Disorders, Insects and Diseases

Ramesh Upreti
Asst. Prof. GAASC
Dept. of Horticulture
 Physiological Disorders
• Abiotic
• Non transferable problems
• Interaction between commodity and physio-
chemical environment
Pre- Harvest Factors:
1) Temperature
 Blotchy ripening and green back
 Solar Injury
 Bitterness in lettuce (high temp.)
 2) Moisture stress
Fruit cracking (Litchi, mango, tomato): long
drought followed by rain
3) Mineral Nutrition:
a) Calcium deficiency
Tomato Blossom end rot (watermelon,
Avocado) Cracking (Cherries,
prunes)

Mango Spongy tissue, soft nose

Apple Bitter pit, water core, lenticels

blotch

Pear Cork spot

b) Boron Deficiency:
Papaya Lumpiness

Radish Brown rot

Cauliflower Black head

Cabbage Brown necrosis in the fleshy

core

Broccoli Leaf curling, petiole cracking,

corky stem growth, bitter
discolored bud
c) Excess Nitrogen
Citrus Stem-end rind breakdown,
Exanthema (Cu def.)

Sweet potatoes Cracking effect on keeping

quality
Many fruits and veg. Reduce shelf- life (increase
respiration rate)

4) Cultural practices:
Irrigation near harvesting period
Shorter storage life, cracking, oleocellosis (citrus),
Rotting (potato, sweet potato, onion)
Post harvest Factors
1) Temperature

Banana (high temp.) Weak neck, neck rotting

Pineapple (low temp <100C) Black heart of pineapple (water

soaked spot near the core,
later becomes brown)

Many tropical and sub tropical Chilling injury

fruits and vegetables
2) Light
Potato Greening
(100 foot candle in storage) (Alkaloid = solanine)

3) Gases
a) Oxygen and carbon dioxide
Potato Black heart

Mango Internal break down

b) Ethylene
Leafy Vegetables Ethylene accelerates
chlorophyll break-down and
causes yellowing
Carrot Bitterness (Isocaumarin
production)

Cut flower Abscission, epinastic response

(curling, twisting), petal fall etc.

Asparagus Toughening of tissue

Chilli, Capsicum Color change

c) Ammonia
 Refrigerant gas, causes discoloration of stored
commodities
 (Red Onion= Yellow gray to brownish black)
4) Ventilation
No O2 Supply, hinder removal of ethylene, CO2 and heat,
which cause off flavor in storage.
 Necking or Bending: (bending in the stem of cut flower)
 Vascular plugging (physiological or by bacteria; restricts
water movement)
 Sugar (9-12%)= energy +
 AgNO3/Calcium salts (0.01-0.2%)= anti ethylene +
 Hydroxy Quinolene Sulphate (HQS)/ boric acid
solution= bactericide (lower pH)
For improved vase-life
• Fill a vase with water up to about
¾ of its height.
• Water should be changed at least every two days.
• Warm water is best for the flower’s uptake of
nutrients.
• Add some sugar or plant food to the vase water.
• Make sure the stem is clean and free of infection.
• Cut the stems of the flowers about one inch from
their current end.
• Cut stems at an angle of 45 degree.
• Trim excess foliage such as dead leaves to conserve
the flowers’ energy.
 Post Harvest Entomology
Insects

1) Oriental Fruit fly (Dacus dorsalis)

2) Potato tuber moth (Phthorimaea operculella)

3) Beetle, weevils (sweet potato, garlic)

4) Microbes
 Control
1) Fumigation:
a) Ethyl dibromide (EDB): less phytotoxic, more
toxic to human being [liver and kidney damage,
carcinogenic]. (Dowfume, W-85, Bromufume)
b) Methyl bromide: more phytotoxic [causes
browning and blackening of tissue], less toxic to
human being. (Bromogas, Downfume, Mc-2)
2) Phosphine: Gas liberated from Al or Mg
phosphide (Seed and grain treatment, weevil)
3) Calcium cyanide (Hydrogen cyanide): Ants and
mealy bugs (25 ppm)
4) Irradiation:
 Exposure to electromagnetic radiation of very short
wavelength (such as Gamma rays, X-rays, or
electrosis).
 Most common radiation is Co-60 and Cs-137
(potato, onion)
 Egg phase of fruitfly, beetle, weevil, moth is sensitive
to irradiation
 Reduces microbes, inhibit sprouting and rotting of
potato, onion.
 Overdose causes rolling, browning and discoloration
(recommended dose = 0.02-0.75 kGy)
5) Hot water treatment, cold treatment, vapour heat
treatment, Smoking, netting, chemical dusts etc.
 Post harvest Diseases
• Disorder caused by pathogen (biotic) fungi,
yeast, bacteria
• Interaction between pathogen, Environment
and commodity for disease development.
Nature of Pathogens Diseases
Infection
Latent Colletotrichum C. musae (Crown rot of banana)
infection spp., C. gloesporoides (Mango, papaya
anthracnose)
Cryptosporiopsis, Cryptosporiopsis curvispora (lenticels rot of
apple)
Diplodia Diplodia natalensis, Phomopsis citri (Stem end
rot of citrus)
 Cont..
Nature of Pathogens Diseases
Infection

