Gary Cambers and Steve Sibley

Cambridge IGCSE®
Geography
Coursebook

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 CONTENTS

Introduction

Part A
Geographical Themes – Preparing for Paper 1

Theme 1 Population and Settlement

Topic 1 Population growth
Case Study 1a: Rapid population growth in Niger
Case Study 1b: Population decline in Russia

Topic 2 Too many or too few?

Case Study 2a: Overpopulation in Nigeria
Case Study 2b: Underpopulation in Australia

Topic 3 Population structure and control

Case Study 3a: Reducing population in China
Case Study 3b: Increasing population in Singapore

Topic 4 Population density

Case Study 4a: Low population density in Namibia
Case Study 4b: High population density in Japan

Topic 5 International migration

Case Study 5: Polish workers move into the UK

Topic 6 Rural settlements

Case Study 6a: Rural settlement in Ethiopia
Case Study 6b: Rural settlement in France

Topic 7 Urban settlements

Case Study 7a: Urban settlements in Sardinia
Case Study 7b: Barcelona – urban land use

Topic 8 Urbanisation
Case Study 8a: Urbanisation in Peru – Lima
Case Study 8b: Urbanisation in India – Mumbai

Topic 9 Urban problems

Case Study 9a: Urban problems and solutions – Cairo
Case Study 9b: Urban problems and solutions – Baltimore

Topic 10 Urban sprawl

Case Study 10: Urban sprawl in Atlanta

Global Issue 1 HIV/AIDS

iii
 Contents

Theme 2 The Natural Environment

Topic 11 Plate tectonics
Case Study 11a: A volcano in Chile
Case Study 11b: An earthquake in China

Topic 12 Weathering
Topic 13 Rivers – from source to mouth
Case Study 13a River erosion – Niagara Falls
Case Study 13b River deposition – the Ganges delta

Topic 14 Coasts
Case Study 14a Coastal erosion – The Twelve Apostles
Case Study 14b Coastal deposition – the Hel spit

Topic 15 Coral reefs

Case Study 15 The Great Barrier Reef, Australia

Topic 16 Weather and climate

Topic 17 Tropical rainforests
Case Study 17 Madagascar’s rainforest

Topic 18 Hot deserts

Case Study 18 The Sahara Desert and Mali

Topic 19 Natural hazards

Case Study 19a Cyclone Nargis – Myanmar
Case Study 19b Drought in Australia

Topic 20 Human activity has impacts

Case Study 20a Floods in Mozambique
Case Study 20b National Parks in Costa Rica

Global Issue 2 Reducing carbon emissions

iv Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Contents

Theme 3 Economic Development

and the Use of Resources
Topic 21 Agriculture
Case Study 21a Subsistence agriculture in Brazil
Case Study 21b Commercial agriculture in New Zealand

Topic 22 Food shortages

Case Study 22 Famine in Darfur, Sudan

Topic 23 Work and employment

Case Study 23a Changing employment – South Africa
Case Study 23b Changing employment – Russia

Topic 24 Manufacturing industry

Case Study 24 Manufacturing steel – Pakistan

Topic 25 Hi-tech industry

Case Study 25 Hi-tech industry in Bangalore

Topic 26 Tourism
Case Study 26a Tourism in the Seychelles
Case Study 26b Tourism in Dubai

Topic 27 Energy supply and demand

Case Study 27a Fuelwood in D.R. Congo
Case Study 27b Oil in Saudi Arabia
Case Study 27c Renewable energy in Iceland

Topic 28 Generating electricity

Case Study 28 Electricity generation in France

Topic 29 Water
Case Study 29 The Lesotho Highlands Water Project

Topic 30 Damaging the environment

Case Study 30a Soil erosion in Nepal
Case Study 30b Global warming – the Maldives
Case Study 30c Deforestation in Amazonia, Brazil

Topic 31 Conservation and management

Case Study 31a The Arctic
Case Study 31b The Antarctic

Global Issue 3 Reduce, reuse, recycle

v
 Contents

Part B
Geographical Skills – Preparing for Paper 2

Map work 1 Monsefu, Peru

Map work 2 Harare, Zimbabwe
Map work 3 Ewaso Kedong, Kenya
Map work 4 Montego Bay, Jamaica
Map work 5 Negara, Indonesia
Map work 6 Le Port, Reunion Island
So what map skills do we need?

Part C
The Alternative to Coursework –
Preparing for Paper 4

Topic 1 Investigating the CBD

Topic 2 Investigating rivers
Topic 3 Investigating tourism
Topic 4 Investigating weather
So what coursework could we do?

Supplementary materials
Support sheets
Sample questions and marking schemes
Mapwork
Maps 1–11
Triangular Graph Paper

Resources
World map
Glossary
Index
Acknowledgements

vi Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 INTRODUCTION

The Cambridge IGCSE Geography coursebook has been written specifically to

prepare students for Papers 1, 2 and 4 of the CIE examination.

Part A: Geographical Themes –

Preparing for Paper 1
Part A deals with the syllabus themes in the order of the syllabus. As the contents
page illustrates, there is a close and deliberate link in Part A to the syllabus. The
following three themes are covered:

Theme 1: Population and Settlement

Theme 2: The Natural Environment
Theme 3: Economic Development and the Use of Resources.

The authors have translated the syllabus themes into 31 generic topics, each of
which is covered on a double-page spread to introduce the topic. Twenty-nine
of these topics are then followed by at least one but usually two case studies of
topical and relevant examples from over 40 different countries, most of which
have CIE centres where candidates take the IGCSE Geography examination. The
three case study questions on Paper 1 are worth 21 out of 75 marks, so centres
that have been requesting resources to prepare candidates more effectively
for this part of the examination will find a wide range of examples to use. All
are resource-based and involve problem-solving and free-response writing as
required. At the end of each set of case studies there is a sample case study
question provided for students to attempt, based on the examples provided or
from others they have been taught. A global issue is studied at the end of each
theme, and a full world map showing countries covered by the case studies is
provided at the start (on page 2).

Part B: Geographical Skills –

Preparing for Paper 2
This paper is mainly skills-based and tests a candidate’s ability to handle various
ways of depicting geographical information without requiring specific place-
knowledge as in Paper 1. As one examination question will be based on a large-
scale (1:25 000 or 1:50 000) topographical map of a tropical area, Part B of the
textbook provides six examples of such maps, from Peru, Zimbabwe, Kenya,
Jamaica, Indonesia and Reunion Island. Teachers will find previous examinations
have used maps of the Caribbean, Zimbabwe, and Mauritius. For each country
an extract of a map is provided with examples of map skills questions. Further
work continues developing map skills as well as dealing with topics of relevance
within each country that relates to the map extract. The authors are well aware
how difficult it is to obtain international maps of tropical areas at the two scales
needed; the six map extracts provided here will supplement those obtained from
previous examinations.

vii
 Introduction

Part C: The Alternative to Coursework –

Preparing for Paper 4
Paper 3 is the coursework component and is not dealt with in detail here,
although aspects of fieldwork and coursework are touched on in Part C. Paper
4 is taken by candidates as a written examination instead of carrying out
coursework and/or fieldwork. Four topics – two physical and two human – are
covered with investigations into the Central Business District (CBD), Rivers,
Tourism, and the Weather – all topics that previously have been set on Paper
4. Each investigation begins with a double-page spread that illustrates how
fieldwork could be carried out on each of these topics. Then, taking a recent
question on the topic, there is a detailed analysis of candidate answers with
examination tips provided, as well as opportunities for students to assess answers.
The final exercise provides examples of coursework topics that are undertaken
in several CIE centres in different countries. These suggest the type of fieldwork
or coursework that teachers might consider introducing. Although the majority
of centres do choose Paper 4 as an alternative to coursework, it is important
that teachers try to carry out some local fieldwork, which Part C attempts to
encourage.

Supplementary materials
In this e-book version of Cambridge IGCSE Geography, the CD-ROM content is
included as ‘supplementary materials’. These materials are as follows:
Outline maps: These are always useful for teachers to use with several tasks.
Eleven outline maps are provided covering the major regions of the world.
Support sheets: Forty-two photocopiable support sheets – at least one per topic
and one for each map work section – are provided here. In most cases they
provide help with sketches and graph work and supplement the topics and case
studies.
Sample questions: Thirty-one full sample questions are provided in exactly the
same style and format as they occur on Paper 1. Each question has a part a and b
with resources to respond to; the case study, which is provided in the textbook, is
added to complete a full question. Mark schemes are also provided for teachers to
use.

