07a - Instrument - Transformers - Tech - r8 401

Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401
Section 7 - Instrument Transformers, CTs and VTs
Power System Protection

for Engineers
Instrument Transformers
CTs and VTs
Copyright © SEL 2005
Instrument Transformers_r8 1
Instrument Transformers
Objectives
z Describe the basic design, analysis,

connections, and standards of current
and voltage transformers
z Describe the nature of CT saturation
and the criteria to avoid it
z Use the procedure for selecting CTs for
protection purposes
Current Transformers
Current Transformer (CT) Principle

Ip Iron Core
Secondary
Winding with Ns
Turns
z CT Isolates Relay
from the HV System
Is z Drastically Reduces
h g Current
Ideally: Is = Ip / Ns
Relay
The initial problem was how to connect a low-voltage device to the high-voltage system and
have the ability to handle large fault currents (kilo-Amps). How can we make the relay
measure the currents flowing in the high-voltage system in order to detect these faults?
The solution consists of using a special type of transformer, called a current transformer.
The main parts of a current transformer are:
• Iron core
• Secondary winding
• Primary conductor
• External insulation
Some current transformers do not have a primary conductor. In those cases the primary is the
line or bus itself. Sometimes the core and its secondary winding are directly installed in the
bushing of the circuit breakers or transformers. These CTs are called “bushing CTs”.
Some current transformers may have a primary that consists of several turns. Typically there
are no more turns than the natural, which is equivalent to say that the primary number of
turns is 1.
The total load connected to the CT terminal (g and h in this case) is called “burden”.
Ideally, the secondary current of a CT is perfectly proportional to the primary current. It will
be shown later that in reality this is sometimes not true.
Core and Secondary Winding Example
Photo courtesy of Kuhlman Electric Corp., used with permission.
High-Voltage CT Example
A high-voltage CT installed in an outdoor substation.
Distribution Medium Voltage CT
Photo courtesy of Kuhlman Electric Corp., used with permission.
A distribution-type (medium voltage) current transformer.
CT Symbols
IP IP P1 P2
S1 S2
IS IS
ANSI IEC
IP
P1 P2 IP
K L
S1 S2
k l
IS IS
Some Countries VDE
These are the most common symbols used to represent current transformers. There are
some deviations, but the main shape of the symbols is essentially similar to what is
shown here.
Note that in all cases there are polarity marks. The following conventions are used to
mark the reference for AC currents:
• ANSI: Polarity marks
• IEC: P1, P2, S1, S2
• VDE: K, L, k, l
The ANSI polarity mark consists of a dot, a small circle, an “x”, or a small square (as
shown in the slide) drawn at each side of the transformer primary and secondary sides.
The convention establishes that current flowing IN the polarity mark of one winding
flows OUT the polarity mark of the other.
CT Common Connections
Ia Wye Ia Delta
Ib Ib
Ic Ic
Ics
Ibs
Ias-Ics
Ias Ires
Ics-Ibs
Ibs-Ias
These are the two of the most common connections of current transformers in three-
phase systems.
At the left, the “Y” connection provides the line currents at the secondary.
At the right, the “∆” connection, provides the difference currents (delta currents) to the
secondary loads.
Current Transformer Ratio

(CTR)
IP Examples: CTR = 200/5 = 40

CTR= CTR = 1200/5 = 240
IS CTR = 400/1 = 400
z Denominator is the Secondary Rated

Current
Typically: 1 A or 5 A
z Numerator Is Not Always the Primary

Rated Current
The Current Transformer Ratio, CTR, expressed as a fraction, is the ratio between the
magnitudes of the primary and the secondary current for ideal working conditions of
the current transformer.
ANSI Standard Burden for Relaying