Wound Penicillium, Citrus Blue mould (P. expansum),

infection Citrus Green mould (P. digitatum),
Rhizopus Peach rhizophus (Rhizopus stolonifer),
and Bacterial soft rot (Erwinia carotovora),
Rot in pineapple (Thielaviopsis paradoxa)
Geotrichum G. candidum (sour rot)
Colletotrichum rots (Anthracnose)
 Cryptosporiopsis curvispora
(lenticels rot of apple)
Diplodia natalensis
Alternaria rots (black spot)
Botrytis rots (grey mold rots)
Penicillium rots (blue or green molds)
Phytophthora rots (brown rot)
Rhizophus rots (Soft rot)
Geotrichum candidum (Sour rot)
Penetration and invasion by fungi
 Sources of infection
* At the field or orchard
* Greenhouses
* Harvesting tools
* Buckets, carts, boxes, etc.
* Packinghouse facilities
* Storage facilities
* Markets
 The infection process
Fungus produce millions of spores, which serve as
reproduction units .

Penetration and invasion by fungi

1. through natural openings
2. Wounds
3. physiological damages
4. Senescence
5. Direct penetration
 Control
• Fungicides: Benomyl @ 14 days interval for
anthracnose in mango
• Field sanitation: Removal of debris, infected and
diseased twigs
• Careful handling:
• Decontamination: Chlorine 1%, Borax 6-8 %,
warm water detergent wash, formaldehyde (2:1)
• Chemical treatments: Systemic fungicides;
Benomyle, Benlate, Thiobendazole, Topsin M
• Heat treatments: 50-550C for 5-10 min (Control
Anthracnose and stem end rot of mango)
• Irradiation: gamma irradiation dose required to
reduce the spore germination by 90% was 0.22 and
0.35 kGy for C. gloeosporioides and P. expansum
(Wonsu et al., 2016)
• Refrigeration of low temperature: Suppress growth
of MOs
• Use of anti-senescent chemicals: 2,4-D in citrus
retard senescence and control Alternaria rot (A. citri)
• Use of controlled atmosphere: retards growth of
MOs and disease development
• Use of vegetables oils: Garlic oil (Allicin = antibiotic)
control bacteria, fungi
• Wrapping and bagging: by paper or plastic bag
• Fumigation: eco-friendly fumigant ethane dinitrile
 Practical
A. Proposal writing related to Postharvest Horticulture
Format
• Introduction
– Background
– Problem
– Rationale of study
– Objectives
• Broad objective
• Specific objectives
• Materials and methods
• Expected output
• Risk and uncertainty
• Beneficiaries
• Budget
• References
 B. Research Article
Abstract:

1) the overall purpose of the study and

the research problems you investigated;

2) the basic design of the study;

3) major findings or trends found as a result

Introduction
– Background
– Problem
– Rationale of study
– Objectives

Literature review
Material and Methodology (design, treatments)
Result and Discussion
Conclusion and summary
References
 Post harvest Quality
Quality is a term which denotes a degree of
excellence, a high standard or value.

Kramer (1965) stated that: Quality of foods may

be defined as the composite of those
characteristics that differentiate individual
units of a product, and have significance in
determining the degree of acceptability of that
unit to the user.
• Quality may be described by four different
attributes:

1) color and appearance,

2) flavor (taste and aroma),

3) texture and

4) nutritional value
Organoleptic test
 Factors affecting quality
• Variety
• Growing condition (Environment)
• Soil and nutrition
• Chemical/ pesticides use
• Harvesting stage, methods
• Storage length, method
• Post harvest treatments
 Horticulture marketing in Nepal
In Nepal, the well organized marketing channels
did not exist. Marketing of fruits and vegetables are
carried out either farmers individually (Doke), or
through cooperative and selling to the middleman
and directly selling to the retailers.
The following three channels are in use for fruits
and vegetables supply:
• Farmer  Consumer
• Farmer  Retailer  Consumer
• Farmer  cooperative /collection
centreWholesaler  Retailer  Consumer
 Since commercial vegetable production is
relatively new enterprise in Nepal, the
sector has many existing and emerging
challenges as listed below;
I. Little knowledge of harvesting index to growers and
field level technicians
II. Traditional harvesting techniques adopted from
subsistence farming system
III. Improper handling practices of the products
(not consider as live stuff)
IV. Very little grading and sorting practices
V. Use of improper packages during transportation
 Cont..
VI. Rough handling during loading and unloading
VII. Inappropriate means of transportation
VIII. Virtually no storage facilities in collection and
market centres
IX. Rough village road for fruit and vegetable
transport.
X. Unpredictable road blockade and highway traffic
interruption
Type
Market access
Technology & product development
Management & Organization
Problems/challenges
Low volume of production and
inferior quality
Inadequate market information and
pricing mechanism
Lack of organized market
Inadequacy of quality seed and other
inputs at production pocket
Poor access to production and
postharvest handling technology at
farmers and trader level
Poor access to processing
industry/units
Low knowledge on management
practice, record keeping/ accounting,
business planning
Un organized marketing channels and
marketing practices
Access to finance Groups poor performance due to
lack of knowledge and expertise

