RIVER ENGINEERING

LECTURE NOTES

1 Introduction

River engineering generally refers to all engineering works done to improve the
geometric and kinematic conditions of a river system. These works are important in
order to:
 Protect river banks
 Aid in navigation
 Flood control
 Prevention of siltation
 etc

The discipline of river engineering is therefore wide and concerned with (among others):
river flows, bank protection, bays and estuaries, river morphology, sediment transport
and dredging. This chapter will only focus on understanding concepts of river
hydraulics, river models, river surveys and river management.

2 River hydraulics
River hydraulics is concerned with flow and conveyance of fluids in a river and is
important in understanding river systems.

2.1 The Reynolds number

The Reynolds number is one of the most important parameters in river hydraulics
mechanics. It can be used to classify the state of flow of rivers, which in open channels,
is governed primarily by the combined effects of gravity and fluid viscosity relative to
inertial forces.

There are three primary states of flow:

1. laminar flow
2. transitional flow, and
3. turbulent flow

A flow is laminar, transitional, or fully turbulent depending on the ratio of inertial to

viscous forces as defined by the Reynolds number.

Consider a fluid element of density  with a reference length L and reference velocity v
under the influence of viscous forces, then the Reynolds number is given as:

inertial reaction
= (After Osbourne Reynolds, 1880)
viscous force

Where:
 = fluid density

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V = flow velocity (m/s)
L = reference length (m)
 = dynamic viscosity (N·s/m²) = ν.
ν = Kinematic viscosity (m2/s)

In open channels, L is usually taken as the hydraulic radius; i.e., the cross-sectional
area normal to the flow divided by the wetted perimeter. Care must be taken to use a
homogeneous system of units for these terms so that the Reynolds number is
dimensionless

An open channel flow is laminar (viscous forces significant) if the Reynolds number is
less than 500. Flows in open channels are classified as turbulent if the Reynolds
number exceeds 2,000, and they are transitional if Re is between 500 and 2,000 (Chow
1959).

Applications of the Reynolds number in river hydraulics:

 Physical modeling to investigate similarity in flows. For example, when
comparing fluid behavior at corresponding points in a model and a prototype (full-
scale flow), the following holds:

Remodel = Reprototype

 The Reynolds number is also used to predict change in flow types during
simulation of flows in rivers.

2.2 Flow simulation

2.2.1 Steady uniform flow (1-D flows)

Flows in rivers can be taken as open channel flow. Flows may be classified into many
types and different equations are needed to describe each type flow.

Flow in rivers is steady if the depth of flow does not change or is constant during the
time interval under consideration. Flow is uniform if the depth of flow is similar along
the reach of a river

 Steady flow: d/dt = 0 (e.g. river velocity does not change with time)
 Uniform flow: d/dx = 0 (e.g. river depth does not change with distance)

Steady-uniform flow can also be simulated using empirical formulas that estimate head
losses as the water flows. These empirical formulas are still very popular and in many
cases provide a good engineering approximation to the exact solution.

The simplest empirical formula is the Chezy formula (1775), V  C R.S f

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Where; C = Chezy coefficient, which depends on the wall roughness of the pipe
Rh = Hydraulic radius (A/P)
Sf = friction slope = bed slope, So

The Chezy equations applied for turbulent flows.

The Manning’s equation and the Darcy-Weisbach equation for head losses due to wall
friction are also commonly used to simulate uniform flow velocity in rivers.

The Darcy Weibach equation:

8g
V RS f
f
Where f = Darcy Weisbach friction factor, g = acceleration due to gravity, Sf = friction
slope (=head loss/length of channel in consideration), R = hydraulic radius. The Darcy
friction is dependent on the Reynolds number for lamina flow.

The Manning’s equation is derived from the Chezy equation by setting C = R1/6/n where
n is the Manning’s roughness coefficient. The Manning’s equation is:

Manning’s equation is valid for only turbulent flow in which the Darcy Weisbach friction
factor is less dependent of the Reynolds number. Most rivers are turbulent and hence
the Manning's equation is commonly used to estimate steady uniform flow in rivers.

