways are controlled by two Air
Traffic Control (ATC) Towers; Tower East and Tower West, given the length of the airport.
The ATC Tower West, going to stand at 133.8 m, is currently the highest ATC tower in the
world. The current system of three runways is capable of controlling 78 landings per hour
and is projected to increase to 108 landings per hour once the upgrade of the Kuala Lumpur
Flight Information Region has been finished in 2019. These runways work in different
departure or arrival modes as required by air traffic.

4.1 Design

KLIA is the largest airport in Malaysia that consists of several terminals such as
satellite terminal, domestic terminal, cargo terminal and low cost carrier terminal. More than
100 domestic and international flight inbound and outbound from KLIA every day. There are
two main runways in KLIA which are Runway 1 (14L/32R) and Runway 2 (14R/32L). Both of
these runways can handle as many types of commercial aircraft from the small Cessna
plane until the biggest commercial plane ever made, the Airbus A380. The length of runways
14R/32L is 4,056 meters or 13,307 feet while runway 14L/32R is 4,124 meters 13,530 ft
long. Each runway also has 10 exit taxiways, with a taxi time ranging of 2 minutes to 11
minutes. The two full-service runways can accommodate 120 movements an hour when one
runway manages to take off and one runway manages to land.

Every runway is also fitted with a completely parallel taxiway with a second parallel
taxiway. Unlike airports in temperate countries which often have poor visibility as low as 200
metres (660 ft) that involves additional Instrument Landing System category to guide landing
of an aircraft, the airport has CAT II Precision Landing ILS to support landing aircraft safely
under all weather conditions with visibility as low as 350 metres (1,150 ft).
 Figure 4.1 KLIA Runways

The KLIA runways can cater the Airbus A380. The planned expansion of the KLIA
Master Plan requires the addition of two more runways. The current KLIA2 expansion,
completed in May 2014, was followed by the opening of the new 15/33 runway, before which
the airport only has two runways. Engineers and people involved in the development and
construction of KLIA have taken over which consider all the possibilities that will benefit and
harm the runways. The runways are fully provided with the proper lighting, runway markings,
a pilot's signal to identify the runway distance and the safety area of the runway.

All the requirements to make the runway have completely obeyed the Federal
Aviation Administration (FAA) regulation. The runways are 2.5 km apart and the lengths of
the runways are (each 4,019 m by 60 m). The contexts between these two runways are
mostly different in terms of air traffic arrangement, one is for landing and the other is for
take-off. Current material to be created of these runways is a flexible pavement with a
polymer-modified binder.

Figure 4.2 KLIA Layout Plan

4.2 Construction Method

 The construction of the runways is closely related to that of the roads in that the type
of pavement required depends on the loads to be carried, although the stress applied by the
aircraft may be very massive and variable, up to 8 times the stress on the roads. There are
several components of runway construction which are the runway, drainage system,
approach light and runway marking.

There are 5 main points that need to identify before construct the runway which are:

1. Site Preparation
2. Flexible Pavement
3. Airfield Ground Lighting
4. Drainage System
5. Runway Marking

4.2.1 Site Preparation

Site preparation is divided into three phases which are site clearance, setting out and
earthwork. Site clearance include the clearing and grubbing works using dozer or rake
dozer. Setting out is very important to ensure that the excavation level for runway is in
accurate position and also their alignment for the runway construction. Normally it is carried
out after the top soil has been removed using the dimensions given on the layout drawings.