Gary Cambers and Steve Sibley

viii Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Part A Geographical Themes
Preparing for Paper 1

Paper 1 is a compulsory paper taken by all candidates. It consists of 6 questions – 2 on each Theme. Candidates must choose any 3
questions to answer. Each is worth 25 marks giving a total of 75 marks. Part A of the book focuses on case studies and attempts to
provide topical examples for the final part of each question which is a case study question. Here candidates must use a real place they
have studied. Some topics are followed by more than one example of a case study and there is one typical case study examination
question with almost all topics in the book. The CD contains typical complete questions, including the case studies from Part A, with
mark schemes. Support worksheets can also be found on the CD.
From June 2010 there will be three different versions of Paper 1, numbered 11, 12 and 13. The Paper the centre receives will depend
on which of the three international time zones it is allocated to. A recent past paper and mark scheme for Paper 1 is available for
reference at www.cie.org.uk

1
The location of case studies used in PART A: GEOGRAPHICAL THEMES
39

35
2

19

11
12
17 13
8
5
30 37
Tropic of Cancer 16 32
34 15
22 20 23
1
28
25 3 10
Equator 6
38
33 31
14 26

Tropic of Capricorn 24 21
7
4
29 36
18
27

0 2000 4000 km

1 Niger: Case Study 1a (pp.6–7)
2 Russia: Case Studies 1b (pp.8–9), 23b (pp.124–5)
3 Nigeria: Case Study 2a (pp.12–13)
4 Australia: Case Studies 2b (pp.14–15), 14a (pp.78–9),
15 (pp.84–5), 19b (pp.100–1)
5 China: Case Studies 3a (pp.18–19), 11b (pp.66–7)
6 Singapore: Case Study 3b (pp.20–1)
7 Namibia: Case Study 4a (pp.24–5)
8 Japan: Case Study 4b (pp.26–7)
9 Poland: Case Studies 5 (pp.30–1), 14b (pp.80–1)
10 Ethiopia: Case Study 6a (pp.34–5)
11 France: Case Studies 6b (pp.36–7), 28 (pp.150–1)
12 Italy (Sardinia): Case Study 7a (pp.40–1)
13 Spain: Case Study 7b (pp.42–3)
14 Peru: Case Study 8a (pp.46–7)
15 India: Case Studies 8b (pp.48–9), 25 (pp.132–3)
16 Egypt: Case Study 9a (pp.52–3)
17 USA: Case Studies 9b (pp.54–5), 10 (pp.58–9),
13a (pp.72–3)
18 Chile: Case Study 11a (pp.64–5)
19 Canada: Case Study 13a (pp.72–3)
20 Bangladesh: Case Study 13b (pp.74–5)
21 Madagascar: Case Study 17 (pp.90–1) 32 Dubai: Case Study 26b (pp.138–9)
22 Mali: Case Study 18 (pp.94–5) 33 Democratic Republic of Congo: Case Study 27a
23 Myanmar: Case Study 19a (pp.98–9) (pp.142–3)
24 Mozambique: Case Study 20a (pp.104–5) 40 34 Saudi Arabia: Case Study 27b (pp.144–5)
25 Costa Rica: Case Study 20b (pp.106–7) 35 Iceland: Case Study 27c (pp.146–7)
26 Brazil: Case Studies 21a (pp.112–13), 30c (pp.162–3) 36 Lesotho: Case Study 29 (pp.154–5)
27 New Zealand: Case Study 21b (pp.114–15) 37 Nepal: Case Study 30a (pp.158–9)
28 Sudan: Case Study 22 (pp.118–19) 38 Maldives: Case Study 30b (pp.160–1)
29 South Africa: Case Study 23a (pp.122–3) 39 Arctic: Case Study 31a (pp.166–7)
30 Pakistan: Case Study 24 (pp.128–9) 40 Antarctica: Case Study 31b (pp.168–9)
31 Seychelles: Case Study 26a (pp.136–7)
 Theme 1
Population and
Settlement

Th
The
he O
Ossh
shadi
hadi Maarrke
ha ket in
ket n Lag
agos
os,
s, Ni
Nggeeri
riaa

3
TOPIC 1 Population growth
A World population
Task 1
1804 1927 1960 1974 1987 1999
1 billion 2 billion 3 billion 4 billion 5 billion 6 billion Study Source A.
people people people people people people
a Draw a line graph to show
the growth of the world
Earth itself isn’t getting any bigger ...! population (in billions)
between 1804 and 1999.
Your horizontal axis should
B Population growth rates go from 1800 to 2100.
b Continue the line to show
the estimated (projected)
increase up to the end of this
century using the following
figures:
2013 7 billion
2028 8 billion
2054 9 billion
Tropic of Cancer
2100 10 billion
Equator
Task 2
Tropic of Capricorn Study Source B.
a Use an atlas to put the
following countries into rank
order from the highest to the
lowest rate of population
growth.
0 2000 4000 km • Canada • Oman
Decrease: Increase: • India • Paraguay
+ 0–1% • Romania
+ 1.1–2% b Write a paragraph to compare
+ 2.1–3% rates of growth in African
+ 3.1–5% countries with those in Europe.
Give examples of countries and
Population explosion growth rates to back up the
points you are making.
The population of the world is growing by
88 million people every year, which means
an extra 241 095 people every day. There are
C Population change
167 more people now than there were one
Country Birth rate Death rate Net migration
minute ago! If there are 30 people in your
(per 1000 people) (per 1000 people) (per 1000 people)
class, the world’s population increases by this
amount every 10 seconds. Malta 10.3 8.3 +2.0

This rapid growth of world population, called Morocco 21.3 5.5 –0.8
the population explosion, is slowing down. Poland 10.0 9.9 –0.5
Estimates suggest that by the end of this Natural population change is calculated by subtracting the death rate from
century it may have stabilised at around the birth rate. So Malta’s natural population change is 10.3 – 8.3 = 2.0 per
10 billion. 1000 people.
Not all countries have the same rates of To calculate the overall population change the amount of migration must
be considered. If more people move into the country than move out of it, this
population growth. Some are still growing is added. If more move out of the country than into it this is subtracted. So
rapidly, whilst others have low growth rates Malta’s overall population change is 10.3 – 8.3 + 2.0 = 4.0 per 1000 people.
or are even declining. This can be worked out as a percentage (i.e. 0.4%).

4 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 1 Topic 1

D The Demographic Transition Model

Task 3 Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4
HIGH
Study Source C. Large families
a Calculate the natural
population change of Birth rate falls
Morocco per 1000 people. due to changing

Birth rate and death rate

social conditions
b Calculate the overall
population change of
Poland per 1000 people.
c Calculate the overall rate of
population change of the Death rate falls
country in which you live, due to better Small families
as a percentage. You will health care and
living conditions
need to find out the birth Birth rate
rate, death rate and net Death rate
migration. For any country
LOW
this information can be
TIME
found at: www.cia.gov/
library/publications/the- Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4
world-factbook/ Birth rate
Death rate
Natural increase

The Demographic
E Living in Dhaka, Bangladesh
Transition Model
The Demographic Transition Model is a model of
the way that population growth can be divided
into four stages as birth and death rates change
over time. It is based on what has happened
in Europe and North America. The part of the
graph representing population growth is the
area between the lines, where birth rate is
higher than death rate.

Task 4
a Make a copy of the Demographic
Transition Model in Source D. Shade in This photograph was taken in Dhaka, the capital city of Bangladesh, which is
the natural increase. in Stage 3 of the Demographic Transition Model. Nasrin, the girl shown in the
b Make a copy of the table under the graph. photograph, is 10 years old. She has three sisters who are aged 15, 7 and 3, and
Complete the first two rows of the table two brothers aged 12 and 5, and her mother is expecting another baby. The family
using the words high, low or decreasing. live in a two-roomed house which they have built themselves. Nasrin went to
Complete the third row using the phrases school until she was 8 years old, but now she spends her days selling home-made
small increase, large increase, slower necklaces at one of the main road junctions in the city, to earn money to buy food
increase and fluctuating. for her family.
c Today some countries have birth rates
that are lower than death rates, so their
population is declining. On your copy of Task 5
the Demographic Transition Model, add
an extra stage to show this and label it Read Source E. Compare your family and your lifestyle with those
‘Stage 5’. of Nasrin. You should write a paragraph and try to identify the main
similarities and differences.