If the flow is not fully turbulent, flow may be computed with the Darcy-Weibach equation
where the friction factor; f is calculated as a function of the Reynolds number Re and
the boundary roughness. A moody diagram for open channel flow can be used for this.

Note that for wide rivers, the width of the river (B) can be approximated to be equal to
the wetted perimeter (B ≈P) :

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 Fully turbulent

 = ks/4R

Figure 1: Moody diagram for open channel flow. The pipe diameter is usually replaced by 4R. Hence the
Reynolds number is give by Re = 4VR/v where v is the kinematic viscosity of water. The relative roughness 
is defined by  = ks/4R where ks is the size of sand grains in the channel² . For turbulent flows,, f is less
dependant of Reynolds number but also dependant on pipe roughness

2.2.2 Steady gradually varied flow:

 Steady flow: d/dt = 0 (e.g. river velocity does not change with time)
 Gradually varied flow: d/dx  0 (e.g. river depth changes with distance)

Steady gradually varied flow is a common occurrence in river flow. Such occurrences
could be caused by for example downstream works such as damming or installation of
bridges. These flows are usually simulated using the St. Venant equations

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The simulation of flows in non-uniform flow is usually based on the St. Venant
Equations that define the conservation of mass (continuity equation) and conservation
of momentum (momentum equation) along the channel.

St. Venant Equations

These are partial differential equations that allow the flow rate and water level to be
computed as a function of space and time. These equations also cater for head losses
that are due to roughness (roughness coefficient) between moving water and the body
or pipe in which water flows. Such equations are the basis of numerical models that are
used to simulate river flows (e.g. TELEMAC and HECRAS).

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3 River surveys and mapping
River engineering requires reliable maps and survey information to enable proper
investigations and design and execution of engineering works.

River surveys can include topographic surveys, water level measurements, depth
measurements (bathymetry), discharge measurements, sediment transport
investigations etc.

3.1 Mapping
River maps are important to study behavior of rivers to enable proper engineering
works. Maps can be compiled by:
 Topographical surveying
 Satellite images through remote sensing.

3.2 Water level measurement

River surface water levels can be obtained using:
 staff gauges installed at river gauging stations
 Using telemetry where water level data is transferred from remote stations.
 Recording devices like pressure transducers.

3.3 River bed levels

River bed levels can be established using a:
 Graduated sounding road with a base plate fixed at the bottom end. The plate
prevents the rod from penetrating the river bed
 Sounding techniques from the water surface. E.g. Use of echo or supersonic
sounder mounted on the survey vessel. The sounder enables propagation of
speed of sound in the water and measurement of the corresponding echo and
time lapse.

3.4 River discharges

Several methods can be used:
(a) Velocity/area method
 Using floats
 Using current meters
(b) Tracer dilution method
Works on principle of conservation of mass of a tracer
(c) Hydraulic structures
 Weirs
 Flumes

3.5 Sediment transport

Rivers carry sediment as they move. Sediment are fine particles in river water.
Sediments can affect both the river morphology (shape/geometry) as well as
engineering works on rivers.

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Sediments can be classified as:
(a) Wash load - very fine particles which are always in suspension
(b) Bed material load - These include suspended load (bed material that has
been suspended) and bed load (material moving close to the river bed)

Important sediment characteristics to take into account are:

 Sediment density, s = 2650 Kg/m3
 Sediment size = d50 = size for which 50% of the particles are finer
 Fall velocity, ws = (4gdΔ/3CD)1/2 where Cd = drag coefficient, . Δ= (s - )/
 Porosity
 Sediment concentration
 Sediment texture (clay, silt or sand): by sieving
Sediment transport can be estimated using:
(a) Empirical transport equations
(b) Actual field measurements by sampling
a. Suspended sediment - Using samplers consisting of a collecting pipe
discharging in a bottle
b. Bed load transport - using a sampler based temporarily on the river bed.

3.6 Water quality

Surveys on water quality depends on the intended use (e.g. drinking, irrigation,
industry etc)

Quality parameters normally considered are BOD, COD, TOC, nutrients, pH, DO
and SS. These can be determined in the laboratory.