Earthworks is a process of removal topsoil together with any vegetations, scraping

and grading the required area down to formation level plus the formation of any cuttings or
embankments. Rather large-scale earthworks were needed to create a platform for two 4 km
of runways, taxiways and aprons, as well as railings and 30 km of landside roads, almost all
dual carriageways. It involves more than 100 million m3 of excavation and 65 million m3 of
filling. Extensive soft clay and peat deposits needed additional treatment and wick drains, of
which more than 20 million linear meters are being used. The project consists of 4 x 400 m
runways, with parallel taxiways, an apron area of 500,000 m2 and a major passenger
terminal of more than 300,000 m2 at a 10km2 site, along with a rail link to Kuala Lumpur and
access to Malaysia's North-South Expressway.
There are several process that need to caters the earthworks which are:
1. Subgrade preparation
- Soil Investigation
- Survey and setting out
- Excavation and filling
- Grading
- Compaction
2. Excavation of soil as per required level with excavator
3. Dumping of excavated soil by dumpers at suitable places
4. Grading of excavated area
5. Compaction by rolling

Subgrade is to be prepared in layers. After dumping of soil, dozing is to be done with

a dozer. Grading also to be done with a grader as per required slopes and gradients. After
that, the process of spreading and compaction clay fill with the dozer will push the clay away.

After grading, roller to be done with a roller of 8-10 tons capacity. Rolling should be
done at optimize moisture content of the soil. There should be at least 6 passes which
divided to 1 plain + 2 low vibration + 2 high vibration and 1 plain pass. Rolling should be
started from outer edge of the pavement and should proceed towards centre. The
compaction should be at least 98%.

4.2.2 Flexible Pavements

In simple terms, a flexible pavement can be defined as a pavement layer consisting

of a mixture of aggregates and bitumen, properly heated and mixed, and then laid and
compacted on a granular layer surface. The design of the flexible pavement is based on the
idea that, for a load of any size, the pressure of the load decreases as the load is transferred
down from the surface by spreading over an increasingly larger area, bringing it deep
enough into the ground through multiple layers of granular material.

A traditional flexible pavement consists of a bituminous surface pattern over the base
and sub-base courses. The surface course may consist of one or more bituminous or hot
mixed asphalt (HMA) layers. These pavements are of negligible flexicurity and therefore
undergo deformation under load action. The structural potential of the flexible pavements is
accomplished by the collective intervention of the different layers of pavement.
 The aircraft load is added directly to the wearing course and distributed in the shape
of a truncated cone with depth in the base, subbase, and subgrade courses, and finally to
the ground. Since the stress induced by traffic loading is highest at the top, the surface layer
has the maximum stiffness as measured by the resilient modulus and contributes most to the
pavement strength.

The layers below are less stable but deeply critical in the composition of the
pavement. The subgrade layer shall be responsible for sending the load from the above
layers to the ground. Flexible pavements are constructed in such a way that the load
entering the subgrade does not surpass the load bearing capacity of the subgrade soil. As a
result, the thickness of the layers above the subgrade varies depending on the strength of
the soil affecting the cost of the pavement to be constructed.

Figure 4.3 Flexible Pavement Layers

1. Subgrade layer
The finished level of such earthwork is referred to as the formation level and
the soil immediately below that level is known as the subgrade. For this runway, it
consists of 2000mm thick sand soil.
2. Sub-base
The sub-base is the construction layer that is placed over the subgrade.
Between sub-grade and sub-base the waterproofed system need to be installed
such as a suitable Damp Proof Membrane System (DPM). A suitable material for
sub base such as granular materials with a minimum crushing value and specific
grading with a thickness not exceeding 150mm thick. The material is spread by
machine and compacted by heavy rollers. For this case study, they use 2 inches
type of crusher run limestone with 800mm thick. Its thickness is more than
minimum crushing value because of its function to support more load that
transmit from above.
3. Base Course
 The first coat to be placed, on top of your proper sub-base, is the base
course. It provides additional load distribution and contributes to drainage and
frost resistance. The base is built of clean sand or rock. The base layer provides
uniform support to the pavement and allows water that penetrates any joints or
cracks in the pavement to move quickly to the sub-drain without saturating and
softening the sub-grade. This coat is put in place for strength, plus it works as a
true leveller course, to take out any small imperfections in the grade. After the
binder is put into place with paver, it is compacted with a vibratory roller for tighter
density and added strength. Asphalt Crusher Base (ACB) is used for this runway
with 150mm thick layers.