5
CASE
STUDY 1a Rapid population growth in Niger

A Where is Niger?
LIBYA
N 0 250 km
ALGERIA
Madama
B Niger factfile
S A H A R A Total population 13.3 million
Population growth rate 2.9%
Grand Erg
de Bilma Life expectancy 44.3 years
AIR MO
Arlit T E N E R E
Erg du D E S E R T Literacy 28.7%
MALI Tenere
GDP per capita US$ 700
NT U

Agadez Population below poverty line 63%

AI
Ni g

Workforce
NS

NIGER
er

Tahoua • Agriculture 90%

S A H E L • Industry 6%
Niamey Zinder Diffa Lake
Maradi Chad
• Services 4%
Dosso
CHAD
BURKINA FASO
N
OO
NIGERIA
ER
CAM

BENIN
Task 1
Study Source A.
Niger – an LEDC in West Africa Describe the size and location of Niger. Refer to
The Republic of Niger is a land-locked country in West Africa, distance and direction.
named after the Niger river which flows through the south-west.
Its climate is mainly very hot and dry, with many desert areas. It Task 2
is an LEDC and is one of the poorest countries in the world.
a Make a copy of Source B. Draw an extra column
The largest ethnic groups in Niger are the Hausa and Djerma- and fill this in with information about the country
Songhai, sedentary farmers who live in the southern part of the in which you are living. For any country this
country. The rest are nomadic or semi-nomadic livestock-raising information can be found at:
peoples – Fulani, Tuareg, Kanuri, Arabs, and Toubou. www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-
factbook/
The population of Niger has grown from 1.7 million in 1960 to
b Use the information about Niger and your own
over 13 million in 2008. With a high population growth rate of
country to write a paragraph to show that Niger
2.9% it is expected to reach 56 million by 2050. Niger has the
is one of the poorest countries in the world.
highest fertility rate in the world (7.1 births per woman). This
means that nearly half of the population is under 15 years old.

C Birth and death rates in Niger

Task 3
Year Birth rate Death rate
Study Source C. (per 1000 people) (per 1000 people)
a Draw a graph to show the birth and death rates of Niger 2000 51.5 23.1
between 2000 and 2008. Use different coloured lines for 2001 50.7 22.7
each of the birth and death rates and shade in the area in
2002 49.9 22.3
between them that represents the natural population growth.
b Choose the correct words or phrases to complete the four 2003 49.5 21.7
sentences below about Niger: 2004 48.3 21.3
• Birth rates and death rates increased/decreased between 2005 51.3 21.2
2000 and 2008. 2006 50.7 20.9
• Birth rates between 2000 and 2008 were always higher/ 2007 50.2 20.6
lower than death rates. 2008 49.6 20.3
• Natural population growth in 2008 was 20.2/28.4/29.3
per 1000 people.
• This was higher/lower in 2008 than it was in 2000.

6 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 1 Topic 1

D
Falling death
rates
Over the past 100 years
death rates have been
falling in many parts of
the world.
There are now lower
death rates because:
• babies are inoculated
against diseases
• there are better
supplies of clean water
• people eat a better diet
• there are more clinics
and hospitals
• there is better health
education
• people enjoy better
living conditions
• women are becoming
better educated.
NIGER:
POPULATION
EXPLOSION
THREATENS
DEVELOPMENT
GAINS
If the people of Niger remain
uninformed about family planning
and keep reproducing at the current
rate, the country’s population will
more than quadruple by 2050, said 12, but some families said they would like
according to research by Niger’s national 40 or 50 children,’ said Adamou Soumana. For
statistics agency. Niger’s population will make poor families children are a source of wealth.
it impossible for the government to provide They work on the land, go into the towns to
adequate health, education, jobs and water – earn money and look after their parents when
tasks that it is already finding difficult, with a they are old.
fraction of the population.
Just 5% of the people of Niger use family planning
‘We surveyed the country and found that the and contraception. ‘People aren’t informed
average number of children per mother is 7.1. enough about the negative consequences of
However, we also asked them how many they having so many children,’ Soumana added.
would like to have – women said 9 and men

E An action plan
GOVERNMENT ACTION PLAN
Niger’s government has put
in place a plan to slow down
population growth.
The government wants the
number using family planning
to increase from 5 to 20% by
2015. The plan also calls for
information campaigns to educate
religious leaders and especially
women about the availability and
importance of family planning. It
proposes that the number of early
marriages be cut. Many girls in
Niger marry before the age of 15.
Raising the marriage age to 18
would take up to four years off a
woman’s reproductive life.
Task 4
Working in groups, discuss the reasons why death rates have been
reduced in many countries. Put the reasons in order of importance and
explain your group's order to the rest of the class.
Task 5
Study Source D.
Draw a spider diagram to show reasons why birth rates are still high in
Niger. To do this:
a Draw a circle in the middle of your page. Write in it ‘Why birth rates are
high in Niger’.
b Draw lines radiating from the circle.
c Write a reason at the end of each line.
Task 6
Study Source E.
a The government of Niger has an action plan to slow down population
growth. Design a poster that shows how it is attempting to do this.
b Explain why it will be difficult to persuade people in Niger to have
smaller families.

7
CASE
STUDY 1b Population decline in Russia

What is happening to
Russia’s population? A Birth and death rates in the former USSR
Source A shows Russia and the other 30 30

countries which, up to 1991, used to form 25 25

(per 1000 people)

(per 1000 people)

the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

Death rate
20 20

Birth rate
(USSR). Russia’s population is likely to Belarus Lithuania Latvia Estonia Russia 15 15

decline from 143 million in 2007 to 111 10 10

million in 2050. The main causes of this 5 5

are a high death rate, low birth rate and a 0 0

low level of immigration. Alcohol-related

deaths in Russia are very high and life Ukraine
expectancy is low. Russian women, who
are highly educated, do not want large
numbers of children. Immigration into
Russia is low, and many emigrants are
Moldova
moving away from Russia, particularly
to Western Europe to look for a
better lifestyle.

Georgia Armenia Azerbaijan Turkmenistan Uzbekistan Tajikistan Kyrgyzstan Kazakhstan

B Russia’s population
One pensioner for every Task 1
worker in 20 years’ time
Male life expectancy falls Study Source A.
to 59
a Name the country shown on the map with the highest
rate of natural population growth.
b Work out the population decline of Russia per 1000
sians with AIDS
More than one million Rus people.
c Name three other countries shown on the map that are
experiencing population decline.

Russian death rates highest in peacetime Task 2

an Study Source C.
Lowest ever birth rates at 1.1 per wom
a Describe how birth rates and death rates changed in
Russia between 1980 and 2008.
b Identify the years when the total population:
C Russian birth and death rates • increased • remained the same • decreased.

18 Task 3
Birth rate
16 Match the following beginnings and endings of sentences
Births/Deaths per 1000

14 to complete three sentences which explain why Russia’s

population is now declining.
12 Death rate Death rates … because Russian women prefer
10 are high … to have a career rather than
8
large numbers of children.
Birth rates … as more people move out of
are low … Russia than into the country.
0

00

02

04

06

08
8

9
19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

20

20

20

20

20

Year Population is lost … because of high levels of alcoholism,

through migration … heart disease and accidents.

8 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 1 Topic 1

D Population graphs for the G8 countries

Population since 1990 Adult HIV infection (2007)
1990
350
2004 Japan
300 2020 (projected) Germany
250 UK
Canada
Millions

200
France
150
Italy
100 USA
50 Russia

0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

Canada France Germany Italy Japan Russia UK USA % of all 15–49 year-olds
Life expectancy at birth TB infection (2007)
1990 Japan
85 2004 Germany
80 UK
Years

75 Canada
France
70
Italy
65
USA
60 Russia
Canada France Germany Italy Japan Russia UK USA
0 50 100 150 200
Russia is one of the G8 countries – of the world’s most powerful nations. Number of cases per 100 000 population

Task 4 E Cash for more babies!

