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Ship electrical load analysis and power generation optimisation to reduce

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Conference Paper · November 2016

DOI: 10.1109/ESARS-ITEC.2016.7841422

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 Ship Electrical Load Analysis and Power Generation
Optimisation to Reduce Operational Costs
Alessandro Boveri, Student Member IEEE, Federico Silvestro, Member IEEE, Paola Gualeni
University of Genoa
Department of Electrical, Electronic Engineering, Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering
Genoa, Italy
alessandro.boveri@edu.unige.it; federico.silvestro@unige.it; paola.gualeni@unige.it
Abstract—Nowadays the amount of electrical power generated
on-board ships is drastically increased, especially for the All
Electric Ships (AES) where all the energy needed is supplied by
the electrical power system. In this context, the traditional
methods to calculate the power demand and select the size of the
generation system have become inadequate, since they are based
on very dated assumptions. Aim of this paper is to present an
optimum problem in order to correctly and efficiently size the
generation system. The power demanded will be calculated using
the traditional approach based on Load Factors. The optimum
problem will be solved using the Genetic Algorithms, and provide
the optimal size, load factors and unit commitment for each
generator in each ship operative scenario.
Keywords—Electrical power load analysis, power generation,
energy efficency, marine power system, optimisation, genetic
algorithms.
I. INTRODUCTION
In recent years, an increasing interest on energy efficiency
and environmental issues has been revealed. These are two very
closely related topics. The International Maritime Organization
(IMO) has recently adopted measures to reduce ships emissions
of Greenhouse Gases (GHG) i.e. the Energy Efficiency Design
Index (EEDI) and the Ship Energy Efficiency Management
Plan (SEEMP). The EEDI has become mandatory for new ships
and the SEEMP for both new and existing ones [1]. Aim of the
EEDI, in addition to the reduction of GHG, is to stimulate
technical developments and innovation in design as well as in
ships management. Significant improvements in ship energy
efficiency depend on a mix of design and operational factors.
This include the implementation of new technologies (e.g. more
efficient engines, improved hull shapes, highly performing
propellers, low resistance coatings or air cushions, means for
heat recovery [2]), combined with daily operational practices
(e.g. weather routing and other means to measure and enhance
energy efficiency), both on board and ashore. Even, the most
traditional type of ship, the bulk carrier ships, can be designed
as innovative eco-friendly ships, when detailed consideration is
given to all the factors that may contribute to energy savings.
This perspective should be the driven objective of the whole
ship life-cycle; from design, through construction and
operation, to recycling. From the economic point of view, new
technologies require large investments that cannot be made if
there is not a high degree of certainty concerning their long‐
term performance and economic balance between initial
investments, running costs and revenues. From what concern
new design approaches, the Electrical Power Load Analysis
(EPLA) is one of the phases where the need of innovation seems
to be stronger. The EPLA consists in the evaluation of the
electrical power demand in different ship operational scenarios
(e.g. cruising, manoeuvring in port, operation and emergency
scenarios are typical). The power required to generators is
traditionally evaluated using specific coefficients (e.g. load
factors, diversity factors and utilization factors), which might
have different values for each typology of load installed on
board and for each scenario under analysis. The sum of the
previous results provides the value of the maximum power
demand. After this phase, it is possible to proceed with the
generators sizing, the study of possible energy storage
solutions, perform fuel consumption evaluation, and perform an
economic assessments on the system cost, both in the short and
long term perspective. Considering the generators design and
sizing, it is usual to select them with the same rated power in
order to reduce the complexity of the process (e.g. reduce both
the installation costs and the complexity of the generators
managements) and decrease the need of spare parts. As a result,
the initial investment cost of generators is minimized by the
shipyards. On the other hand, this approach does not
specifically consider as design objective the generators
efficiency as well as their management costs reduction. In case
of systems with very low energy efficiency characteristics,
some improvements have been proposed in literature, such as
in [3]-[7]. In this work, the demand of electrical power will be
evaluated using the traditional factors approach. The aim of this
work is to propose a possible approach to perform an EPLA and
select the optimal size of the power generation system with the
focus on the management costs, rather than the investment cost.
This methodology will be tested on a case study in order to
highlight the economic benefits in adopting this kind of
approach instead of the traditional one. A traditional bulk
carrier with mechanical propulsion system has been selected as
case study.