4. Surface Course
The surfacing layer of a flexible pavement is subjected to a great intensity of
stress and must consist of high quality material capable of resisting such stress. It
must also provide an impermeable weathering which protects both surface and
base materials. In addition to these properties it must provide a high resistance to
skidding. The type of surfacing material used are numerous, but they are similar
in that each consists of an aggregate bound together by tar or bitumen; the
difference lies mainly in the type, viscosity and proportion of binder used, and the
type and grading of the aggregate. Road tar, which is one of the main binders, is
obtained from crude tar, and bitumen. The other main binder, is produced from
crude petroleum or found in natural deposits mixed with mineral aggregate.
Asphalt is a mixture of bitumen and mineral matter.
The wearing course is the upper layer of bituminious material and is usually
denser and stronger than the lower layer or base course. The thickness depends
upon the specification of the material to be used and the amount of wear
expected. For this case study, they use Asphalt Course Wearing (ACW) with
50mm thick above the base course.

4.2.3 Airfield Ground Lighting (AGL)

A runway lighting shall be provided to give visual guidance along a specific
approach path for reasons such as avoiding hazardous terrain or for purpose of noise
abatement. It will be at least three flashing lights in a linear configuration.

 General
The airfield lighting system will be based on standards set out in ICAO Annex 14 for
a Category I lighting system.
 Approach System
 The approach lighting system will be based on a ICAO CAT I precision approach
lighting system. The length of the approach shall be 900m with barrettes spaced at
intervals of 30m. The approach centreline barrettes will be composed of four lights
and the spacing between these lights will be 1.5m. Crossbars on the other hand, will
be located at a distance of 150m and 300m from the threshold. These crossbars
consist of number of lighting fixtures installed between the centreline barrette and the
side-row barrette. All the fixtures in the approach will have clear lenses. Lights that
are located on the blast pad will be inset fixtures and then rest will be elevated lights
which will either be installed on frangible poles or masts, the height of which will
depend on the final levels of the approach profile. The approach lighting fixtures in
each approach will be supplied from two constant current regulators dedicated for
each approach and located in adjacent substation to the approach being served. The
fixtures will be interleaved over the two constant current regulators in accordance
with ICAO recommendations.
 Sequence Flashing System
Both of the approaches for runway will be equipped with a sequence flashing system.
The sequence flashing system will be composed of 21 light stations and shall be
powered from a low voltage source. Sequence flashers will be co-located with the
approach light barrettes. The sequence flashers will be installed from the 300m
crossbar up to 900m of the approach.
 Runway Edge Lights
Runway edge lights will be installed along the full length of the runway, these fixtures
shall be spaced at a distance of 60m apart. They will be installed in two straight
parallel lines which will be offset from the runway edge marking by 1m. Fixtures will
be elevated lights mounted on frangible couplings except on non-rapid exit taxiway
and rapid exit taxiway where the fixtures will be inset. As specified by ICAO the
fixtures will show clear light on both sides except for the final 600m of the runway
which shall show yellow. Runway edge lights will be supplied from two constant
current regulators located in two different substations serving runway. These lighting
fixtures will be interleaved over the two constant current regulators.
 Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI)
PAPI’s will be installed for both approach directions of the runway. Each approach
direction will be equipped with a single full bar set of PAPI’s located on the left hand
side in the direction of approach. The location of the PAPI’s will be harmonized with
the glide slope angle for the ILS glide slope. Calculations will be provided which will
help to find the most optimum location for the PAPI’s while adhering with appropriate
 standards for wheel height clearance for a Boeing 747-400 aircraft. PAPI’s will be
elevated and mounted on frangible legs. The distances from the runway edge will be
as per ICAO guidelines of 15m with the distance between individual PAPI units being
9m. The left and right wing bars in each approach will be supplied from two different
constant current regulators located in the same substation serving one particular
approach.
 Threshold/Runway End Lights
A combined threshold/runway end light system will be installed at the extremities of
the runway. The threshold lights will be green in the direction of the approach and the
runway end lights will be red in the direction of runway. The runway end lights will be
5 connected to the runway edge light circuits and will be interleaved over two circuits
from two different substations. The threshold lights for each threshold will be
connected to two constant current regulators dedicated for each threshold and
