* STRUCTURAL

GEOLOGY
Lecture # 10
What is Structural Geology??
• Study of the architecture and geometry of the Earth’s
crust and processes which have shaped it
• Analysis of changes in shape of rock bodies (strain)
produced by tectonic forces (stress)
Stress Strain
• Study of rock Deformation as Response to Forces and Stresses
• Involving Motion of Rigid Body
Structural Analysis
Structural analysis generally involves three tasks:
1. Descriptive Analysis: physical and geometrical
description of rock structures (e.g. folds, faults etc)
2. Kinematic Analysis: evaluation of the displacement
and
change in shape, orientation and size that rocks undergo
as a result of deformation (strain)
3. Dynamic Analysis: reconstruct forces and stresses
which resulting rock deformation and failure (stress)
Deformation of rock in various scale

(Modified from Means, 1976) in Sapiee. B., 2005

 EVOLUTION OF STRUCTURE
• Force history
• Movement history
Single Particle Particles
Factors involve:
• SCALE FACTOR (mm to km)
• RHEOLOGY (flow of matter)
• TIME FACTOR (Geologic Time Scale)
Why Important?
Geologic Cross-Section
and
Seismic Section

5 Km
 DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS (Fold, Fault)
• CONTACTS

• PRIMARY STRUCTURES

• SECONDARY STRUCTURES
 Primary Structure
Primary structures are features of rocks
that form at or shortly after the time Bedding
• Graded beds
of formation of the rock itself. • Ripple marks
• Crossbeds
They are important: • Sole marks
• Channel structures
i. to determine to original facing • Mud cracks
direction of strata; • Fossils (tracks, imprints, body fossils)
• Impact features (raindrop imprints,
ii. can be used as strainmarkers in volcanic bombs etc)
• De-watering (flame) structures
deformed rocks; • Soft-sediment deformation
iii. some primary features (fossils) are • Reduction spots
Igneous structures
useful in age determination; • Columnar jointing
iv. interpret the environmet conditions • Flow surface features (rubble layers,
ropey texture, baked horizons)
under which the rock was formed; • Pillow basalts
v. recognize primary features and
distinguish them from later tectonic
features.
 Secondary Structure
• Secondary rock structures are imposed on rocks by events (such as
compression or stretching) experienced by rocks after their
original formational.
• The structures are most easily observed if the rocks have obvious
primary structures, such as layering formed by successive
episodes of deposition.
• Primary depositional layering is almost always horizontal: it
parallels the general configuration of surface on which deposition
takes place, such as a floodplain or the floor of a lake or ocean. In
consequence, when layers are found that are not horizontal, the
geologist assumes that some force has been exerted upon them
that has destroyed their original horizontality.
 BASIC CONCEPTS

FORCES AND VECTORS

• Force is any action which alters, or tends to alter
• Newton II law of motion : F=Ma
• Unit force : kgm/s2 = newton (N) or dyne = gram cm/s2; N = 105 dynes

(a). Force: vector quantity with magnitude and direction

(b). Resolving by the parallelogram of forces

Two Types of Force

• Body Forces (i.e. gravitational force)
• Contact Forces (i.e. loading)

Modified Price and Cosgrove (1990)

• F= m x a , gravitational acceleration: 9.8 m/sec2
•vector quantity: orientation and size.
•can be applied to any plane.
•normal and shear components on a plane can be resolved from an oblique
force (see diagram to the right).
•shear component promotes slip on the plane and the normal component
inhibits slip on a plane, and the ratio of the two at which slip occurs
describes the 'friction' on the plane.
Pressure within a geologic context:
•describes multitude of forces at a point within a fluid.
•limit of F/area as area goes to 0
•fluids can not withstand a shear stress for a significant period of time,
therefore if static non-flowing, all force vectors equal in size, and all must
be normal vectors acting perpendicular to any given plane. Hence can be
described by one number.
•this is a special simple stress state - hydrostatic stress state.
•geologic pressures: pore fluid pressures, magmatic pressures, 'rock
pressure' = nondeviatoric component.
•related strain? change in volume, no distortion (unless material is
anisotropic with respect to mechanical properties).
Force
Equilibrium
(A) Balance

(B) Torque

(C) Static Equilibrium

(D) Dynamic Equilibrium

(Davis and Reynolds, 1996)

 STRESS
Stress defined as force per unit area:
s = F/A
A = area,
Stress units = Psi, Newton (N),
Pascal (Pa) or bar (105 Pa)

Stress is force/area
(hitting with a hammer)

Importance of area:
Think of difference between
standing on water bed in high
heels or sneakers
 Stress
Three kinds of stress can be applied to rocks:
tensional, compressive, and shear.
Tensional stress occurs when a rock is subjected to forces that tend
to elongate it or pull it apart; a rock that has experienced tensional
stress tends to be narrower and longer than its original shape, like a
piece of gum or taffy that has been pulled (pulled apart)
A compressive stress on a rock is applied from opposite sides and
has a tendency to shorten (compress) the rock between the
opposing stresses, which may also stretch it parallel to the stress-
free direction. (push together)
A shear stress results when forces from opposite directions create
a shear plane in an area in which the forces run parallel to one
another. The scale of shear stress can vary from a few centimeters
to hundreds of meters. (moved horizontally past each other)
 • Stress at a point in 2D
• Types of stress

Stress (s)
Normal stress (sN)

(+) Compressive (-) Tensile

Shear stress (sS)

(+) (-)