CTs With 5 A Secondary
Volt-
Burden Impedance Amperes Power
Designation (Ohms) (at 5 A) Factor
B-1 1.0 25 0.5
B-2 2.0 50 0.5
B-4 4.0 100 0.5
B-8 8.0 200 0.5
The ANSI standard burdens are specified as impedances in Ohms with an angle of 60
degrees, i.e.:
Zej60 = Z (0.5 + 0.8666j) Ohms
The ANSI standard states that a CT of a given class will have 10%, or less, error when
operated at 20 times nominal current into the standard burden.
As an example, a C400 rated CT will exhibit 10%, or less, error with 100 amps
secondary current flowing into a 4 ohm burden. The CT must therefore be capable of
supporting a secondary voltage of at least 400 volts.
CT Load Consists of Lead Impedance

Plus Relay Impedance
IP
g h CT Terminal Voltage Is:

IS
Vgh = IS ⋅ ZLOAD = IS ⋅ (ZLEADS+ ZRELAY)

ZLEADS
ZRELAY
Non-Linear Behavior
Without Hysteresis
φ φ
iE iE
Saturation can be explained by the non-linear nature of the iron core.
If a certain ac voltage is applied to the secondary of a CT, the core is magnetized and
the flux density B has a non-linear relationship with the magnetic field intensity H,
according to the well-known law of magnetic material: Hysteresis Loop. The magnetic
field H is approximately proportional to the excitation current, and the magnetic flux is
proportional to the magnetic flux density. These relationships depend not only on the
material properties but also on the core dimensions (Cross Section A and Effective
Length L).
The slide shows the flux vs. exciting current curve which is similar to, and closely
related to, the B vs. H curve. The hysteresis is sometimes neglected, as shown in the
right half of the slide. The approximation is valid for some materials. In general, the
approximation serves to simplify the analysis.
Induced Secondary Voltage
z Assuming the CT is Not Saturated, and

Magnetic Flux Density (B) is Sinusoidal:
B = Bmax sin(ω t ) ⇒ φ = BA= ABmax sin(ω t )
z Induced Secondary Voltage is

Approximately:
2π f
Vs = Ns ABmax = 4.44 f Ns ABmax
2
The formula is derived using the following procedure:

B = B max sin ω t ⇒
φ = BA = AB max sin ω t
Original formula (Faraday) :
dφ
vs = − N s = − ω N s AB max cos ω t =
dt
= − 2 π f N s AB max cos ω t ≡ 2 V s cos ω t ⇒
2π f
Vs = N s AB max = 4 . 44 fN s AB max
2
The Current Transformer Equivalent

Circuit
R’p jX’p Rs jXs
g
IE
IP /Ns + IS
Ideal
IP /Ns VS ZLOAD
Non-
- Linear
h
IP
IS = − IE ; VS = IS (Rs + jXs ) + IS ZLOAD
NS
The general equivalent circuit is adapted to the current transformer as indicated in the
figure. Note the non-linear reactance used to represent the non-linear behavior of the
iron core. Note also that this reactance comes from the relationship between the induced
voltage VS and the excitation current iE.
The figure shows the equivalent for a current transformer with Np = 1.
As the flux limits of the CT are reached, the exciting current increases. As the exciting
current increases, the secondary current output is decreased, resulting in increased error.
As will be seen later, the secondary output current can be reduced to zero during
extreme saturation.
Excitation Curve Using VS
Log-Log plot
Vs
Saturation
Voltage Vsat
dφ
vs ≈ −Ns
dt
IE
This is the excitation curve in the form normally used in practice. The curve presents
the magnitude of the internal induced voltage VS as a function of the excitation current
IE.
Definition of ANSI “Knee Point”
45o
Vs
(Exciting
Voltage)
Log-Log Plot with
Square Decades
ANSI
Knee
Point
IE
The ANSI knee point voltage is defined geometrically in the excitation curve. When
plotted on equally spaced log-log axes, it is the point in the excitation curve where the
tangent is at 45° to the abscissa, for CTs with a non-gapped core. The knee point
voltage does not define the onset of saturation for the ANSI standard.
Definition of IEC “Knee Point”
Vs
(Exciting
Voltage)
Log-Log Plot with
Square Decades
IEC
Knee Point
IE
The IEC knee point voltage is defined as the point of intersection of two lines in the
log-log plot. One line corresponds to the linear part of the CT curve, and the other
corresponds to the saturation voltage. The IEC knee point voltage is very close to the
onset of saturation, and is taken as equal to the onset of saturation.
The IEC knee point voltage correlates closely to the ANSI C Rating Voltage which will
be discussed in later slides.
ANSI vs. IEC