The rest of the paper is organized as follow: Section II
reports a description of the model selected in order to perform
an EPLA, Section III describes the problems statement for the
optimisation, Section IV reports the case study with the main
results and Section V draws some conclusions.
 II. ELECTRICAL POWER LOAD ANALYSIS AND
GENERATORS SIZING
The main task of the Electrical Power Load Analysis is to
calculate the electrical power required by the users installed on-
board the ship. As a direct result of this analysis, it is possible
to evaluate the power that the generators have to supply in the
principal ship operative scenarios. When the power required to
the generation system is known, it is possible to select the
generators size, number and typology in order to minimize the
installation and management costs.
A. Traditional Factors Approach to Perform the EPLA
In order to perform an EPLA some information about the
ship are required. In this context, the main document containing
the input information is a complete list of the electrical users
installed on-board the ship. Further, when available, some data
from similar ship or sea trials may be useful in order to increase
the accuracy of this analysis. The traditional method to perform
an EPLA is based on factors, which can partially account of the
behaviour of each user in the different ship operative scenarios.
The Load Factor (LF) is the most used in naval field [8].
The LF is defined as reported in equation (1).
1 T
LFij = pij τ)dτ (1)
Tj ·PMAXij 0 scenario
Where:
- LF is the load factor of the i-th load in the j-th scenario
- T is the time period of reference for the j-th scenario in
hours [h]
- is the maximum power of the i-th load in the j-th
scenario in [kW]
- p τ) is the instantaneous value of power absorbed by
the i-th user in the j-th ship operative scenario.
As it is defined in equation (1), the LF is the average value
of power absorbed by each user in each ship operative scenario
in reference of the maximum load during a given period (i.e. in
the considered scenario). Load Factors can be calculated from
actual data for a single day, for a month or for years. Its value
is always less or equal than one, because the maximum demand
is always more than average demand. Furthermore, it could be
used for determining the overall cost per unit generated. In fact,
higher is the LF lesser will be the cost per unit. When the
designers decide to adopt the LF in order to perform an EPLA
it is not necessary to introduce other factors. It is possible,
indeed, to calculate the total power absorbed by the users in
each ship operational scenario as reported in equation (2).
PABS LF ∙ PNOM (2)
Where:
- PABS is the total power absorbed by the users in the j-th
scenario
- PNOM is the nominal power value of the i-th load in the
j-th scenario
- N is the total number of electrical load considered.
An alternative approach is to consider together two different
factors. These, as it was for the LF, are defined for each load in
every ship operative scenarios. In normal condition, the power
absorbed by a load is less than that indicates by its nominal
power rating. The Utilization Factor (ku) can account for the
time in which the load in switched on rated with the total time
that it could be in use as reported in (3). The Demand Factor
(DF), which is the inverse of the most known Diversity Factor
(ks), is defined as the ratio between the maximum demand of a
system (or maximum demand of a user) and the total connected
load on the system (4).
tonij
kuij = (3)
Tj
PMAXij
DFij = (4)
PNOMij
Where:
- ku is the utilization factor of the i-th load in the j-th
scenario
- is the time the i-th load is switched on in the j-th
scenario
- DF is the demand factor of the i-th load in the j-th
Consequently, from the previous (1), (3) and (4) it is easy to
understand that the Load Factor is equivalent to the ratio
between the Utilization Factor and the Demand Factor (5).
kuij
LFij = (5)
DFij
Once the total load absorbed by the users in each ship
operative scenario has been calculated, it is possible to evaluate
the generation power PGEN . The generators are sized
considering the worst combination of the former conditions (i.e.
worst ship operative scenario).
B. Generators Sizing
First result of the Electrical Power Load Analysis is the
possibility to select the generators (e.g. size and number) as
shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1 - Inputs and Outputs of EPLA
 Considering the EPLA it would be possible to select the
generators considering installation, management, service costs
and weight. In order to perform this analysis, an optimum
problem has been formulated and implemented.
III. POWER GENERATORS OPTIMAL SIZING, MODEL
FORMULATION
In literature, several optimal problems have been presented
in order to correctly size generators, energy storage and
photovoltaics [7]-[12]. The model presented in this work is
focused on the optimal sizing for generators considering the
management costs and partially for the investment costs. One
of the innovations here presented is the possibility to join an
optimisation problem focused on the generators size (i.e. it is
possible to select generators with different or homogeneous
sizes) with a traditional EPLA, which identifies the demand of
electrical power.
