SAINT MARY’S ANGELS COLLEGE OF PAMPANGA

Olongapo-Gapan Road, Sta. Ana, 2022, Pampanga

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL
IN HIGHWAY AND
RAILROAD ENGINEERING
(CEPC 313)

A.Y. 2020-2021

REFERENCES:

1. DPWH, 2012 Highway Safety Design Standards Part 1: Road Safety Design Manual

2. IES Master Highway Engineering

3. Fajardo, Max Jr. B. Elements of Roads and Highways, Second Edition, 5138 Merchandising
Publisher, Manila, 1998.

4. The Handbook of Highway Engineering, Taylor & Francis Group, LLC, 2006
Unit 7: Geometric Design for Highways and Railways (Alignment
Design)
OBJECTIVE

Highway geometric design refers to the calculations and analyses made by transportation engineers (or
designers) to fit the highway to the topography of the site while meeting the safety, service and
performance standards. It mainly concerns with the elements of the highways that are visible to the
drivers and users. However, the engineer must also take into consideration the social and environmental
impacts of the highway geometry on the surrounding facilities. Usually, highway geometric design has
the following objectives:

1. Determine, within the allowance permitted by the design standard and right-of-way, the routing of
proposed highway.
2. Incorporate, within the design standard, various physical features of the road alignment to ensure
that drivers have sufficient view of the road (and obstacles) ahead for them to adjust their speed of
travel to maintain safety and ride quality.
3. Provide a basis for the highway engineers to evaluate and plan for the construction of a section of
the proposed highway.

HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ALIGNMENT DESIGN

Overall Alignment

The alignment of a highway is a three-dimensional problem because the highway itself negotiates
through the terrain in connecting two points. The highway may be visualized as segments of connected
horizontal and vertical curves (or their combination).

Design Elements

• Sight Distance
Sight distance is the roadway ahead that is visible to the driver. Various sight distance criteria exist
in highway and railroad geometric design to provide drivers with sufficient warning of potential
obstacle or conflict ahead.

• Stopping Sight Distance

Stopping sight distance is the distance traveled during a driver’s brake reaction time plus the braking
distance for the vehicle to come to a complete stop. The equation to compute stopping sight
distance without vehicle skidding is
(Eq. 7.1)
𝑉2
𝑆 = 𝑉𝑡 +
2(𝑎 + 𝐺𝑔)
where V is the design speed, a the constant deceleration rate, G the grade (in decimal, positive value
for upgrade, and negative value for downgrade), and g = 9.81 m/sec2. AASHTO recommends that t =
2.5 sec and a = 3.4 m/sec2 be used in determining the minimum stopping sight distance.

• Decision Sight Distance

Decision sight distance is the distance needed for a driver to detect and perceive an obstacle or
information, and select an appropriate maneuver. This is important when a driver is approaching a
traffic control device, or posted information signs. Because decision sight distance is for drivers to a
maneuver or evasive action rather than just to stop, it is greater than stopping sight distance. The
 decision sight distance for change in speed, path or direction on rural, suburban, and urban road
may be calculated from;
(Eq. 7.2)
𝑑 = 𝑉𝑡
AASHTO (2001) recommends a range of 10.2 ≤ t ≤ 14.5 sec.

• Passing Sight Distance on Two-Lane Road (For Highways)

In a two-lane road, the sight distance required when pulling out to the opposing lane to pass a slow-
moving vehicle is critical in determining where no-passing zone should exist. The passing sight
distance is the sum
(Eq. 7.3)
𝑑 = 𝑑1 + 𝑑2 + 𝑑3 + 𝑑4

where d1 is the initial maneuver distance, which is the sum of distances traveled during perception
and reaction time plus the initial period of acceleration until the vehicle encroaches the passing
lane.