Sapiee. B.,
2005
STRESS on PLANE

• Coordinate System
 Stress Ellipsoid

a) Triaxial stress

b) Principal planes of
the ellipsoid

(Modified from Means, 1976) in Sapiee. B., 2005

 z s
The State of s3
x
Two-Dimensional
Stress at Point

A. Stress elipse

Principal Stress:
s
s3
X3

s1 > s3
X1

B. Principal stress components

x, z = Surface Stress
Principal coordinate
axes and planes
s(top)
zz
(top)
z

Z
s(top) (rt)
x
zx

s(lft)
s(lft)
xx
xz dz
X
dx
s(rt) s(rt)
xx
xz

 (lft) s(bot)
zx
x

(bot)
z
s (bot)
zz Arbitrary coordinate
axes and planes
C. General stress components
(Twiss and Moores, 1992)
 The State of
3-Dimensional
Stress at Point Principal Stress:
A. Stress elipsoid
s1 > s > s3
x3
z
x1
s s3
Principal
coordinate planes Stress Tensor Notation
z

s11 s12 s13

s

y
s = s21 s22 s23
x2
y s31 s32 s33
x
B. Principal stress components x
z
Arbitrary

szz z
coordinate planes
s12 = s21, s13 = s31, s23 = s32
szx
szy
syx
y
sxy syy
sxz syz
sxx

y
x
x
C. General stress components
(Twiss and Moores, 1992)
Geologic Sign
Convention of
Stress Tensor

(Twiss and Moores, 1992)

 Mohr Diagram 2-D

A. Physical Diagram A. Mohr Diagram

x
ss
n


s
s(p)
n , ss 
(p)
ss 
(p)

s s3 sin r
sn(p)
 
2  s(p) s
s3 x3 s3 sn sn
ss 
(p) n 

Plane P
s s3  s s3 
2 2

s s3  
(Twiss and Moores, 1992) cos 
2
 A. Physical Diagram B. Mohr Diagram
x1 ss
n
 
s(p')
n , ss 
(p')
s(p)
 n , ss 
(p)
p'
n' 

p 
s3  s sn
x3 sn

(Twiss and Moores, 1992)

 A. Physical Diagram B. Mohr Diagram
x1
x ss


º) sxx
z sxx' sxz

sxz s s zz

sz x º)  sxz
s3 x3 s3  s sn

szz' szx
s xx s zz 
sxxszz
2
(Twiss and Moores, 1992)
 Planes of maximum shear stress
A. Physical Diagram B. Mohr Diagram
ss
x x
 = +45º Planes of maximum ss max
' = +45º
+
shear stress -
Counter clockwise
n n
s s

ss s3 x3 s3 x3 s3 º s sn
ss
' º

Counterclockwise Clockwise ss max

shear stress shear stress Clockwise
(Twiss and Moores, 1992)
 Mohr Diagram 3-D
Geometry of a three-dimensional
Stress on a Mohr diagram

(Twiss and Moores, 1992)

Maximum Shear Stress

(Twiss and Moores, 1992)

 FUNDAMENTAL STRESS EQUATIONS
Principal Stress:
s1 > s > s3
• All stress axes are mutually perpendicular
• Shear stress are zero in the direction of
principal stress

s1 + s3 - s1 – s3
sN = cos 2
2 2

s1 – s3
ss = Sin 2
2
Stress Ellipsoid
 (Davis and Reynolds, 1996)

Mohr diagram is a graphical representative of state of stress

Mean stress is hydrostatic component which tends to produce dilation
Deviatoric stress is non hydrostatic which tends to produce distortion
Differential stress if greater is potential for distortion
 Image of Stress
ss ss ss

s s s3 sn s s3 s sn s3 s s sn

p

p 0 0 a 0 0 0 0 0
0 p 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 p 0 0 0 0 0 -a
A. Hydrostatic stress B. Uniaxial compression C. Uniaxial tension

ss ss ss

s s sn s3 s sn s3 s3 s3 sn
s3 s
a 0 0 a 0 0 a 0 0
0 b 0 0 a 0 0 b 0
0 0 b 0 0 b 0 0 c
D. Axial or confined E. Axial extension or F. Triaxial stress
compression extensional stress
 ss ss
sn
Deviatoric Applied

s3 s s sn s3  s3 s3 s sn
sn

a 0 0
0 0 0 s 0
 s sn 0
=
0 0 -a 0 s
 0 s3 sn
G. Pure shear stress H. Deviatoric stress
(two-dimensional)

ss ss

Effective Applied

s3 s s3 s s3 s sn s3
E s
E Es s sn
s3 s

D s D s D s pf s 0 s p f
0 0 0
E

D ss s3 0 Es  0 = 0 s p f 0
I. Differential stress J. Effective stress 0 0 Es 3 0 0 s3 p f
(Three examples)
 From where does stress come?
Motions of tectonic plates on Earth’s surface

Deformation primarily occurs along

plate boundaries
 STRESS
 Body force works from distance and depends on the amount of materials
affected (i.e. gravitational force).
 Surface force are classes as compressive or tensile according to the
distortion they produce.
 Stress is defined as force per unit area.
 Stress at the point can be divided as normal and shear component
depending they direction relative to the plane.
 Structural geology assumed that force at point are isotropic and
homogenous
 Stress vector around a point in 3-D as stress ellipsoid which have three
orthogonal principal directions of stress and three principal planes.
 Principal stress s1>s2>s3
 The inequant shape of the ellipsoid has to do with forces in rock and has
nothing directly to do with distortions.
 Mohr diagram is a graphical representative of state of stress of rock