A. Operational Costs, Problem Statement
In order to calculate the operational costs of a certain
solution (i.e. every generators configuration under exam) the
fuel oil consumption (FOC) in a given condition has to be
defined. For a specific operating condition, the FOC is strongly
dependent on the load factor (GLF) of the generators.
Moreover, it depends on the efficiency of the generators (η), the
power absorbed by the users (PABS ), the line losses (Pl ), the
number and the operation time (t) of each generators, the rated
power (PG ) and on the specific fuel oil consumption (SFOC)
that is characteristic of each generator, as defined in (6).
FOC= f(GLF,η,PABS ,Pl , t, PG , SFOC) (6)
It is worthy that, improving generators efficiency and load
factors; a reduction in fuel oil consumption is possible. It is
assumed that the total power absorbed by the loads in each ship
operative scenario is known performing the EPLA with the
traditional method based on Load Factors.
Therefore, the main problem is how to determine the
optimal size, number of generators and which generator should
be put in operation in each ship operative scenario. The number
of possible combinations is given from statistical theory [13]
and depends on the number of possible generator capacities and
on the number of required on-board electrical power generators
(7).
(G+K-1)!
CGK = (7)
K!(G-1)!
Where:
- CGK is the number of possible combinations of G
number of required generators with K number of
possible capacity options.
In this work a model that considers generators with different
rated power is presented and, on the other hand, generators with
the same rated power (i.e. as it usual practice nowadays). In case
of generators characterized by different rated power,
manufacturers provide optional diesel engines with various
number of cylinders for the same type of generator. As a result
of this consideration, shipyards and ship owners might select
generators of the same brand but with different characteristics,
improving efficiency, performances and reducing space and
weight.
B. Operational Costs, Objective Function Formulation
Due to the aim of this work, the objective function (8)
defines the cost represented by a generators option, taking into
account the operational costs and, in lower part, the installation
costs (i.e. it is possible to select generators with homogeneous
sizes).
G S
Pij
F= · Tij ·SFOCij ·FC (8)
ηij
i=1 j=1
Where:
- F is the cost of the generators option [€]
- G is the number of generators
- S is the number of scenarios
- Pij is the power rated by the i-th generator in the j-th
scenario [kW]
- ηij is the operating efficiency
- Tij is the operating time of the i-th generator in the j-th
scenario [h]
- SFOCij is the specific fuel oil consumption of the i-th
generator in the j-th scenario [g/kWh].
- FC is the unit cost of the marine diesel oil [€/t]
The generation costs are all mainly dependent on the power
rated by generators (10).
Pij =PGNOM i · uij · GLFij (9)
Where:
- PGNOM is the nominal power of the i-th generator
- uij is the i-th generator state index under the j-th
scenario, binary index
- GLFij is the generator load factor for the i-th generator
in the j-th scenario
The generator efficiency (10) is highly influenced by the
loading condition, i.e. GLFij . In fact, it decreases from its
optimum value ηj when the load factor is not close to the most
MAX
efficient value (e.g. typically around 80%).
ηij =ηj + c1 ·e- c2 · GLFij
(10)
MAX
Where c1 and c2 are coefficients for relationship between the
loading condition and the generator efficiency.
Finally, the SFOCij is directly related to the loading
condition of the generators (GLFij ) as formulated in equation
(11). Increments are registered when the loading condition are
far from the optimum.
 n
(c) Homogeneous Size for Generators Constraint
SFOCij = ah ·GLFij h (11) In order to account of the possibility to select generators
h=0
with the same power rated, a constraint is here defined and
implemented in (15) by imposing the equality between the rated
Being ah coefficients of relation between the specific fuel oil power of the generators i-th and i+1-th. This constraint can be
consumption and the load factor of generators. activated or not in the optimisation problem, depending on the
study of interest.
C. Identification of the Integer Variables
This optimisation problem can be formulate as a Mixed Pi+1 =Pi for i=1,…,G (15)
Integer Quadratic Problem (MIQP). Genetic Algorithms (GA)
have been chosen in order to solve this problem due to their
ability to account for integer variables, quadratic objective (d) Generators State Constraint
functions and quadratic constraints [14]. In this context, in order In order to correctly manage each generator and find their
to account for integer variables it is required by the algorithm optimum size, it is required that each should be in function at
to define which variables are integer, otherwise, the variables least in a ship operative scenario. The formulation for this
are considered as a continuous ones. constraint is here reported in the following (16).