Infrastructure Basic infrastructures (postharvest

lab and electricity) poorly available

Lack of cold storage

Input supply Lack of quality and quantity inputs

at proper time and place

Governance for empowerment Still women farmers are deprived of

income generation activities like fruits
& vegetable marketing
Poor service delivery from
stakeholders
 Fig 1: Marketing system in Nepal

Fig: Systematic Marketing system

 Legislations
• Pesticide Act, 2048 B. S. (2064)
• Pesticide Regulation, 2050 B. S. (2066)
• Basel Convention (5 May, 1992): To reduce trans-
boundary movement of Hazardous waste
• Rotterdam Convention (24 February, 2004): PIC
procedures
• Stockholm Convention (May, 2004): Banned
monocrotophus and methyl parathion
 Member of Asia Pacific Plant Protection
Commission (APPPC) in 1965.
 Nepal ratified International Plant
Protection Convention (IPPC) on May 8,
2006.
 Membership of WTO in 2004 and thus has
committed to fulfill the obligations,
more particularly those related to SPS
Agreement.
 Rapid Bioassay of Pesticide Residue Analysis
• Laboratory established in June 18, 2014 (Asar 4, 2071) in Kalimati
• PPD started pesticide residue monitoring work with a four trained
officer and with a limited resources.
• Residue analysis of organophosphate and carbamate insecticide.
• Now have a capacity of synthetic pyrethoids and fungicide (DTC)
residue analysis .
 RBPR laboratories
• Kathmandu (Kalimati)
• Jhapa (Birtamod)
• Sarlahi (Nawalpur)
• Kaski (Pokhara)
• Rupandehi (Butwal)
• Banke (Nepalgunj)
• Kailali (Attaria)
 Quarantine offices
• There are 15 Plant Quarantine offices under the PQPMC as follows in the
major entry points to the country:
• Plant Quarantine Office, Kakandhbhitta, Jhapa
• Plant Quarantine Office, Birgunj, Parsa
• Plant Quarantine Office, Bhairhawa, Rupendehi
• Plant Quarantine Office, Nepalgunj, Banke
• Plant Quarantine Office, Gaddachauki, Kanchanpur.
• Plant Quarantine Office, Bhantbari, Sunsari
• Plant Quarantine Office, Biratnagar, Morang
• Plant Quarantine Office, Malangawa, Sarlahi
• Plant Quarantine Office, Jaleswor, Mahottari
• Plant Quarantine Office, Krishnanagar, Kapilwastu
• Plant Quarantine Office, Jhulaghat, Baitadi
• Plant Quarantine Office, Lomanthang, Mustang
• Plant Quarantine Office, Timure, Rasuwa
• Plant Quarantine Office, Tatopani, Sindhupalchok
• Plant Quarantine Office, TIA, Kathmandu
The major Responsibilities of Plant Quarantine and Pesticide
Management Center include:

• Carry out the functions of National Plant Protection Organization

(NPPO)
• Act as the focal point of International Plant Protection
Commission (IPPC) and implement the activities of IPPC and
NPPO
• Implementation of the Plant Protection Act, 2007 and Plant
Protection Regulation, 2010.
• Implementation of the Pesticides Act (1991) and Pesticides
Regulation (1994) and its amendment
• Establishment and management of plant quarantine check posts.
• Implement program related Plant Health System including
Plantwise
• Facilitate safe trade by reducing the risk to the plant health and
biodiversity of Nepal associated with import and export of
Agriculture and Forest Products.
• Jobs related to quarantine of plant and plant products.
• Formulation of policy, standards, laws and regulations for import,
distribution, use and management of pesticides.
• Jobs related to import, permission and regulation of pesticides.
• Communication, co-ordination and co-operation with international
organizations related to regulations and management of pesticides.
• Collection and dissemination of information related to pesticides
which are either in use or banned.
• Preparation, update and keep the information on the status of
national pest lists
• Pest Risk Analysis of the plant and plant products to be imported.
• Management of Emerging Pests, Invasive Species and different
Quarantine Pests
• Provide emergency plant protection services on pest outbreaks
 Objective and rationale of Plant
Qurantine

1. food safety,
2. animal health,
3. plant protection,
4. protect humans from animal/plant pest or
disease,
5. protect territory from other damage from pests
 Homework
Year Writer Topic Treatments Results
2013
Thank you