Study Sources B and D.
A second baby? Russia’s mothers aren’t persuaded
a Use Source D to 19 May 2006
identify the main
President Vladimir Putin last week promised to spend some of the country’s oil profits on efforts
differences between to solve the population problem. He ordered parliament to more than double monthly child
Russia and the other support payments to 1500 roubles (about US$55) and added that women who choose to have
G8 countries. Use a second baby will receive 250,000 roubles (US$9200); a very large amount in a country where
figures and examples average monthly incomes are close to US$330.
in your answer.
On Monday, young women at the Family Planning Youth Centre in Moscow said they liked the
b Use Source B to
sound of more money, but suggested that Mr Putin has no idea about their lives. ‘A child is not
suggest reasons for an easy project, and in this world a woman is expected to get an education, find a job, and make
these differences. a career,’ says Svetlana Romanicheva, a student who says she won’t consider having a baby for at
least five years.
Task 5
Others say Putin is right. ‘Russian women typically have one child ... but many of my patients
Study Source E. would like a second if they felt they had enough support,’ says Galina Dedova, a doctor at Happy
Families, a private Moscow clinic. ‘Most of my patients count their roubles ... If they could get
A Russian couple are
more money, some might have more children.’
trying to decide whether
to have a second child.
Write a conversation
between them which
includes information
about the advantages Sample case study question
and problems of having For a country that you have studied, explain why
another child. it has a high rate of natural population growth.

9
TOPIC 2 Too many or too few?
A B

A beach in Mumbai, India A market stall in Rome, Italy

Overpopulation and C Population and resources

underpopulation
Source A shows a busy beach on a
hot summer day. There isn’t much
space for people to lie on the sand to
enjoy the sunshine or to play football
and cricket, and for those who want
to cool down in the sea there isn’t
even much space there. There are
Overpopulation Optimum population Underpopulation
too many people on the beach for
the families to enjoy it – the beach
is overpopulated. The sellers of ice
creams and cold drinks are happy though!
Source B shows a market place. The stalls have lots of produce
to sell but where are all the customers? People certainly have
What is overpopulation?
plenty of space to browse around but there are not enough If the number of people living in an area is greater than
people for the stallholders to make a living – the market is the resources available to support that population, it is
underpopulated. overpopulated. A large population in a country does
not mean that it is overpopulated. For example, there
are many people living in Germany but it has enough
Task 1 Task 2 resources to support its population. However, some
rural communities in parts of Africa are overpopulated.
Study Sources A and B. Study Source C. This isn’t because they are crowded with people but
a The beach is overpopulated. Make a Use the diagrams because there are not enough resources to support the
list of the problems this might cause to explain what is population living there.
for visitors and the people who live meant by:
and work in the resort. • optimum What is underpopulation?
b The market is underpopulated. Why population If the number of people living in an area is less than
is this a problem? • overpopulation is needed to make full use of the resources available,
c Look at the photo on page 3. • underpopulation. then the area can be described as underpopulated. For
Describe how the 'population'
example, Australia has many resources but it is not
might change during the day.
using them fully. The country could support a higher
Refer to overpopulation and
population, which means that it is underpopulated.
underpopulation

10 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 1 Topic 2

D Where is Indonesia? Island % of % of

N THAILAND Indonesia’s Indonesia’s
CAMBODIA
land population
VIETNAM Java 6.9 60.2
Andaman
Bali 0.3 1.6
Sea PHILIPPINES
South China Sea Sumatra 24.7 20.3
Kalimantan 28.1 4.8
Sulawesi 9.9 7.2
BRUNEI
Irian Jaya 22.0 0.8
M A L A Y S I A Celebes Sea

North Pacific Ocean

Equator 0°
Sumatra Kalimantan

Sulawesi

Irian Jaya
Java Sea PAPUA
Jakarta Banda Sea NEW
GUINEA
Java Bali
Indian Ocean
Arafura Sea

Timor Sea

0 200 400 km
AUSTRALIA

Indonesia’s Transmigration Scheme

Task 4
Indonesia is a country which consists of over 17 000 islands, about 9000
of which are inhabited. On some islands many people are crowded into a Study Source E.
relatively small area, whilst other inhabited islands are underpopulated. During a Java is overpopulated. Use evidence
the late 20th century the Indonesian government gave people incentives to from the photograph to list the
move from the overpopulated islands of Java and Bali to the islands of Irian problems this may cause in cities like
Jaya, Kalimantan, Sumatra and Sulawesi. The purpose of this transmigration Jakarta.
was to: b Rural parts of Java are also
• reduce the poverty and overpopulation on Java overpopulated. What problems could
• provide opportunities for hard-working poor people overpopulation cause in rural areas?
• provide a workforce to make better use of the natural resources of the
underpopulated outer islands. Task 5
Imagine you are an unemployed person
E Problems in Jakarta, Java living in Jakarta with a young family.
Task 3
With a partner, discuss the advantages
Study Source D. and disadvantages to you and your
a Draw a graph using family of migrating to Kalimantan
the statistics about the as part of the government’s
percentage of population Transmigration Scheme.
and area of the six You may want to carry out some
Indonesian islands. research about transmigration in
b What does the graph Indonesia, and the island of Kalimantan,
show about the imbalance to help you answer the question.
between population and
land in Indonesia?

11
CASE
STUDY 2a Overpopulation in Nigeria
Nigeria has a population of 140
million people with over 70%
living on less than one dollar
a day. It occupies only 3% of
Africa but has 15% of its people.
Overpopulation means depletion of
natural resources, increased levels
of air and water pollution, and lack
of essential services such as health
B Problems caused by overpopulation
Not enough
housing
Water and air
pollution
Shortage of food
and water
12 Cambridge IGCSE Geography
care and education. Overcrowding
has resulted in increased disease
levels, inadequate sanitation and
scarcity of resources for medical
care and education. Desperation to
survive has increased the crime rate
and the country now experiences
serious over-congestion of public
transport, roads and bridges.
Problems of overpopulation
in Nigeria
NIGER
BENIN
NIGERIA
CAMEROON
Gulf of
Guinea
Task 1
Study Source A.
a Using your own words,
write two sentences using
Nigeria’s population statistics
to show that the country is
overpopulated.
b Define the following terms:
• depletion of natural
resources
• lack of essential services
• inadequate sanitation.
Task 2
Study Source B.
Look at the six problems shown on
the spider diagram.
For each problem explain how it
can be caused by overpopulation.
High crime rates
Not enough health
care and education
Congested roads
 Theme 1 Topic 2

C Education and food supply in selected African countries

30
Nigeria
Task 3
Children under 5 who are underweight (%)

Study Source C.
25
a What percentage of:
• children attend primary
20 Ivory Coast school in Nigeria
Ghana • children aged under 5 are
15 underweight in Nigeria?
Botswana b Which countries are being
South Africa
Mali described below?
10
• 79% of children attend
primary school and 4% of
Egypt
5 children are underweight.
Kenya
• 62% of children attend
0
primary school and
50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 20% of children are
Enrolment at primary school (%) underweight.
c What relationship is shown
on the graph between the
D Life in Lagos, Nigeria Quality of life: the happiness, well- percentage of children who
being and satisfaction of a person. It is attend primary school and
affected by many factors – for example the percentage of children
family, income, access to services. who are underweight?
d What do the statistics on
the graph tell you about
overpopulation in Nigeria
compared with the other
seven African countries?

Task 4
Study Sources D and E.
Use the evidence in the
photographs and extract to
write a short newspaper article
about how overpopulation in
Nigeria affects the quality of
life of its people.

E Nigerian elections, April 2007

Nigerian polls bring hope of change in chaotic Lagos

Plagued by crime, residents of Nigeria’s sprawling commercial capital Lagos hope that elections will
bring change. In the last ten months 273 civilians and 84 policemen have been killed by criminals who
have been stealing cars, robbing banks and breaking into homes.
Many of Lagos’s 9 million inhabitants live in shanties, with no running water or sanitation, beneath the
skyscrapers of some of Africa’s biggest firms.
‘We have no running water and the power cuts are getting worse. I want things to change,’ said Osita
Mgbafule, 30, a trader, standing by an open sewer close to a polling station in the Surulere district.
Despite record oil prices which have helped to pay off most of Nigeria’s foreign debt, the
overpopulated West African nation of 140 million people is suffering the worst electricity crisis in
decades, while education and transport are shambolic.