In this work, the generators state index uij and the different
generator sizes are considered as integer variables. The first ones G,S
are defined as binary variables. In fact, each generators can be uij ≥1 (16)
in function (i.e. uij = 1) or not in function (i.e. uij = 0) in each ij=1
scenario. The second ones are defined through a vector of
different options as well as it is reported in [7]. (e) Bounder Limit Constraints
Variables have to be lower and upper limited. Considering
D. Constraints the continuous variables, in this problem generator load factors
Some constraints have to be introduced in order to calculate (GLF) are so defined. Due to the manufacturer suggestions,
the minimum of the objective function (8). Many of these generators should operate at least between the 15% and the 90%
constraints are motivated by the primary power and frequency of their nominal power (e.g. no more than one continuous hour
regulation [14]. at the 110% of their nominal power) and efficiently between
70% - 90%. Therefore, in this context, the GLF have been
(a) Power Equilibrium and Operating Limit Constraints defined as continuous variables varying between 15 and 110.
The whole generated power must be equal to the power
absorbed by the users (12), when no Energy Storage System IV. CASE STUDY
(ESS) is installed on-board the ship. Diesel generators As it was previously asserted, a bulk carrier ship is the case
manufacturer does not recommend a continuous operating study of this work. In this section, the models are disclosed with
condition close to the operating limits Pi MIN and Pi MAX (13). the main inputs from the EPLA. Finally, results will be
presented and compared to those obtained through the
G traditional method.
Pij = PABS j +Pl j
(12) A. Model Ship
i=1
for j=1,…,S The case study is a traditional bulk carrier already presented
in [9] with its main characteristics reported in Table I.
Pi MIN ≤ Pij ≤ Pi MAX (13) TABLE I
for i=1,…,G MODEL SHIP MAIN CHARACTERISTICS
Characteristic Value Measure
(b) Spinning Reserve Limit Constraint
LOA (Length Over All) 180 m
The Spinning Reserve Limit (SRL) is the unused capacity B (Breath) 30 m
(14) which can be activated on decision of the Power
T (Draft) 10.2 m
Management System (PMS) and which is provided by devices
that are synchronized to the network and able to affect the active DWT (Dead Weigh Tonnage) 34000 t
power. VSHIP 15 kn
Main Engine 9000 kW
∑G
i=1 Pij · uij -PABS j
Diesel Generators 3 x 720 kW
≥ SRL (14)
PABS j
The main results of the traditional electrical power load analysis
are here reported in Table II.
 TABLE II It was possible to calculate the total mission cost
RESULTS FROM THE EPLA considering the time spent in each ship operative scenario (e.g.
Table II) in a reference time interval of one month (i.e. 720
Electrical Power Load Analysis Results hours), the specific fuel oil consumption resulting from the GLF
in each scenario and the unitary cost of the fuel.
In Loading-
Scenario Cruising Man.
Port Unloading
Mission Running Secondly, using the results from the EPLA, the generators
384 12 96 228 size optimisation has been performed always considering
Times [h]
homogeneous sizes. As a result, the best option includes three
Power Absorbed [kW] 610 724 433 1068
generators of 450 kW each one. The total cost in this case is
equal to 69470 $ for each mission (e.g. a month) with a saving
Using the previous inputs it is possible to perform the of 5440 $, that is close to 7% less than the actual case. It is to
optimisation of the generators size. be pointed that, accordingly to SOLAS regulation [15] about
the electrical installations on-board ships, the capacity of this
B. Auxiliary Inputs to the Optimum Problem generator set is such to provide normal operational conditions
of propulsion and safety.