located in the same substation. Threshold lighting fixtures will be interleaved over the
two constant current regulators. Fixtures will be inset and mounted on a concrete
beam spanning the width of the runway, with 1m offset from the extremities of the
runway.
 Rapid Exit Identifier Lights (RETILS)
RETIL’s are a fairly recent addition to ICAO Annex 14, whose purpose is to provide
distance to go information to pilots of an upcoming rapid exit taxiway. The fixtures will
be inset lights, installed in accordance with ICAO recommendations. ICAO
recommends installing RETIL’s on runway where the traffic density is heavy and
therefore we propose installing them on runway in order to assist pilots locate the
entrance to rapid exit taxiways. There will be three sets of lights for each rapid exit
taxiway spaced 100m apart. The first bar will have three fixtures spaced 2m apart,
the second bar will have two fixtures spaced 2m apart and the third bar will be a
single fixture. The circuits for RETIL’s will be wired in such as way as to have the
entire set of lights shutting down in the event that one of the lights in the sequence
has failed.
 Taxiway Centreline Lights
The taxiways will be equipped with centreline lights. The fixtures will be inset lights
installed along the taxiway centrelines. They will be offset from the taxiway markings
by 0.3m as per the ICAO recommendation. Maximum spacing between fixtures will
be 30m for the straight sections and 7.5m for the curved sections of the taxiways.
The same shall be adopted for taxi lane centrelines. Spacing of light fixtures on the
taxiway shall be based on the tangent points for curves provided on the civil
 drawings. Taxiway circuits will be interleaved over two circuits with both CCR’s
located in the same substation.
 Taxiway edge lights
Taxiway edge lights will be installed only on the curves and not the straight sections
of the taxiways. Guidance for straight sections will be from taxiway centreline lights.
Taxiway edge lights will not be interleaved and will be provided by power from the
substation closest to them. Taxiway edge lights will be elevated lights and will be
offset 1m from the edge of the taxiway.
 Stop Bar Lights and Runway Guard Lights
Stop bars will be installed at every entry to the runway providing a “ring of red”
around the runway to protect the runway from incursions. Stop bars will be located at
107.5m from the runway centreline, the recommended distance for Code 4F
operations. Stop bars shall be composed of a row of red insets lights spanning the
full width of the taxiway, fixtures will be spaced at not more than 3m apart. Elevated
red lights will be installed outside the full strength pavement in the same line as the
insets lights. They will be mounted on frangible poles. Each stop bar will also be
equipped with a pair of runway guard lights mounted on frangible couplings.
Interleaving of stop bars shall be from two separate circuits fed from two different
substations.
 Taxiway Guidance/Mandatory Signs
Signage shall be designed in accordance to ICAO Annex 14. Signs located on the
runway shall be located between 8 and 15m from the defined runway pavement
edge. Signs on taxiways will be located between 11 and 21m from the defined
taxiway edge. Signs shall have fluorescent lamps. Signs will be mounted on concrete
pads and will be powered by their own dedicated circurt, signs will not be interleaved.
Location of signs will be checked using Path planner to minimize the effect of jet blast
on the signs.
 Windcone
Illuminated windcones will be provided on both ends of the runway, close to the
thresholds. The windcones will be provided with power from a low voltage source.
 Pit and Duct System
All cables for the airfield lighting system will be installed in ducts. Primary cable ducts
will be encased in concrete if they are located under pavements and will be sand
surrounded where they are not under pavements. The ducts shall be of either uPVC
or HDPE. Secondary cable ducts will be installed in the base layers of the pavement
and be paved over. A core will be made at the location of the fixture to penetrate the
 secondary duct. Isolating transformer and control and monitoring system logic units
will be located in pre-cast concrete transformer pits. Pits will be installed outside the
pavements where possible and will be designed to withstand aircraft loading. Pit
covers will be heavy duty F900 rated covers.
 Runway Incursion System
All stop bars will have a runway incursion detection system installed. The sensors for
runway will be microwave based. Each stop bar will have three pairs of sensors
installed, a presence sensor to detect the presence of an aircraft at the stop bar, an
incursion sensor to detect an unauthorized incursion, and a departure sensor to show
that an aircraft has departed. The sensors will also be used to control the switching of
lead-on lights and also switching of the stop bar.
 Airfield Lighting Substations
The airfield lighting system will be served from two new substations each located
close to the threshold. The design of the substations will be based on that of the
existing substations for runway one and two. The size of the buildings will be
determined by the number of CCR’s that will be installed in them. Portions of lighting
installed on the cross taxiways and aprons will be powered from the relocated
existing substation ALD.