13
CASE
STUDY 2b Underpopulation in Australia

A Australia
Arafura Sea
N Timor
Sea Darwin

Indian
Gulf of
Carpentaria Factfile Australia
Pa c i f i c
O ce a n Kimberley O ce a n
Plateau Area: 7 686 850 km2
NORTHERN
TERRITORY Population: 20 600 856

G
re
Macdonnell QUEENSL AN D Main agricultural products: wheat, barley, sugarcane,

a
t
Ranges
W E STERN fruits; cattle, sheep, poultry

Di
Simpson Great
AU STR ALIA

vid
Desert Artesian
Great Basin Brisbane Main industries: mining, industrial and transportation

ing R
Victoria SOUTH
Desert AUSTR ALIA equipment, food processing, chemicals, steel
NE W SO U T H

a
Perth WAL E S Oil production: 572 400 billion barrels/day

ng
Murray
Great River
e
Sydney
Australian Bight Adelaide Basin
Canberra Natural gas production: 38.62 billion m3
VICTORI A
Melbourne Value of exports: US$141.7 billion
Bass Strait
0 500 1000 km Tasmania

B USA
N Factfile USA
C A NA DA
Area: 9 826 630 km2
Lake
Seattle Population: 303 824 646
S

S up erior
DE

Lake
CA

Huron Main agricultural products: wheat, corn, other grains,

CAS

Lake Lake
ROCK

M ichigan O n t ario fruits, vegetables, cotton; beef, pork, poultry, dairy

M is

Lake Boston
Chicago Detroit products; fish; forest products
sou

Eri e
Y MOUN

ri

NS
SI E

Great Plains

New York
Main industries: petroleum, steel, motor vehicles,
TAI
RRA

hio

o O
ad
UN

Arkansa
aerospace, telecommunications, chemicals, electronics,
TA I N S

s
N

Washington DC
lor

MO
EVADA

Co

San
food processing, consumer goods, timber, mining
AN

Francisco
HI
issippi

AC

Red
Oil production: 8.322 million billion barrels/day
L
PA

Los AP
Miss

Angeles
At lan t ic
Natural gas production: 490.8 billion m3
New Orleans O cean
Pacific Houston Value of exports: US$1.149 trillion
O cean
ME X I CO
G ulf of Mexico Miami
0 500 1000 km

Underpopulated Australia
The USA and Australia are not very different in size, but the USA has
over 300 million people and Australia only 20 million. Many areas of Task 1
Australia are empty and the resources are not being used fully. The
country could support a higher population. This means that Australia Study Sources A and B.
is underpopulated. Indeed, successive Australian governments have Use the evidence in the maps and factfiles to
tried to increase its population, to develop the country economically explain why Australia can be considered to be
and to protect it from foreign influence. From only 3.7 million in 1901, underpopulated compared with the USA.
the population has increased to its current 20 million.

14 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 1 Topic 2

C Underpopulated Australia?

We’re
in a drought, so to Give benefits to
invite more people to share people having children
in the limited water supply on and the benefits should
the driest continent on Earth increase depending on the
doesn’t make much sense. number of children.

Australia is
a beautiful country, and
Who one of its great attractions is that
says Australia is there are so many wide open spaces,
underpopulated? Sure, and so few people in them. I would hate
it’s a whole continent but Australia to become like China or the USA!
most of it’s desert where We already have heaps of people here
no one wants to live. And from other countries who can’t speak
there’s not all that much English, and this causes problems
land for farming. in many areas. How should Australia
solve its underpopulation
problem? By relaxing the visa rules so
that more immigrants can get citizenship,
and by expanding the economy. If
Task 2 the economy is prosperous more
people will move here for job
Study Source C. opportunities.
a Identify three methods which could be used to solve
the underpopulation problem in Australia.
b Identify three problems which may be caused if more
people are encouraged to migrate to Australia. Sample case study question
c Explain why some people think that Australia is not Explain how underpopulation has caused problems in
underpopulated. a country or area you have studied.

15
TOPIC 3 Population structure and control
Planning for population change
The rapid growth in the world’s population
has been called a population explosion. Over A Counting the people The United Kingdom car
ries out a
the past 150 years improvements in health census every 10 years,
e.g. census
data is available from 184
care and sanitation around the world have 1 to 2001.
caused a fall in death rates. While birth rates
have fallen in MEDCs, they are still high in
LEDCs. So, overall, there are more people Germany has not taken a full
being born and more are living longer. census since 1987 because of
public concern about how the
data will be used.
Task 1
Study Source A.
in 1982,
China’s last three full censuses were
a Why do some governments carry out a
1990 and 2000.
census?
b Why is it difficult to compare the census
data from different countries? Nobody knows how many people there are in the world. Censuses take place at
c Give three reasons why census data different times. Some countries cannot afford censuses. Country boundaries change,
might be unreliable. so census data cannot be compared. People do not always complete the forms. Even
in MEDCs it can take over a year for the data to be published, by which time it is
d Do you have censuses in your country?
already out of date! So a world population figure is an estimate – but we do know it
When was the last census? When is the is growing.
next census?

B Age varies across the world Task 2

Study Source B.
a Describe and compare the modal
age-groups in MEDCs and LEDCs.
b Name a country with a high
modal age-group and a country
with a low modal age-group. Use
an atlas to help you.
c Suggest different problems that
these age groups may present to
governments.

Task 3
The modal age-group is the most common
age-group that is present in the country. Study Source C.
a Which two MEDCs will have the
highest percentage of population
C More old people in future over 65 in 2025? Suggest two
problems this will cause for each
Percentage of national population

20
By 2025 the world's population is expected to reach 7 billion. government.
A growing number of these people will be over 65. b Name two LEDCs from the graph.
aged 65+ by 2025

15
What difficulties will they have in
10 caring for their elderly population
in the next few years?
5

0
India Indonesia Mexico Turkey Brazil China Thailand Russia Poland

16 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 1 Topic 3

Population structure D Population pyramids

Demography is the study of Features of a population pyramid
people or populations. Population Population pyramids can give you information about
pyramids are very useful for three different groups of people.
demographers. They are created • The youngest age group of 0–15 are dependants
from census data. The population as they are usually of school age and depend on Daily exercise at Dujiangyan
structure can be clearly shown as a others for resources. School, Sichuan, China
population pyramid. • The 15–64 age group are usually working and Secondary schools in China can still have
young and elderly groups are dependent on them. up to 10 000 pupils in them despite a
Governments can identify where They provide resources that the other groups reduction in birth rates.
there may be population issues that depend on.
need policies and money to resolve • The elderly group from 65 upwards are dependants as they are not usually in work.
them. Perhaps too many babies are An LEDC population pyramid An MEDC population pyramid
being born and the birth rate needs A narrow shape at the top A broad shape at the top Age
reducing; or it could be the opposite. shows a low proportion of shows a high proportion 85+
people living into old age Age of people living longer 80–84
Maybe there are not going to be and a high death rate 75+ Women live longer 75–79 Women live longer
enough workers – so one answer 70–74
65–69
than men 70–74
65–69
than men
Indents show
may be to encourage immigration. Indents show higher 60–64 higher death rates 60–64
death rates than 55–59 than normal (war, 55–59
If there are going to be many old normal (war, famine, 50–54 famine, disease) 50–54
people in ten years’ time, their care disease) or through
emigration
45–49 or through
emigration or
45–49
40–44 40–44
needs planning for. 35–39 reduced birth rate 35–39
30–34 30–34
A wide base shows 25–29 A narrow base 25–29
a large number of 20–24 shows a small 20–24
children (high number of
Task 4 birth rate)
15–19
10–14 children (low
15–19
10–14
5–9 birth rate) 5–9
Study Source D. 0–4 0–4
12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 6 4 2 0 0 2 4 6
a List three differences in the % male % female % male % female
shape and structure of the two
Some causes of different population structures in LEDCs and MEDCs
population pyramids.
b How do the issues facing Typical of LEDCS – expanding Typical of MEDCs – reducing
the government of the LEDC
High death rate Low death rate
pyramid differ from those
illustrated on the MEDC High birth rate Low birth rate
pyramid? Low life expectancy High life expectancy

E Controlling population
China 2000 China 2025
Age Task 5 Age
100+ 100+
95–99 95–99
90–94
85–90
Study Source E. 90–94
85–90
80–84 80–84
75–79
70–74 a Describe the pattern of the 75–79
70–74
65–69
60–64 China 2000 pyramid from 65–69
60–64
55–59 55–59
50–54
45–49 ages 30 to 94. Why was China 50–54
45–49
40–44 40–44
35–39
30–34
becoming very concerned 35–39
30–34
25–29
20–24 about birth rates in the 1970s? 25–29
20–24
15–19
10–14
5–9
b What evidence is there of 15–19
10–14
5–9
0–4 a declining birth rate from 0–4
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Males Females 1970? Suggest a year when Males Females
Population (millions) the ‘one-child’ policy might Population (millions)
have been relaxed.
China is a country that has controlled c Look at the China 2025 Task 6
its population growth by limiting most pyramid. Does the one-child
parents to one child only. This policy policy appear to have been Imagine you were asked to carry out
was introduced in 1980. successful? What other issues a census of your school. Discuss in
will China’s government face? groups how you would do this.