Knee Point
z ANSI
Point on excitation curve where 45°
line is tangent
Near ½ ANSI C rating
z IEC
10% change in excitation voltage
causes 50% change in excitation
current
Near ANSI C rating
Typical Excitation Curve
For a multiratio current transformer, manufacturers provide all the curves in the same
plot.
In the example shown, for the 2000/5 ratio, the ANSI knee point is approximately 200
Volts, and the full saturation voltage is close to 500 Volts.
CT Response to Sinusoidal Ip
φ
φ
iE t
vs
dφ
v s ≈ − Ns
dt
t
iE
When the CT works in the non-saturated area, the sinusoidal primary current produces
an approximately sinusoidal flux, induced voltage, and excitation current. This
excitation current is very small and the secondary current is very similar to the ideal
ratio current. Therefore, the error is very small.
Approximate Saturation With a

Sinusoidal Ip
φ
φ
t
iE
dφ
vs vs ≈ −Ns
dt
t
iE
If the load and the magnitude of the primary current are large enough to saturate the
CT, neither the flux nor the induced voltage are sinusoidal. The excitation current can
take large magnitudes and the resulting error will be large. The secondary current is
shown in the next slide.
As indicated in the figure, when the transformer is saturated, the flux wave shape
illustrates that the rate of change is almost zero. However, in the “linear”region the flux
can exhibit a very high rate of change, and therefore a very high induced voltage. This
produces the voltage peaks shown in the figure.
It is important to note that in the extreme saturation condition (infinite load impedance),
the peaks that appear in the induced voltage could be extremely large, even for
relatively low primary currents. These peaks represent dangerous overvoltages which
can damage the insulation of the secondary winding. This demonstrates why CTs
should never be left with the secondary open and the primary connected.
Secondary Current in a Saturated CT

with Ip Pure Sinusoidal
is
Pure
t Resistive
Load
ip /N (Ideal) i
s
t Z = R+jX
When a CT is saturated, the wave shape of the secondary current strongly depends on
the type of load connected. The figure shows two examples.
In the case of resistive load, as seen in the first diagram, the secondary current wave
shape has a “shark fin” appearance.
The second diagram’s wave shape is a representation of the distorted secondary current
for an impedance with resistance and reactance of similar magnitude.
In both cases, the rms value of the secondary current is considerably different than the
ideal one. Both the magnitude and angle errors may be unacceptable for protective
relaying applications.
Current Transformer Performance

for a Symmetrical AC Current
z Performance by ANSI Standard

Accuracy Charts
z Performance by Classic Analysis
z Performance by CT Characteristic
Curves
There are several methods to determine the characteristics that a CT should have to
prevent saturation during fault conditions.
The standards organizations have established a set of rules which provide users with
enough information about the CTs so that they can be clearly specified to achieve the
appropriate performance.
ANSI Standard CT Classification
z Metering Applications
z Protective Relaying Applications
Letter designation
Terminal voltage rating
ANSI Standard Letter Designation
z Negligible Leakage Flux

Class: C z Performance Directly From
Excitation Characteristic
z Equal to Class C, Except
Class: K Knee-Point is ≥70%
Terminal Voltage
z Ratio Error Determined by