The corresponding time for this initial maneuver is t1, d1 is given by the expression:
(Eq. 7.4)
𝑎𝑡1
𝑑1 = 𝑡1 (𝑣 − 𝑚 + )
2
in which v is the average speed of the passing vehicle, and m is the relative speed of the passed and
passing vehicles, and a is the average acceleration. d2 is the distance traveled while the vehicle is
occupying the passing lane. The corresponding time is t2.
(Eq. 7.5)
𝑑2 = 𝑣𝑡2

d3 is the clearance length, for margin of safety between the passing and opposing vehicles. AASHTO
recommends that 30 ≤ d3 ≤ 90 m for 56 ≤ v ≤ 100 km/h. d4 is the distance traveled by the opposing
vehicle during the passing maneuver during time t1 + t2: AASHTO recommends that the opposing
vehicle may be assumed to travel with speed v; and d4 may be taken as;
(Eq. 7.6)
2
𝑑4 = 𝑑2
3
Passing sight distance for two-lane highway
• Criteria for Measuring Sight Distance
Other than stopping sight distance, decision sight distance and passing sight distance it is assumed
that an object of specific size or height is continuously visible to the driver. The distance is
dependent on the height of the driver’s eye above the road surface, the object height (or size) above
the road surface, and the height and lateral position of sight obstructions within the driver’s line of
sight. These have effect on the design of horizontal and vertical curve, which will be covered later.

For sight distance calculations, the following values usually apply:

• Height of the driver’s eye above road surface = 1.080 m for passenger cars, 2.330 m for trucks.
• Height of object: 600 mm for stopping sight distance, 1.080 m for passing sight distance.

HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
The objectives of horizontal alignment design is to provide a smooth transition between two straight
road sections that also provide proper cross sectional drainage, ensure vehicle/driver safety while
traveling at a design speed. Vehicle safety is safeguarded by providing adequate stopping sight distance
and incorporating provision to prevent vehicle overturning and skidding.

• Sight Distance on Horizontal Curve

When a driver travels along a horizontal curve, his sight distance is limited by a physical obstruction,
such as sidewall, slope or building, at the inside of the curve. Figure below illustrates this point,
where M is the offset from the center line of the inside lane to the obstruction. For design purpose,
the stopping sight distance is the length of curve along the center line of the inside lane, where the
vehicle will be traveling or braking (with the vehicle in full control).

For stopping sight distance S shorter than the length of the curve L; the following equation applies
(Eq. 7.7)
𝑆2
𝑀≥
8𝑅
Where
M = middle ordinate necessary to provide adequate stopping sight distance (S) ≥ R(1 – cos θ)
R = Radius of the curve

For stopping sight distance S longer than the length of the curve L; the following equation applies
(Eq. 7.8)
 𝐿(2𝑆 − 𝐿)
𝑀≥
8𝑅
Where
M = middle ordinate necessary to provide adequate stopping sight distance (S) ≥ R(1 – cos θ)
R = Radius of the curve
L = Length of the curve

• Horizontal Curvature – Minimum Turning Radius of a Light Rail Vehicle

The minimum turning radius is the smallest horizontal radius that the LRV can negotiate. In some
cases, the value may be different for a single LRV versus two or more coupled into a train or for a
fully loaded LRV versus an empty one. However, the inclusion of curves in a track layout that can
only be negotiated by a single vehicle is absolutely not recommended since operating personnel
may not remember the restriction, particularly during an emergency situation such as when an
inoperable LRV must be pushed off the revenue line by its follower. The vehicle procurement
specifications will therefore typically stipulate only the minimum radius that multiple-car trains of
LRVs must be able to negotiate. A specification for one LRV procurement stipulated:

The coupler and draft gear shall allow under emergency conditions, a three vehicle train with an
AW3 passenger load, operating at degraded dynamic performances, to push or tow an
inoperable similar train consist loaded to AW3 without damage to the coupler, over all grades
and curves of [the system].

Often, the minimum operable multi-vehicle train length requirement will be much longer than the
consists actually required for revenue service. This is so as to accommodate shop and yard
movements and other exigencies. Such long consists will occasionally have some impact on track
alignment. One vehicle specification stipulated:

The vehicle shall be capable of multiple unit operation in consists up to six vehicles. A normal
operation is up to three vehicles.

VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

The purpose of vertical alignment design is to determine the elevation of selected points along the
roadway, to ensure proper drainage, safety, and ride comfort.