17
CASE
STUDY 3a Reducing population in China

The population
A Demographic transition in China, 1950–2020
problem
Since 1949 the Chinese Communist
Party (CCP) has ruled China.
Until the early 1970s the CCP
showed little interest in controlling Nearly 1.3 billion people live in China – over one-fifth of the world’s population.
population growth. Indeed between 40 1.5
Estimates
1960 and 1970 the Chinese leader,
1.4
Mao Zedong, encouraged his people 35
to have large families. He believed 1.3

Billions
30
that more people meant a stronger
Rate per 1000 population

Population 1.2
China and that, in the event of war 25 Natural 1.1
with the USA, more people would population

Population
growth
ensure victory. By the early 1970s, 20 1
however, it was clear that there Birth rate
900
would not be enough food, jobs or 15
services to cope with the rapidly 800

Millions
growing population. A drastic 10 Death rate
700
solution was needed. In 1980 the
5
first one-child policy 600
was introduced to control 0 500
population growth. 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
Year

Task 1 Task 2
Study Source A. Study Sources A and B.
a State the birth rate, death rate and natural population change a Describe the changes in population 1959 to 1961.
for 1965. b Suggest reasons for these changes.
b How had these changed by 2005? Use data in your answer. c Give three reasons why the CCP encouraged large
c How did China’s population change between 1950 and 2005? families after 1963.
How might it change between 2005 and 2020? d What did the ‘Later, Longer, Fewer’ policy aim to do?

B A timeline of population ‘events’

1958–63 CCP introduces ‘The Great
Leap Forward’ 5-year plan: an attempt
to reform agriculture and industry, but
the changes are poorly implemented.
Floods and drought follow in 1959–62,
causing 20 million deaths through
disease and starvation.
1970s China realises that
high population growth is
unsustainable. The ‘Later, Longer,
Fewer’ policy is introduced. This
encourages parents to delay their
first child, allow a longer interval
between births and have fewer
children in total.
1984–2006 Population growth is
reduced from 2.4% to 1%. Average fertility
in 2006 down to 1.7 children per woman. The
one-child policy has precluded the need for
China to cope with 300 million extra births.
Some relaxing of policy in 21st century. Rural
families may have two children.

1963–70
Government encourages large
families to make China stronger. 1978–83 ‘One family, one child’ policy
1950s No major Average fertility in 1963 is 5.8 emerges. Rapid population growth seen
influence by CCP children per woman. In 1965 birth as barrier to development. China wants to
ruling party on rate reaches almost 40 per 1000. modernise four key areas: industry, agriculture,
population. defence, science and technology.

18 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 1 Topic 3

Consequences of the ‘One family, one child’ policy

China has the world’s biggest national population, with 1.3 can carry on the family line and lead proper ceremonies of
billion people. But the population is not balanced. There remembrance of ancestors dates back thousands of years.
are about 86 girls to every 100 boys in China. The desire for In rural areas boys are also preferred for farm work and
a boy is part of Chinese culture. The belief that only a son looking after their ageing parents.

C Where are the girls?

In some rural areas Some men divorce Some newborn N Parents who have
where boys are their wives if a girl is babies, especially two children in a
needed to help on the born. This way they girls, have been killed, short time often
farm and care for their can try again for a boy abandoned at birth pretend they are
parents, a second with a new wife. or sold to twins to avoid being
HEILONGJIANG
child is allowed if the ‘baby-traffickers’. fined. Others ‘park’ a
first is a girl. second child with
childless relatives.
JILIN
IA
OL
Women have been NG
XINJIANG MO LIAONING
ER
under pressure to INN BEIJING
Couples face being
GANSU
abort second fined for having a
pregnancies or HEBEI
TIANJIN second child. The fine
undergo forced SHANXI varies from US$400 to
sterilisation. NINGXIA SHANDONG US$14 000 depending
QINGHAI
Yellow on the region – this
JIANGSU Sea can be a year’s salary
SHAANXI HENAN for many workers.
Natural gender ratio at birth: TIBET
ANHUI
95 girls per 100 boys SHANGHAI
SICHUAN HUBEI
China average: CHONGQING
86 girls per 100 boys ZHEJIANG
After a major
Fewer than 80 girls HUNAN JIANGXI earthquake in May
GUIZHOU FUJIAN 2008, parents who lost
80–84 children no longer
YUNNAN TAIWAN had to pay fines for
85–89 GUANGXI GUANGDONG
having another child.
90–94 HONG KONG They could also adopt
MACAU
95 or more orphans if they had
Bay of 0 500 1000 km lost their only child.
No data Bengal HAINAN

D China’s population by age-group (est. millions)

Task 4
Age 1950 1995 2010 2025 2050 Study Source D.
.50+ 87 209 332 526 631 a Draw a graph to represent this data.
.20–49 228 594 665 597 529 b By how much is it estimated that population
.5–19 165 320 290 278 247
will grow between 1950 and 2050? Is there
evidence that the population will achieve
.0–4 76 103 93 86 78 stability?
Total 556 1226 1380 1487 1485 c What is expected to happen to the 0–4 and the
50+ age-groups over this period?
d Suggest problems that China’s rulers will face in
2050 if these estimates are correct. How could
Task 3 these be overcome?
Study Source C. Task 5
a Name one province with:
• fewer than 80 girls per 100 boys Write down three statements that support the
• more than 90 girls per 100 boys. ‘One family, one child’ policy, and three that are
b How does the distribution of provinces with the fewest girls against it as a way of controlling population. What
compare with those with the most girls? do you think? Justify your answer.
c The areas with the most girls are often rural farming areas.
What problems might this cause for farming traditions in China?

19
CASE
STUDY 3b Increasing population in Singapore

Singapore: one island, many people

Once a British colony, Singapore has been an independent BTotal
Population
populationchange in Singapore,
in Singapore, 1901–2000 1901–2000
city state since 1965. It has limited natural resources and
space and yet, in the last 40 years, it has become one of the 4000
most advanced manufacturing nations in south-east Asia. 3500

Number (thousands)
Despite this economic success the country has struggled to 3000
manage its population numbers.
2500
Since independence Singapore has introduced population 2000
control policies. From 1957 to the mid-1980s the 1500
government tried to discourage large families but then
1000
found population growth had become too low to provide a
500
young, vibrant workforce to develop the economy of the
future. In a reversal of policy the government decided to 0

01
11
21
31
47
57
70
80
90
00
encourage rapid population growth. Despite limitations of

19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
Year of census
living space, the population is now almost 4.7 million on an
island with an area of 620 km2. 1957 Population of 1.47 million but growing
quickly. Annual fertility rate (children
A Singapore – the crossroads of south-east Asia per woman) peaks at 6.4. Family
planning offered in 1959.
LAOS Hong Taipei Tokyo Manila
1965 Independence – no longer a British
THAILAND
Bangkok Kong Major city colony. Fertility rate down to 4.8.
CAMBODIA Government wanted to reduce
VIETNAM International
Phnom population as large numbers of children
95

boundary
33

Penh Ho Chi 47
53 and young people are seen as a threat
Minh 69 PHILIPPINES
23 712 Distance in
to living standards and political
1435

kilometres
1302

71
1090

stability: there would not be enough

25

Kota schools, hospitals and jobs, leading to

MALAYSIA BRUNEI Kinabalu N
3 civil unrest.
Medan 75 Kuala Lumpur 143
2 32
6
1970 Abortion and voluntary sterilisation
SARAWAK
SUMATRA
712 made legal. The 'Stop at Two" campaign
Singapore Kuching
43
2 introduced population ‘disincentives’
Padang BORNEO
such as:
I N D O N E S I A • extra taxes for a 3rd child
17
12
• no paid maternity leave for 3rd child
891

Indian • parents with more than 2 children

Ocean Jakarta could not enrol in best schools.
3879

JAVA BALI
Successful policies reduced fertility rate
0 250 500 km to less than 2 by 1980s.
Perth

C Population pyramid, 2000

Singapore 2000
Age
Task 1 Task 2
100+
95–99
90–94
Study Source A. Study Source B.
85–90
80–84
75–79
a Describe the location of a What is unusual about the year
70–74
65–69 Singapore. Why is it called ‘the interval on the horizontal axis?
60–64
55–59
50–54
crossroads of Asia’? Explain this.
45–49
40–44 b Calculate the average number b Describe how population
35–39
30–34
25–29
of people per square kilometre changed between 1901 and
20–24
15–19 in Singapore. 2000.
10–14
5–9
0–4
c Suggest three problems that c Give two examples of policies
250 200 150 100 50 0 0 50 100 150 200 250 an increasing population might used in the ‘Stop at Two’
Males Females cause for the island. campaign.
Population (thousands)