4 River models
A model is a simplified representation of a subject or state of event. River models are
models used to simulate flow processes, flow states and events in a river.

Two types of river models are normally used:

 Physical models
 Mathematical/numerical models

(a) Physical models

Physical models are small reproduction of nature in the laboratory. In some cases, a
model scale of 1:1 is used. Below is an example of a physical model of River Scheldt in
Netherlands. Scale models have been in use earlier before the numerical models (those
that use using computer models). The revival of scale modeling is now being
considered as numerical models can sometimes give unreliable results.

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Figure 2: Physical model of River Scheldt, Belgium

Experimental methods in River Engineering started with German Engineering scientists

since 1898. Here, a representative piece of nature is reconstructed in the laboratory
where flow processes and their effects can be investigated under controllable boundary
conditions.

Limitations of Physical models

1. They must have certain dimensions which may extend beyond the prevailing
possibilities of the laboratory (space etc).
2. In small scale models, the influence of surface tension is high and cannot be
neglected while in real nature, it is negligible.
3. Also small scale models may require smaller scales for vertical lengths than for
horizontal dimensions (a model becomes vertically distorted)

Real nature : Lr = h Vertically distorted

Lr < h

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 Advantages of Physical models:

They are able to model complex river flow simulations involving turbulent flow in
presence of irregular and moveable river beds which usually cannot be easily
modeled with mathematical models.

Mathematical/Numerical models

A specific class of models is based on the analogy between laws of fluid mechanics and
laws of other areas of physics. The most common example is Darcy’s law for estimating
groundwater flow.

Mathematical models therefore involve solving mathematical equations that describe

flow processes. River mathematical models essentially involve solving the St. Venant
equations (see above).

Mathematical models have of recent received great success in river engineering due to
development of computer technology and may in future play a major role of
experimental rivers models.

Physical models and numerical models are similar in their application to river
engineering. The limiting factors for their use in river engineering are listed below:

Table 1: Limiting factors for selection of type of model

No. Physical river models
1 Model size in laboratory
2 Discharge of the model
capacity)
3 Energy head (pumping capacity)
Numerical models
Computer storage capacity
(pumping Computation speed
Incomplete set of equations

4 Requires data for input to numerical

models

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5 River training (River Management)
River flow is always usually associated with sediment transport which affect river
morphology (shape and size) and affect river hydraulic works.

River training works are therefore important to control and manage sedimentation,
control bank erosion, siltation, flooding and changes in flows.

Examples of such works include:

 Grade control structures
 Water retention structures such dams to control sediment transport and for water
retention
 Structures to modify river hydrograph
 Flood control structures such as levees
 River bed training works
 Dredging

Grade control structures drop water safely from one level to another. Grade control
structures are typically built across an existing gully, a grassed waterway, or the outlet
of a waterway. They are usually in form of weirs.

Figure 3: Example of grade control structure in form of a triangular weir

Water retention structures can include dams and Retention Reservoirs. These
structures can control large part of sediment load. However, sediment transport
downstream may be cut off leading to scouring of the river bed.

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River bed training works are aimed at:
 Protecting river bank against erosion
 retarding flow locally
 Guiding flow in particular areas

Below are examples of river bed training works

REVETMENT RETARD GROYNES BAFFLE GUIDE BANKS

to induce silting and

To reduce bank erosion develope single deep to improve navigation to guide flow through
and improve navigation channel channel and protect bank improve navigation bridge opening

Flood control structures include Levees (or dykes) to protect the flood plain from
inundation in case of floods. There is need to take care of risk of levee failure or
maximum level being exceeded.

Figure 4 Natural levees

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 Figure 5: artificial levees. Widely used in Netherlands and other low lying areas

Dredging

Dredging is an excavation activity usually carried out in shallow seas or fresh water
areas or rivers to gather up bottom sediments and dispose them at a different location.

Dredging is used for deepening and widening channels. It is also used for closing
undesirable channels. In Europe, dredging is widely used to improve navigation.

The different types of dredgers:

Backhoe dredger Cutter Suction dredger Trailing suction dredger (rainbowing type)

Figure 6: Dredger types (source; internet)

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