• Crest Vertical Curve

The stopping sight distance is the controlling factor in determining the length of a crest vertical
curve. Figure below shows the design concept and geometry. The minimum length of L is such that
when the driver of a vehicle climbs over the crest he/she has enough stopping distance if there is a
150 mm object on the road. In this case, height of the driver’s eye (h1) and height of the object (h2)
are two important inputs. Other controlling factors are driver’s stopping sight distance (S); absolute
change in gradient before and after the crest curve (A = g1 – g2, in %). The design equations are;

(Eq. 7.9)
For L ≥ S:
𝐴𝑆 2
𝐿=
100(√2ℎ1 + √2ℎ2 )2

(Eq. 7.10)
For L ≤ S:
 2
100(√ℎ1 + √ℎ2 )
𝐿 = 2 [𝑆 − ]
𝐴

SIGHT DISTANCE FOR CREST VERTICAL CURVE

• Sag Vertical Curve

Figure below shows the driver’s sight limitation when approaching a sag vertical curve. The problem
is more obvious during the night time when the sight of the driver is restricted by the area projected
by the headlight beams of his/her vehicle. Hence, the angle of the beam from the horizontal plane is
also important. This design control criteria is known as headlight sight distance. The headlight
height of h = 0.600 m and upward angle for the headlight projection cone of β = 1° is normally
assumed. The governing equations are;
(Eq. 7.11)
For L ≥ S
𝐴𝑆 2
𝐿=
200(ℎ + 𝑆 tan 𝛽)
(Eq. 7.12)
For L ≤ S
200(ℎ + 𝑆 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽)
𝐿 = 2𝑆 −
𝐴
SIGHT DISTANCE FOR SAG VERTICAL CURVE
 A driver may experience discomfort when passing a vertical curve. The effect of discomfort is more
obvious on a sag vertical curve than a crest vertical curve with the same radius, because the
gravitational and centripetal forces are in the opposite directions. Some of the ride discomfort may
be compensated by combination of vehicle weight, suspension system and tire flexibility. The
following equation has been recommended by AASHTO as the minimum length of a vertical curve
that will provide satisfactory level of ride comfort
(Eq. 7.13)
𝐴𝑣 2
𝐿=
395
Where v is the velocity in kph.

• Sight distance for vertical sag curve at underpass

Sight distance on the roadway or railway that is the lower tier of a grade separated intersection
should also consider obstruction of the sight pose by the structure. Most of the roadways at the
lower tier of an interchange are designed as sag vertical curves.

The general equation for a sag vertical curve length at an undercrossing is

(Eq. 7.14)
For L ≤ S
ℎ +ℎ
800 [𝐶 − ( 1 2 2 )]
𝐿 = 2𝑆 −
𝐴
(Eq. 7.15)
For L ≥ S
𝐴𝑆 2
𝐿=
ℎ + ℎ2
800 [𝐶 − ( 1 )]
2
where C is the vertical clearance from the road surface to the bottom of the obstructing structure.

TYPICAL DESIGN SITUATION FOR SIGHT DISTANCE AT UNDERPASS

• Other Design Considerations for Vertical Curves
AASHTO has recommended a few design considerations for vertical curves based on driver comfort,
expectation, and aesthetics:
• A smooth and gradual change in grade along the vertical curve is preferred over several short
sections at constant grades.
• The “roller-coaster” type of curve, i.e., series of alternate crest and sag vertical curves should be
avoided. This is because drivers will experience an even greater degree of discomfort when
there is a sudden change in the direction of the centripetal force.
• The effect of downgrade will lead to increasing vehicle speed. The effect of this on the design
speed and the impact on safety should be considered.
• Drainage at the lowest point of a sag vertical curve should be designed properly.

• Vertical Curvature—Minimum Sag and Crest Curves for Light Rail Vehicle

The minimum vertical curvature is the smallest vertical curve radius that the LRV can negotiate. The
maximum sag and crest values are typically different, with the sag value being more restrictive.
Vehicle builders describe vertical curvature in terms of either the radius of curvature or as the
maximum angle in degrees through which the articulation joint can bend. The trackway designer
must relate those values to the parabolic vertical curves typically used in alignment design.