Class: T
Test
(Source: ANSI Standard C57.13 –1993)
The ANSI letter designations are C and T. The most common designation is C. The
leakage flux for this class of CT is negligible and therefore the performance can be
determined directly from the excitation characteristics.
A K rated CT is the same a C rated CT, except that the specified knee-point voltage is
at least 70% of the secondary terminal voltage rating.
T-rated CTs have appreciable flux leakage which requires the ratio error to be
determined by test.
T-rated CTs are the least-used CTs in the USA.
Simplified Equivalent Circuit

Class C CTs
Rs
g
IE
IP /Ns + IS
Ideal
IP /Ns VS ZLOAD
-
h
IP
IS = − IE ; VS = I S (Rs + ZLOAD)
NS
If the leakage is negligible, the CT equivalent circuit can be reduced to the one shown
in the figure.
ANSI Standard Terminal Voltage

Class C CTs
z Min. Voltage Appearing at the CT

Terminals (Points g and h) for:
20 times nominal current
Standard burden
≤10% ratio error
z Applies To Full Winding
The secondary terminal voltage rating is the minimum CT secondary voltage that the
CT will deliver when connected to a standard burden with 20 times nominal current
flowing and the ratio error is limited to 10%.
The voltage rating only applies to the full winding. The voltage rating of a CT tap is
directly proportional to the tap being used and the full winding capability. As an
example, if a C400 1200/5 CT is operated on the 600/5 tap, the voltage rating at 600/5
is 200 volts. This holds true only if the windings are fully distributed around the core.
The common ANSI standard voltage ratings are: 100, 200, 400, 800. For 5 amp CTs
this results in standard burdens of 1, 2, 4 and 8 ohms. The standard burden is often
considered purely resistive when used in calculations. The actual standard burden has a
power factor of 0.5 (i.e.. 60° characteristic angle).
ANSI Standard Terminal Voltage

Class C CTs
VSTD = 20•IN•ZSTD
For IN = 5A Secondary:
C Class ZSTD(Ω) VSTD (V)
C100 1 100
C200 2 200
C400 4 400
C800 8 800
We can state this equation in terms of the standard values defined in C57.13.
Current Transformer Ratings

z Multi-Ratio Type
z Example - 1200:5
Current Ratings Secondary Taps
X1
100:5 ...............................X2 – X3
200:5 ...............................X1 – X2
X2 300:5 ...............................X1 – X3
400:5 ...............................X4 – X5
X3 500:5 ...............................X3 – X4
600:5 ...............................X2 – X4
X4 800:5 ...............................X1 – X4
900:5 ...............................X3 – X5
1000:5 ...............................X2 – X5
X5 1200:5 ...............................X1 – X5
Performance by Classic Analysis
z Method Used Primarily by CT Designers:

VS = 4.44⋅ f ⋅ N ⋅ A⋅ Bmax ⋅ 108 Volts
z Method for End-Users When the Excitation

Curve is Available:
VS = I S ⋅(RS + ZLEADS + ZRELAY ) Volts
The first method is used primarily by CT designers (manufacturers) since extensive

knowledge of the iron core characteristics (B vs. H curve) is needed.
The second method has been used by utility engineers and technicians when the CT
excitation curve has been available. Note that when using the excitation curve, the
secondary resistance of the CT must be included in the burden calculation since the
excitation curve is a plot of the induced voltage and not the terminal voltage.
Excitation Curve for a C400 Multiratio CT
The excitation curve can be used in combination with the Class C standard terminal
voltages to specify a CT.
Let us go back to the sample curve shown previously.
In the example shown, for the 2000/5 ratio, full saturation voltage is close to 500 Volts,
and the CT has a secondary resistance of 0.7 Ohms.
Approximate Terminal Voltage