Figure 4.4 Runway Lighting System

Figure 4.5 Example of Runway Lighting

 4.2.4 Drainage System

The important system to make ensure that the runway is in dry condition and that is
no water gathers on it. A well design airport drainage system is a prime requisite for
operational safety and efficiency as well as pavement durability. Inadequate drainage
facilities may result in costly damage due to flooding, constitute a source of serious hazards
to air traffic, erosion of slopes and saturated and weakened pavement foundations.

Airport drainage system is similar to street and highway drainage design since they
are characterized by large areas of relatively flat gradient. Airports require prompt removal of
surface and subsurface water. Hence, they need an integrated drainage system. Removal of
water should be done from runways, taxiways, aprons, parking lots and etc.

Each drainage subarea should be outlined on the plan which view out the pipe size,
their length and slopes should be shown. The grading plan makes it possible to select
appropriate locations for drainage ditches, inlets and manhole. Usually storm drain inlets are
placed as needed at low points. FAA recommended that inlets be located laterally at least
75ft form the edge of pavements and also at air carrier airports and 25ft from edge general
aviation airport. Placing drain inlets nearer to pavements should be avoided as it might be
lead to ponding and may cause flooding or saturation of sub-grade. After the location of
ditches, inlets and manholes have been determined, we need to identify the suitable size
and gradient of pipe. Open channels, ditches play a major role in airport drainage system.
Their size, shape and slope of these channels be carefully determined to avoid overflow,
flooding and erosion. The flow in long, open channels is assumed to be uniform. It is
because the energy losses due to friction are balanced by the slope.

Special drainage system are required to control and avoid the undesirable effects of
sub-surface moisture. Subsurface drainage has three functions which are to drain wet soil
masses, to intercept an divert subsurface flows and to lower and control the water table.
Subsurface drains consists of small pipes typically 6 to 8 inch in diameter which are laid in
trenches approximately 1.5 to 2.0 wide and backfilled with a pervious filter material. The pipe
should be bedded in a minimum thickness of filter material. Subsurface drainage systems
are mostly likely to be effective in sandy clays, clay silts and sandy silts which suitable at
KLIA location. The finer grained materials are more difficult to drain the water. Subsurface
drainage systems must be inspected and maintained. To allow for this manholes should be
placed at intervals of not more than 1000ft and at principle junctions points in based and
subgrade drainage systems. Inspection and flushing holes are normally placed between
manholes and at dead ends. It is recommended that subsurface drains be laid on slope at
least 0.15ft/100ft. the drain pipes must be backfilled with carefully graded filter material.

Figure 4.6 Drainage Installation

Figure 4.7 excavation works for drainage

Figure 4.8 Trench Excavation

4.2.5 Runway Marking

 Airport pavement markings and signs provide information that is useful to a pilot
during takeoff, landing, and taxiing. Uniformity in airport markings and signs from one airport
to another enhances safety and improves efficiency. Pilots are encouraged to work with the
operators of the airports they use to achieve the marking and sign standards described in
this section. Pilots who encounter ineffective, incorrect, or confusing markings or signs on an
airport should make the operator of the airport aware of the problem. These situations may
also be reported under the Aviation Safety Reporting Program as described in Paragraph 7-
6-1, Aviation Safety Reporting Program. Pilots may also report these situations to the FAA
regional airports division.