When new vehicles are procured for an existing system, they must be able to negotiate the most
restrictive current track condition. Conversely, when existing vehicles will be used on a new
extension of an existing system, the new track must accommodate the existing vehicle’s capabilities.
The vehicle procurement specification will include requirements related to specific track conditions,
be they existing or proposed.

CROSS SECTION

A typical cross section of a highway consists of the following components: traveled way (traffic lanes),
shoulders (on both edges, paved or unpaved). Important elements in the geometric design are: cross
slope of travel lane, lane width, width and slope of shoulder, and curb (if it is used).

• Type of Pavement

Surface For the purpose of cross section in highway geometric design, AASHTO classifies pavements
into high-type and low-type. High-type pavements retain their shape and do not ravel at the edge if
placed on a stable subgrade. Their surfaces are usually smooth. Low-type pavements have a
tendency toward raveling and are usually used for low volume road. This type of pavement is
normally constructed from gravel, earth, or crushed stone.

• Cross Slope

The rate of cross slope is an important element in cross section design. The slope should be steep
enough to direct the rainfall runoff to flow towards the edge of the roadway (instead of along the
slope of a vertical curve), provide sufficient drainage capacity for the design storm, but at the same
time, avoid the tendency for vehicles traveling straight to drift towards the low point of the cross
section (unless corrected by steering control). Cross slope of up to 2% are normally not noticeable
by drivers in terms of steering control, more than 2% will normally require steering correction.
Excessive cross slope also presents danger for lateral skidding when vehicle apply emergency brake
even on dry pavement. The design of cross road may be used to counter consistent crosswind. If a
roadway has a crown at the centre, the cross slopes on both sides of the crown line should range
from 1.5% to 2%. In any case, the slopes on both sides of the crown line should not be more than
2%. Using slopes of more than 2% on both sides of the crown will subject drivers to more than 4%
 differential slope when moving across it. Subsequent lanes toward the edge may have the same
slope, or have the slope increased by 0.5% to 1%. The above guideline applies for high-type
pavements.

• Lane Width

The width of a travel lane has significant effect on the driving speeds of the vehicles on that lane,
and the passing vehicles on adjacent lanes. This also affects the highway capacity and level of
service. The design of lane width should not only consider widths of the vehicles, but also the driving
psychology. The width of a lane is measured from the pavement marking on both sides. In general,
lane widths vary from of 2.7 to 3.75 m. The narrower lanes are mainly used in residential areas and
in urban roads with low travel speeds (e.g., turning storage lanes, at intersections) where majority of
the vehicles are passenger cars. In residential areas, lane width should not be less than 2.7 m. In
urban streets, lane width of less than 3.0 m should be avoided. Larger lane widths are used when
commercial vehicles are present. On a two-lane undivided highway, ideal lane width should be 3.6 m
or more to provide sufficient clearance for opposing vehicles. When there is restriction on the right-
of-way and a narrower-than-ideal lane width is necessary, the designer should strike a balance
between the widths of different lanes for different vehicle types.

• Shoulder

A shoulder is the part of the highway near the edges of the paved surface that is designed to provide
structural lateral support for the pavement. A shoulder also provides additional space for drivers to
make corrective actions, for stopped vehicles and for bicycle use, to increase sight distance on
horizontal curves, and to provide clearance for placement of road signs and guardrails. The width of
a shoulder is measured from the pavement marking of the outermost lane to the intersection of the
shoulder slope and foreslope planes. Not the entire width of the shoulder (according to the
definition above) may be paved.

The ideal width of a shoulder is 3.0 m, so that a vehicle that is stopping on the shoulder will not
interfere with the movement of vehicles using the outermost lane. Shoulder wider than 3.0 m may
encourage driver to use it as a normal travel lane in case of congestion. Frequently used shoulder
width of 1.80 to 2.40 m do provide sufficient clearance for vehicles on the outermost lane, but large
vehicles may have to take evasive action. Regardless of the width, a shoulder should be continuous
along the roadway.