Calculation
Vs = IsRs + Vgh ⇒ Vgh = Vs − IsRs
z Assume Pure Resistance Values
z CT Secondary Resistance
RS = 0.7 Ohm
z Internal Voltage Drop
IS • RS = (20 • 5) • 0.7 =100 • 0.7 = 70 V
z Voltage Available
Vgh = 496 – 70 = 426 V
The quick estimate calculation does not consider the burden that is placed on the CT.
To calculate the voltage available, subtract the internal voltage drop from the secondary
exciting voltage obtained from the graph. The exciting voltage is read at the 10% error
point; that is, where the excitation current is 10 Amps.
The CT winding resistance is taken from manufacturers’ data.
The internal voltage drop is equal to the current (100 amps) times the winding
resistance (0.7 ohms).
The C rating is the voltage rating just below the calculated VB (Burden Voltage). This
CT would have a C400 rating.
IEC Standard Accuracy Classes
z The IEC (International Electrotechnical

Commission) Specifies Current
Transformers as:
15 VA Class 10 P 20
Accuracy Limit Current Factor
For Protection
Accuracy Class
Continuous VA
ANSI vs. IEC

Rating
z 5 Amp CTs
C800 = 200VA 10P20

C400 = 100VA 10P20
C200 = 50VA 10P20
C100 = 25VA 10P20
Current Transformer
Performance
for a DC Current Component
If No Saturation Occurs
I ⎡ − RL t ⎤
− is = ⎢e − cos(ωt )⎥
N ⎣ ⎦
If no saturation occurs, the secondary current will be a perfect replica of the primary
current.
CT Performance for a DC Component

Secondary Current
100
IRATIO
Amps 50
0
ICT_SEC
-50
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Magnetic Flux Density (B)
2
Tesla
1
0
-1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Cycles
The plot shows the extreme error that is caused when a CT saturates. As can be seen,
the CT reaches saturation after approximately ¼ cycle. Once the waveform becomes
negative, the CT comes out of saturation and begins following the ratio current until the
next positive half cycle when it becomes saturated again.
Current Magnitude and Angle Error

Current Magnitudes
50
40 IRATIO
30
Amps 20 ICT_SEC
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Angle Error
0
-10
Degrees
-20
-30
-40
-50
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Cycles
The error propagates beyond the relay filters and also beyond the phasor estimation
routines.
Most modern relays operate on the fundamental component of the measured current.
The upper plot shows the ideal current magnitude from a non-saturated CT; versus the
current from the saturated CT.
Required Vs
z The Theoretical Maximum Induced

Voltage Can Be Approximated as:
X
VS IF ZB 1
R
The equation shown in the slide is derived with the following procedure. First, start
with the volt-time integral for the case of resistive burden and asymmetric fault current:
R
t t − t
φ ⋅ N = − BAN = − ∫ vdt = − ∫ I F ⋅ Z B (cos ω t + e L
)dt =
0 0
⎛1 L − t L ⎞ I ⋅Z ⎛ R
⎞
⎜ sin ω t + ω L e ω L − ω L ⎟ =
R − ωt
= I F ⋅ Z B ⎜⎜ sin ω t + e L − ⎟⎟ = F B
⎜ R ⎟⎠
⎝ω R R⎠ ω ⎝ R
I ⋅Z ⎛ X − ωt X ⎞
R
= F B ⎜⎜ sin ω t + e X − ⎟⎟ ⇒
ω ⎝ R R⎠
⎛ X − Rωt X ⎞
BANω = I F ⋅ Z B ⎜⎜ − sin ω t − ⋅ e X + ⎟⎟
⎝ R R⎠
It can be shown that the maximum magnitude of the
function given above is
(BANω )max = I F ⋅ Z B ⎛⎜1 + X ⎞⎟
⎝ R⎠
But
(BANω )max = VS max
⎛ X⎞
VS max = I F ⋅ Z B ⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ R⎠
To Avoid CT Saturation
⎛ X⎞ I Z
20 ≥ ⎜1 + ⎟ ⋅ F ⋅ B
⎝ R ⎠ IN Z STD
We can also state equation in terms of the Standard Ratings values defined in C57.13.
• CT Nominal Current: IN = CT primary rating if IF is given in primary amps

or = CT secondary rating if IF is given in secondary
amps
• Standard Burden: ZSTD = 1, 2, 4, or 8 Ω (at 60°)
• CT Standard Voltage Rating: VSTD = 20•IN • ZSTD
The equation below also expresses the criterion to avoid saturation:

⎛ X⎞
20 ≥ ⎜1 + ⎟ ⋅ I f Z b
⎝ R⎠
Where:
• If = Max Fault in per-unit of CT rating

• Zb = Burden in per-unit of standard burden
Effect of CT Residual Flux

Quiescent Point
Flux
Actual
ie
Desired
The formulas derived in the previous slides were obtained neglecting the iron core
hysteresis.
Modeling the whole phenomenon and determining the precise value of the secondary
current is an interesting task which is out of the scope of this course.
Another reason to consider a full offset wave when specifying a CT is that any residual
flux existing in the core due to previous fault conditions may cause the CT to saturate
sooner for a new fault condition.
CT Simulations
CT Simulations
z C800
z 2000/5
Full ratio
z ZB = 0.5 pu
z X/R = 12
85.2° line
(1 + X/R)•IF•ZB = 20
X/R = 12
IF = 3.07 pu = 6154 amps
ZB = 0.5 pu
(1 + X/R)•IF•ZB = 50
X/R = 12
IF = 7.69 pu = 15,385 amps
ZB = 0.5 pu
(1 + X/R)•IF•ZB = 20
with 0.5 pu Remanent Flux
The conditions required to avoid CT saturation are met in this simulation. However,
50% remanent flux has been included. Now, the CT shows signs of saturation after
approximately 1.3 cycles.
Summary
z Formula Based on ANSI

Accuracy Limit
z Does Not Consider Remanent
Flux
z Adhere to Formula
Other CT Considerations
Other CT Ratings
z Continuous
ANSI
1.0, 1.33, 1.5
2.0, 3.0, 4.0
z Short-Time
Mechanical
Thermal
The ANSI standard defines a continuous thermal current rating that is based on 30° C
average ambient air temperature. The rating factor is a multiple of the rated secondary
current that the CT can support on a continuous basis without experiencing any
damage.
The short-time mechanical and thermal ratings are not independent. The short-time
mechanical rating is the rms value of the ac component of an asymmetrical primary
current wave that the transformer is capable of withstanding with the secondary
winding shorted.
The 1 second short-time thermal rating is the rms symmetrical primary current that can
be carried for 1 second, with the secondary winding shorted, without exceeding the
limiting temperature. Generally, the limiting temperature is 250° C for copper and 200°
C for aluminum conductors.
If the 1 second rating is independent of core saturation and the primary current is
symmetrical, the short-time thermal rating for any time, up to 5 seconds, can be
determined by dividing the 1 second rating by the square root of the specified number
of seconds. For example, the 3 second rating is equal to the 1 second rating divided by
the square root of 3, or 58% of the 1 second rating.
Current Transformer Frequency

Response
Actual Ratio IP
%Ratio = = ⋅ 100
Percent Ratio
Nameplate Ratio 800 IS
Percent Ratio
H1 XX
1
1
H2 X2
FrequencyininHertz
Frequency Hertz
The frequency response of current transformers is generally very flat around 100%.
The CT starts to lose precision for frequencies over 10 kHz. This indicates that for
normal relay applications (with interest in the 60 Hz component) the CT behavior is
very good. However, for relay applications which require of the fault current high
frequency components, the CT response must be carefully evaluated.
CT Application Notes
z C Rating Applies to Full Ratio

2000/5, C800 tapped at 1200/5
C480 effective rating
4.8Ω effective standard burden
1200
Effective Rating = ⋅ 800 = 480
2000
z Lead Resistance Depends on CT

Connection and Fault Type
Wye-connected CTs
Phase-to-ground fault use round trip length
Three-phase fault use one way length
Delta-connected CTs
Three-phase fault use the sum of the three
CT leads
z Formula to Determine Lead Resistance