20 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 1 Topic 3

Increasing the population

By the 1980s the low rate of population growth was
causing the government some concern. Also, the most
educated citizens were having fewer children. In 1983
Prime Minister Lee Yuan Kew expressed his concern
that male university graduates preferred less well
educated wives, so female graduates were not getting
married and bearing children. In the mid-1980s
Singapore completely reversed its population policies.
Not only did it actively pursue policies to increase
population through natural growth and immigration.
It also developed policies to influence the type of
people who had children. In 1984, children of female
university graduates were offered places at the best
schools, and a grant of 10 000 SGD* was given to less
well educated women who agreed to be sterilised after
the birth of their second child.
* 1000 Singapore dollars (SGD) = 700 US dollars
D Mid-1980s to the 21st century: population too low …
HAVE THREE OR MORE, IF YOU CAN AFFORD IT Year
If you have three or more babies, look what you can get.
* Tax rebates for the third child.
* Subsidies for day-care.
1957
* Priority in enrolling at the best schools.
* Priority in gaining housing for large families. 1965
* Extended sick leave. 1975
* Up to 4 years’ maternity leave for civil servants.
1985
Contact our counselling service if you are considering
abortion or sterilisation. 1995
DON’T PASSIVELY WATCH OURSELVES GO EXTINCT!
2005
Task 3
Study Source C.
a How can you tell that policies to reduce the birth rate were in
operation after 1965?
b Suggest why the government reversed its policies and
encouraged population growth from the mid-1980s.
Task 4
Study Source D.
a List three incentives of the ‘Have Three or More’ scheme.
b Suggest which income groups this was aimed at. Why?
c What evidence shows that the scheme did not increase birth
rates? Suggest why.
d Give two reasons why Singapore’s population continued to grow.
Unfortunately, despite all the incentives, the birth
rate stayed at its lowest level of 1.4 children per woman in 1987
– far less than needed to maintain the population. Working people
wanted more material assets and men and women were keen to pursue
careers. Marriages were later too. The government tried other means such
Children as a campaign to promote the joys of marriage and parenthood and a
per matchmaking agency for those with A levels. It also offered a 20 000 SGD
woman tax rebate for the fourth child. But the birth rate remained low. However,
20 000 people enter Singapore each year to work and the population
6.4 continues to increase due to the large numbers born before the mid-1980s.
4.8 The problems facing the government will be a large elderly population
to be housed on limited land as well as a small working population
2.0 supporting a large number of old people.
1.6
1.7
Demographer at the
1.4
University of Singapore

E The next 50 years …

Task 5
Singapore predicts population will expand to 6.5 million in 40–50 years! Study Source E.
Singapore’s land planners are exploring new ways of a How will Singapore’s
creating space to accommodate a possible population
projected population
increase of 40% over the next 40 to 50 years.
change by 2050?
Faced with a declining birth rate, Singapore has b Look at the projected
embarked on an aggressive drive to increase its pyramid for 2050. Imagine
population. There are incentives to have more
children. Immigration will be encouraged. In 2006
you are the Minister of
the birth rate fell to a record low of 1.3 children per Housing Development.
female. This is the 28th consecutive year Write a short paper
it has dropped below the ‘replacement rate’ (maximum 150 words)
needed to maintain the population. outlining:
• three problems facing
the government
• three possible solutions
Sample case study question to these problems.
Present your views to your
For a country you have studied, describe the policies used by the government
classmates.
to reduce rates of population growth.

21
TOPIC 4 Population density
A Amman, Jordan B The Alps, France

Where do people live?

Task 1 Task 2
Source A shows part of Amman, in Jordan, where the
population is over 2.5 million. The large amount of work Study Sources A and B. Study Source C.
that is available there makes it possible for many people to Describe differences a Find a picture of your own
make a living. There is a great variety of different types of between the two areas of an area where lots of
jobs, for example in offices, shops, factories, transport and shown. Refer to: people live. Add labels to it
hotels. to explain why many people
• relief
Source B shows part of the Alps, in France, where few • accessibility live there.
people live. This range of fold mountains, the highest • employment b Find a picture of your own
in Europe, rises to 4810 metres above sea level. These opportunities of an area where very few
mountains are so high and steep that it is hard to make a • climate. people live. Add labels to it
living there. The slopes are difficult to build on, access is to describe the difficulties of
limited and winters are long and cold. living there.

C Factors influencing where people live

22 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 1 Topic 4

D World population density

E Areas of extreme climate Population density

Population density describes the
average number of people living
in a given area (this is usually a
square kilometre, or km2). It is
calculated by dividing the total
population by the area of land. If
all the people living in the world
were evenly spread over the
surface of the land there would
be about 6 people living in every
square kilometre. But, as you
have seen, in some areas lots of
people live close together in large
urban areas (towns and cities).
These are densely populated or
have a high population density,
e.g. north-east USA.
There are other areas where
few or no people live, such as in
mountainous regions and deserts.
Task 3 These are sparsely populated or
Study Sources D and E. have a low population density,
a Use the information on the maps to explain the link between population density e.g. central Australia.
and climate. Give examples in your answer.
b Many densely populated areas have a temperate climate. Find out what a
temperate climate is and write down its main features.

23
CASE
STUDY 4a Low population density in Namibia

A Regions of Namibia
ANGOLA ZAMBIA Region Population
density/km2
10 11
8 1
1 Caprivi 5.5
B Climate graph of the Karas region
12 5
N 2 Erongo 1.7
7 25° 25°
3 Hardap 0.6 Temperature (°C)
13
4 Karas 0.4 20° 20°
9 5 Kavango 4.2
2 15° 15°
BOTSWANA 6 Khomas 6.8
6
7 Kunene 0.6
10° 10°
8 Ohangwena 21.3
3
9 Omaheke 0.8 5° 5°
Atlantic
10 Omusati 8.6
Ocean 0° 0°
11 Oshana 18.7
4 SOUTH AFRICA
12 Oshikoto 4.2 80 80
Precipitation (mm)
0 200 400 km 13 Otjozondjupa 1.3
60 60

40 40

Namibia – an LEDC in Africa 20 20

0 0
The Republic of Namibia is a country in southern Africa on the Atlantic J F M A M J J A S O N D
coast, with a low GDP (Gross Domestic Product) per person of US$ 5200.
It gained independence from South Africa in 1990 and its capital city is
Windhoek. With an overall population density of 2.5/km2 it is one of the
most sparsely populated countries in the world. Much of the country is Task 1
desert, with a hot, dry climate. Rainfall is sparse and erratic and there are
prolonged periods of drought. The economy is dependent on the extraction On an outline map of Source A
and processing of minerals for export, for example diamonds and uranium. produce a choropleth map to show the
Mining employs only about 3 per cent of the population while about half of population density of the 13 regions of
the population depend on subsistence agriculture. Namibia. Use three shades of the same
colour for regions with:
• over 15 people /km2 (dark shade)
C The Karas region of Namibia • between 5 and 15 people /km2
X Y (medium shade)
• less than 5 people /km2 (light shade).

Task 2
Study Source B.
a What is the total annual precipitation
of the Karas region?
b What is the annual temperature
range of the Karas region?
Z

24 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 1 Topic 4

D Part of the Karas region

15°E 16°E 17°E 18°E
26°S 3 26°S
16
24 33
31 29 57 35
12
4 33 12
Koichab Pan C13 60 C14 16
31 16 2
24 18
34 6
110 24
55 17
Z Bethanie 13
12
18
16

122 10 17
B4 29 15
B4 14 34
3 55 15 16
Lüderitz 20
Kosis
10
4 16
Aus Goageb
Kolmanskop 50 12 21 12

27 Seebeim
C13 30
28
50
27°S 86 27°S
72 77

Kon
82
X

kiep
DIA M O N D A R E A 1
Y
h

Fis
( R ES T R I C T E D A R E A ) 32
100
Tarred road 30

Gravel trunk and main road 33

Gravel district road 47 43

B8 Major route C13

Minor road route Rosh Pinah Ai Ais 24
C27
28°S C10 28°S
123 Distance in km
Nature or game park Sendelingsdrif

River 72

Airport landing strip

International border
Railway Atlantic 60
Ocean 37
Oranjemund Part of
Major town
South Africa
Very small place
Noordoewer

0 50 100 km

29°S 29°S
15°E 16°E 17°E 18°E

Task 3 Task 4
Study Sources C and D. Explain why the Karas region is sparsely
The map shows part of the Karas region in southern Namibia, the most sparsely populated. Support your answer by
populated region in the country. The locations where the photographs were taken referring to evidence from the sources.
are shown on the map.
a Use latitude and longitude to give references for the position of each
photograph. (Note that 1°= 60'. The symbol ' is called a minute.)
b Write one sentence about each photo which clearly describes its main features.