Markings for runways are white. Markings defining the landing area on a heliport are
also white except for hospital heliports which use a red “H” on a white cross. Markings for
taxiways, areas not intended for use by aircraft closed and hazardous areas, and holding
positions even if they are on a runway are yellow.

a. General
There are three types of markings for runways: visual, non-precision instrument, and
precision instrument.

Figure 4.9 Example of Runway Marking

b. Runway Designators
Runway numbers and letters are determined from the approach direction. The runway
number is the whole number nearest one‐tenth the magnetic azimuth of the centerline of
the runway, measured clockwise from the magnetic north. The letters, differentiate
between left (L), right (R), or center (C) parallel runways, as applicable:

1. For two parallel runways “L” “R.”

2. For three parallel runways “L” “C” “R.”

c. Runway Centerline Marking

The runway centerline identifies the center of the runway and provides alignment
guidance during takeoff and landings. The centerline consists of a line of uniformly
spaced stripes and gaps.
d. Runway Aiming Point Marking
The aiming point marking serves as a visual aiming point for a landing aircraft. These
two rectangular markings consist of a broad white stripe located on each side of the
runway centerline and approximately 1,000 feet from the landing threshold, as shown
in Figure 4.9.
e. Runway Touchdown Zone Markers
The touchdown zone markings identify the touchdown zone for landing operations
and are coded to provide distance information in 500 feet (150m) increments. These
markings consist of groups of one, two, and three rectangular bars symmetrically
arranged in pairs about the runway centerline, as shown in Figure 4.9. For runways
having touchdown zone markings on both ends, those pairs of markings which
extend to within 900 feet (270 m) of the midpoint between the thresholds are
eliminated.
f. Runway Side Stripe Marking
Runway side stripes delineate the edges of the runway. They provide a visual
contrast between runway and the abutting terrain or shoulders. Side stripes consist of
continuous white stripes located on each side of the runway as shown in Figure 4.10.
Figure 4.10 Relocation of a Threshold with Markings for Taxiway Aligned with Runway

g. Runway Shoulder Markings

Runway shoulder stripes may be used to supplement runway side stripes to identify
pavement areas contiguous to the runway sides that are not intended for use by
aircraft. Runway shoulder stripes are yellow.

Figure 4.11 Runway Shoulder Marking

h. Runway Threshold Markings

 Runway threshold markings come in two configurations. They either consist of eight
longitudinal stripes of uniform dimensions disposed symmetrically about the runway
centerline as shown in Figure 4.9 or the number of stripes is related to the runway
width. A threshold marking helps identify the beginning of the runway that is available
for landing. In some instances, the landing threshold may be relocated or displaced.

Table 4.1 Number of Runway Threshold Stripes

Runway Width Number of Stripes

60 feet (18 m) 4
75 feet (23 m) 6
100 feet (30 m) 8
150 feet (45 m) 12
200 feet (60 m) 16

i. Demarcation Bar
A demarcation bar delineates a runway with a displaced threshold from a blast pad,
stopway, or taxiway that precedes the runway. A demarcation bar is 3 feet (1m) wide
and yellow, since it is not located on the runway.

Figure 4.12 Demarcation Bar

j. Runway Threshold Bar

A threshold bar delineates the beginning of the runway that is available for landing
when the threshold has been relocated or displaced. A threshold bar is 10 feet (3m)
in width and extends across the width of the runway.

Figure 4.13 Runway Treshold Bar

References

1. https://www.faa.gov/airports/engineering/airport_lighting/media/schai-airport-
lighting.pdf
2. http://aip.dca.gov.my/aip%20pdf%20new/AIC/AIC%20201001.pdf
3. https://www.slideshare.net/srinivas2036/airport-drainage-47193829
4. https://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/publications/atpubs/aim_html/chap2_section_3.
5.