Lead Resistance, Ω/1000' = e 0.232G − 2.32
Where G = AWG number
For 10 Gauge wire,

R = e 0.232⋅10− 2.32 = e 0 = 1 Ω/1000'
⎛ X⎞ I Z
20 ≥ ⎜ 1 + ⎟ ⋅ F ⋅ B
⎝ R ⎠ IN Z STD
z IN = Primary CT Rating if IF is in Primary
Amps
z IN = Secondary CT Rating if IF is in
Secondary Amps
z ZSTD = Standard Burden Based on the C
Rating or the Effective C Rating,
Depending on Selected CT Ratio
The formula is based on the ANSI standards and includes the effect of the decay rate. It
also assumes full offset. While the ANSI standard says that there will be 10%, or less,
error at 20 times nominal current, it does not account for any remanent flux. Therefore,
the formula provides margin for remanent flux.
As an example, using an X/R ratio of 12 with a fault current and burden such that the
calculation equals 20, the CT will saturate after approximately 1.5 cycles with full
offset and 50% remanent flux.
Exercise
2000/5
g h Fault
ZLEAD ZLEAD
0.5 Ω 0.5 Ω
Fault Data:
ZRELAY IF = 12 kAφ-G
X/R = 11
0.1 or 1.0 Ω
Problem:
The maximum external fault current for the line shown above is 12 kA for a phase-to-
ground fault with an X/R of 11. The current transformation ratio is 2000:5. The one
way CT lead resistance is 0.5 Ω.
Assume you can use two types of relays, one with 1 Ohm impedance and the other with
an impedance of 0.1 Ohms. Assume that the leads and the relay are purely resistive.
If you were specifying the CT rating, what would you select for each relay in order to
avoid CT saturation?
Exercise Solution
ZRELAY = 1.0 Ω
CT TYPE VSTD ZSTD Factor Observation
C100 100 1 144 >20
C200 200 2 72 >20
C400 400 4 36 >20
C800 800 8 18 <20
Exercise Solution
ZRELAY = 0.1 Ω
CT TYPE VSTD ZSTD Factor Observation
C100 100 1 79.2 >20
C200 200 2 39.6 >20
C400 400 4 19.8 <20
C800 800 8 9.9 <20
Voltage Transformers
Magnetic Voltage
Transformers
Magnetic Voltage Transformer (VT)
+ +
Vp Np Ns Vs LOAD
- -
Vs N s
Ideally : =
VP N p
VT Equivalent Circuit
Referred to the Secondary Side
R’p jX’p Rs jXs
+ IE +
Vp Np Ns Vs
Non-
- Linear -
Ideal
VT Typical Saturation Curve
150%
Primary
Voltage
100%
Normal Operating
Range
50%
0%
Exciting Current
In some systems (depending on the neutral grounding) there could be large steady-state
overvoltages on the sound (healthy) phases for a single-phase to ground fault.
V bf ≈ C g Vbn 1 ≤ C g ≤ 1.73
Where:
Cg = Neutral Grounding Factor
VT Wye Connection
A
B
C
a
b
c
VT Delta Connection
A
B
C
a
b
c
VT Open Delta Connection

A
B
C
a
b
c
Voltage Transformer Broken Delta

Connection
A
B
C
3V0
ANSI Standard Burdens

Burden Volt - Amperes Power Factor
W 12.5 0.10
X 25 0.70
M 35 0.20
Y 75 0.85
Z 200 0.85
ZZ 400 0.85
ANSI Accuracy Classes

Limits of Ratio
Accuracy Limits of Power
Correction
Class Factor (Lagging)
Factor
1.2 1.012 – 0.998 0.6 - 1.0
0.6 1.006 - 0.994 0.6 - 1.0
0.3 1.003 - 0.997 0.6 - 1.0
Voltage Transformer Frequency