The slope of the shoulder should be designed to be steeper than the traveled way to encourage
rapid drainage of the collected runoff from the traveled way to drainage conduit. On the other hand,
the slope should not be too steep to pose difficulty for vehicles to use. Typical range of the slope is
from 2 to 6%.
 TYPICAL PARTS OF A ROADWAY

• Curb

A curb is a steep raised element of a roadway that provides the following functions: drainage
control, roadway edge delineation, right-of-way control and delineation of pedestrian walkways.
Curbs are used extensively in low-speed urban streets, but not on high-speed rural highways and
freeways. This is because a vehicle may overturn when hitting a curb at high speed. There are
generally two types of curbs: vertical curbs and sloping curbs. Vertical curbs are either vertical or
nearly vertical, with a height of 150 to 200 mm. They may prevent or discourage vehicles from
leaving the roadway. Sloping curbs have slopes that range from 1V : 2H to 1V : 1H: The height is
between 100 to 150 mm. They are designed such that a vehicle in emergency may go over the curb.

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS

STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE (LEVEL SURFACE)

1. A motorist traveling at 80 kph down a grade of 5% on a highway observes a crash ahead of him
involving an overturned truck that is completely blocking the road. If the motorist was able to stop
his vehicle 10 m from the overturned truck, what was his distance from the truck when he first
observed the crash? Assume perception reaction time is 2.5 sec. and the vehicle decelerates at 3.44
m/sec2. (Ans. 149.43 m)

PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE

2. Compute the passing sight distance for the following data: (Ans. 649.42)

Speed of the passing car = 96 kph

Speed of the overtaken vehicle = 88 kph
Time of initial maneuver = 4.3 sec.
Average acceleration = 2.37 kph/sec.
Time passing vehicle occupies the left lane = 10.4 sec
Distance between the passing vehicle at the end of its maneuver and the opposing vehicle = 76 m.

SIGHT DISTANCE FOR HORIZONTAL CURVES

3. A highway curve has a radius of 80 m and a length of 90 m. If the required sight distance is 60 m,
how far off the center of the road could you allow the bushes to grow? (Ans. 5.625 m)
4. A sound wall is to be constructed at the edge of shoulder, along the inside of a horizontal curve of
an urban freeway. The inside lane is 3.8 m wide, with a shoulder of 1.20 m. The radius of the curve,
measured up to the outer edge of the shoulder is 45 m. Determine the sight distance of this section
of the curve with the sound wall. (Ans. 43.73 m)
5. The clearance to an obstruction is 40 m. and the desirable sight distance when rounding a horizontal
curve is 600 m. Determine the minimum radius of horizontal curve if the length of curve is 550 m.
long. (Ans. 1117.19 m)

SIGHT DISTANCE FOR VERTICAL CREST CURVES

6. A summit vertical curve has tangent grades of +2% and -3%. The curve is to be designed for a speed
of 80 kph with a reaction time of 2.5 sec. and a coefficient of friction of 0.30. Compute the minimum
length of the summit curve if the height of driver’s eyes is 1.08 m. and that of the object is 0.60 m.
(Ans. 136.83 m)

HEAD LIGHT SIGHT DISTANCE

7. A cargo truck approaches a sag parabolic curve at a speed of 100 kph. The length of the curve is 180
m. long with grade tangents of -3% and +2% respectively. The intersection of the grade tangents is a
10 + 430 with an elevation of 240.60 m. The driver has to switch on the beam lights at night time
travel with the beam light making an angle of tilt of 0.85°. above the longitudinal axis of the car. The
driver’s perception reaction time is 0.78 sec.
a. Assuming a coefficient of friction of 0.18, compute the length of the head light sight distance.
(Ans. 240.19 m)
b. How high was the head light above the pavement at this instant? (Ans. 0.945 m)
c. What is the max. design speed that a car could maneuver on this curve? (Ans. 118.2 kph)

SIGHT DISTANCE FOR VERTICAL SAG CURVE AT UNDERPASS

8. Determine the minimum length of curve required to connect a descending 4% grade to an ascending
3% grade. The vertical clearance should be 5.1 m and the required sight distance is 300 m. The
height of eye for a commercial vehicle is 1.83 m and the hazardous object is 0.46 m above the
pavement surface. (Ans. 148 m)