In order to model the specific fuel oil consumption, a
polynomial formulation has been selected as already reported TABLE IV
in (11). For this model, a fifth order polynomial approximation RESULTS WITH GENERATORS SIZE OPTIMISATION
has been applied with the following coefficients: a0 =1259, a =- Generators Number = 3,
83.41, a2 =3.391, a3 =-0.06515, a4 =0.0005719 and a5 =-1.862e- Generators Sizes G1 = G2 = G3 = 450kW
06. These coefficients have been obtained by approximating the Total Mission Cost = 69470 $
curve provided in [7] and by considering a penalization for load
factors lower than 20% or higher than 95% of the generators Scenario u1 u2 u3 GLF1 GLF2 GLF3
rated power. Considering the formulation of the generators
efficiency (10), the following values are considered ηj = 91, Cruising ON OFF ON 71.0 0 65.1
MAX
c1 = -21.8 and c2 = -0.067, which are the same provided in Manoeuvring OFF OFF ON 0 0 95.5
literature. Finally, the Fuel Cost FC per unit of Marine Diesel
Oil (MDO) has been selected equal to 660 $/t. In Port OFF ON ON 0 81.2 81.0
Loading –
ON ON ON 83.4 84.7 69.7
C. Results Presentation and Analysis Unloading
Simulations have been performed for different
configurations, i.e. using the results of the EPLA as inputs, (b) Results with non-homogeneous generators size
considering both generators with homogeneous and non-
homogeneous size. In order to perform the optimal sizing and In order to further improve the power generation efficiency
unit commitment, the total electrical power installed on-board and reduce the mission costs, in Table III are reported the results
the ship should be enough to guarantee sufficient generation from the optimisation considering non-homogeneous size. In
power, in case of occurrence of the load power peak. The results this context, as a results of the methodology presented in the
are presented and summarized in the following tables. previous sections, the mission costs are equal to 61240 $, with
a possible saving of 13670 $ close to 18% less than the model
ship. The capacity of this generating set is such to provide
(a) Results considering homogeneous generators size
normal operational conditions of propulsion and safety in
In this case, in order to find the optimal generators agreement with the SOLAS regulation [15].
dimension, homogeneous size have been considered. First, in
TABLE V
Table III, the results from the EPLA are reported in reference RESULTS FROM TRADITIONAL EPLA WITH NON-HOMOGENEOUS
with the generators installed on-board the ship. GENERATORS SIZE
TABLE III Generators Number = 3
RESULTS WITHOUT OPTIMISATION FROM THE ACTUAL EPLA Generators Sizes G1 = 560 kW G2 = 772 kW and G3 = 900 kW
Generators Number = 3,
Total Mission Cost = 61240 $
Generators Sizes G1 = G2 = G3 = 720 kW
Total Mission Cost = 74910 $ Scenario u1 u2 u3 GLF1 GLF2 GLF3

Scenario u1 u2 u3 GLF1 GLF2 GLF3 Cruising OFF ON OFF 0 79.0 0

Cruising ON OFF OFF 84.7 0 0 Manoeuvring ON OF OFF 0 0 80.5

Manoeuvring OFF ON ON 0 55 55 In Port OFF OFF ON 77.7 0 0
In Port OFF ON OFF 0 84 0 Loading –
ON ON OFF 80.5 80.0 0
Loading – Unloading
ON OFF ON 74 0 74
Unloading
 (c) Results Summary
In Table VI the previous results from the optimisations are
summarized in order to have a view of the methodologies
presented in this work and their features.
TABLE VI
RESULTING COSTS SUMMARY
METHODS TMC [$] YMC [$] MS [$] CR [%]
MS 74910 898920 - -
T-O-H 69470 833640 5440
T-O-NH 61240 734880 13670
Where
- MS, is the model ship
- T-O-H, represents the method optimised with homogeneous
generators size
- T-O-NH, represents the method optimised with non-
homogeneous generators size
- TMC, are the total mission costs [$]
- YMC, are the yearly mission costs [$]
- MS, are the monthly savings [$]
- CR, are the cost reduction [%].
- ACT, algorithm computational time [s].
V. CONCLUSIONS
The approach presented in this paper has highlighted the
possibility to design in an efficient and more flexible way the
generation power system for a traditional ship such as a bulk
carrier. As reported in the previous section, the results are such
to ensure a significant reduction in mission costs. The
optimisation problem was solved by applying the Genetic
Algorithms, due to their characteristics and ability to solve
Mixed Integer Quadratic Problems. Other approaches are also
available, but the focus of this work was not to find the best and
fastest algorithm but, on the contrary, to propose an approach
based on reducing operating costs of the power system also
considering the possibility to select homogeneous sizes for the
generators. In future improvements it will be possible to
perform the same analysis for other ships typology with
different characteristics (e.g. All Electric Ships or hybrid ones),
anyway bearing in mind the necessary differences in the
systems under consideration. Further improvements concern
novel approaches to perform the EPLA, objective functions
considering also the installation and maintenance costs and
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formulations for multi-objective optimisation (e.g. considering
the generation system weight).
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