Response
118
Act. Ratio VP
116 % Ratio = • 100 = 60 V • 100
NP Ratio S
114
112 (2)
Percent Ratio
110
108
106 Curve Burden
(1)
104 (1) 15 k Ω
102 (2) 75 Ω
100
90
100 500 1000 5000 10000 20000
Frequency in Hertz
Capacitive Voltage
Transformers (CVT)
CVT Structure
Line Voltage
L Compensating
Reactor Step-Down
C1
Transformer
C2 Relay
Voltage
DWG: 6049-DH01
Ferroresonance-Suppression Circuits
Step-down Transformer
Tansformer Secondary
Relay Voltage
L
GAP
Secondary
Step-Down
C Lf Rf
Passive
Active DWG: 6049-DH02
Frequency Response of CVT
CVT Transient at Voltage Zero
CVT Transient at Voltage Peak
CVT Transient Reduces

Fundamental Voltage Component

07a - Instrument - Transformers - Tech - r8 401

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Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 7 - Instrument Transformers, CTs and VTs

Power System Protection

Copyright © SEL 2005

Section 7 - Instrument Transformers, CTs and VTs

z Describe the basic design, analysis,

Section 7 - Instrument Transformers, CTs and VTs

Section 7 - Instrument Transformers, CTs and VTs

Current Transformer (CT) Principle

Section 7 - Instrument Transformers, CTs and VTs

Core and Secondary Winding Example

Photo courtesy of Kuhlman Electric Corp., used with permission.

Section 7 - Instrument Transformers, CTs and VTs

A high-voltage CT installed in an outdoor substation.

Section 7 - Instrument Transformers, CTs and VTs

Distribution Medium Voltage CT

Photo courtesy of Kuhlman Electric Corp., used with permission.

A distribution-type (medium voltage) current transformer.

Section 7 - Instrument Transformers, CTs and VTs

• ANSI: Polarity marks

• IEC: P1, P2, S1, S2

Section 7 - Instrument Transformers, CTs and VTs

Section 7 - Instrument Transformers, CTs and VTs

Current Transformer Ratio

IP Examples: CTR = 200/5 = 40

z Denominator is the Secondary Rated

z Numerator Is Not Always the Primary

Section 7 - Instrument Transformers, CTs and VTs

ANSI Standard Burden for Relaying

Zej60 = Z (0.5 + 0.8666j) Ohms

Section 7 - Instrument Transformers, CTs and VTs

CT Load Consists of Lead Impedance

g h CT Terminal Voltage Is:

Vgh = IS ⋅ ZLOAD = IS ⋅ (ZLEADS+ ZRELAY)

Section 7 - Instrument Transformers, CTs and VTs

Saturation can be explained by the non-linear nature of the iron core.

Section 7 - Instrument Transformers, CTs and VTs

Induced Secondary Voltage

z Assuming the CT is Not Saturated, and

z Induced Secondary Voltage is

The formula is derived using the following procedure:

Section 7 - Instrument Transformers, CTs and VTs

The Current Transformer Equivalent

The figure shows the equivalent for a current transformer with Np = 1.

Section 7 - Instrument Transformers, CTs and VTs

Excitation Curve Using VS

Section 7 - Instrument Transformers, CTs and VTs

Definition of ANSI “Knee Point”

Section 7 - Instrument Transformers, CTs and VTs

Definition of IEC “Knee Point”

Section 7 - Instrument Transformers, CTs and VTs

ANSI vs. IEC

Section 7 - Instrument Transformers, CTs and VTs

Typical Excitation Curve

Section 7 - Instrument Transformers, CTs and VTs

Section 7 - Instrument Transformers, CTs and VTs

Approximate Saturation With a

Section 7 - Instrument Transformers, CTs and VTs

Secondary Current in a Saturated CT

Section 7 - Instrument Transformers, CTs and VTs

Current Transformer Performance

z Performance by ANSI Standard

Section 7 - Instrument Transformers, CTs and VTs