25
CASE
STUDY 4b High population density in Japan

A Population distribution in Japan

Where do people live
Represents in Japan?
500 000 people HOKKAIDO
Japan is one of the most densely populated countries in the world with a
N
population density of 339/km2. However, the people are not spread out
evenly across the land. Some parts of Japan are densely populated but other
parts have very few people living there. Source A shows the population
Sea of distribution of Japan. The distribution shows the way in which people are
Japan spread out across the country.
HONSHU

Task 1
Study Source A.
Pacific
SHIKOKU Ocean Choose the correct word to complete the following sentences about the
KYUSHU distribution of Japan’s population:
0 200 km • The population is evenly/unevenly distributed.
• Most people live on Hokkaido/Honshu/Kyushu/Shikoku Island.
• Most people live along the borders/coast/rivers/mountains.

Task 2
Study Source B.
B Population density in Japan Rank the four Japanese islands from highest to lowest population density.

People per km2 Task 3

Over 500 HOKKAIDO
– industrial Study Sources A, B and C.
and urban areas
Describe the link between population density and relief in Japan.
100–500
– farming areas
Under 100
– mountain areas

N Sea of C Relief of Japan

HONSHU
Japan

Land over 500 m HOKKAIDO

Tokyo Land under 500 m
Nagoya
Osaka
Pacific
SHIKOKU Ocean
KYUSHU N
0 200 km
Sea of
Japan
Population Area (km ) 2
HONSHU
Hokkaido 5 601 000 83 500
Honshu 103 423 000 230 500
Kyushu 13 316 000 42 150
Pacific
Shikoku 4 063 000 18 800 SHIKOKU Ocean
KYUSHU
0 200 km
Tokyo is a crowded capital city

26 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 1 Topic 4

D Different population densities

Low-density rural areas
Over two-thirds of Japan is mountainous, with high land and steep slopes.
These areas include the central part of Honshu Island and the southern part
of Shikoku Island. Few people live here because:
• there is not enough flat land to grow food on
• soils are thin, acidic and infertile
• many areas are isolated and remote as the winding roads are poor and
there are few if any other communications
• there is little work except forestry as there are few natural resources
• the climate is often extreme, with long cold winters and heavy rain or
snow.
Northern Japanese Alps
High-density rural areas
Outside the urban areas, on the flat valley floors and gently sloping lower
slopes of Honshu and Kyushu Islands, many people live in villages or small
towns, between which there are many farms. Some people are farmers but
others commute daily to the large cities where they work. These areas are
densely populated because:
• crops can easily be grown on the fertile soils of the flat or gently sloping
land
• it is easy to use farm machinery on flat land
• the warm temperate climate means a variety of crops can be grown
• good roads and railways make it possible to live in the countryside and
work in the cities.
A village in Gifu prefecture, Japan
High-density urban areas
Towns and cities stretch along the coasts, particularly on Honshu Island.
Almost a half of Japan’s population live in the areas around Tokyo, Nagoya
and Osaka. These areas are densely populated because:
• on the flat land it is easy to build
– towns and cities
– factories, offices and other commercial buildings
– road and rail networks
– airports
• on the coast there are many ports and harbours which have led to
– the import of raw materials
– the export of manufactured goods
Tokyo cityscape – the development of a fishing industry.

Task 4 Task 5
Study Source D. A large part of Japan’s population lives in the Tokyo, Nagoya
Draw a table like the one below and fill in the details. and Osaka areas.
Working in groups, carry out research on why so many people
Low- High- High-
density density density live in these areas.
rural rural urban You may want to use the Internet or other sources to prepare
areas areas areas
a presentation. In your presentation you should include
Relief information about:
Communications • relief
• climate
Economy
• employment.

Sample case study question

For a named area that you have studied, explain why it has a high population density.

27
TOPIC 5 International migration
A Important definitions Task 1
Study Source A. Write down
Type of the differences between:
migrant Definition Example
• an asylum seeker and a
Asylum seeker A person who has left their country of origin People leaving conflicts in refugee
for fear of persecution. They have asked for South-east Asia arriving by • an international and a
permission to stay in another country and boat from Indonesia to seek national migrant.
are waiting for a decision on this. asylum in Australia.
Refugee A person who has been forced to leave Movement of Georgians Task 2
their country of origin in fear of their lives. out of South Ossetia due
They run away often with no idea where to occupation by Russian Study Sources A and B.
they will end up and with no permission to troops.
stay in another country.
Make a table showing origin
and destination countries of
International A person who moves to live and work in Polish workers moving within three migrations. Add any
migrant a different country for at least a year. If the European Union (EU)
they move for better work they are called into the UK. other international migrations
economic migrants. you know of.
National A person who moves to live and work in Moving from a rural village
migrant another place within the same country. in West Bengal to live and
work in Kolkata, India.
C Push and pull factors
Illegal A person who enters a country to live and People smuggled by
immigrant work there without permission. boats from Morocco into Push factors Pull factors
Fuerteventura, a Spanish – Migration
– + + +
island off the African coast. –
– – – – + + + +
–
– – – + +
– – – + +
– – – Intervening +
B On the move – migration in the news! – – obstacles +
+
+

Holiday island spoilt by seaborne Origin Destination

immigrant invasion
The tiny island of Lampeduza, just off
the north African coast, is known as the
‘European tropics’. It is a hot, arid land of
palm trees, cacti and coral. But, through the
heat haze, you can see the Italian coastguards
bringing in boatloads of exhausted and
dehydrated would-be immigrants from north
Africa. Between January and August 2008
over 15 000 have arrived on the Italian island
but over 400 died on the journey across the
Mediterranean Sea. Each migrant has paid
Migration changes population distribution
Another boatload arrives from north Africa
about US$ 3000 for the chance to travel in an
overloaded, ramshackle boat to the ‘Promised
Land’ from Libya and Tunisia.
+ Positive factors
– Negative factors
Push factors are to do with where
people are living. These are reasons
to move away from that place, e.g.
there is no work available due to
drought.
Pull factors are to do with where
people wish to move to. These
are reasons that attract people to
the new place, e.g. freedom from
persecution.
Intervening obstacles may be many,
e.g. cost of moving, passport/visa
issues, physical obstacles.

The distribution of the world’s population is constantly changing. One reason for this
is the number of people moving to live and work in a new country from another
country. This is called international migration.
Today immigration (moving in to live and work in another country) and emigration
(moving out to live and work in another country) are much easier to achieve than many
years ago. Aeroplanes, railways, ferries and cars make migration possible. Many people
choose to migrate for positive reasons. Some people, however, are forced to move out of
countries and are not always welcome at their destinations. Whether forced (involuntary)
or voluntary, migration is an issue that affects many countries.

28 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 1 Topic 5

The European Union and migration

After the Second World War in Western Europe (1939–45) many countries wanted peace and stability. They
began to work together and trade together. From small beginnings in 1948, with Belgium, the Netherlands and
Luxembourg working together (known as Benelux), the European Union (EU) has grown to 27 countries –
known as member states – with others applying to join. The EU represents almost 500 million people. One of the
impacts of working more closely with each other is that people can move within the EU without the need to show
their passport or get a visa. This has caused a great deal of movement, or migration, between the EU countries.

D Several countries, one Europe

Task 3
Study Source C.
In 2008 there were 27 member
countries, known as EU-27. The
a How are push and pull factors
EU contains almost 8 per cent of different?
the world’s population and creates b Below are two examples of
about 30 per cent of the world’s push and pull factors. List them
Gross Domestic Product (GDP). in a table and write down which
is push and which is pull. Add
two other examples of each –
but avoid opposites.
• Drought means crops cannot
grow.
• Chance of a better education
in a nearby town.

Task 4
Study Source D.
a How many countries made up
the EU before 2004?
b Describe the EU expansion that
took place after and including
2004.
c How has the EU made it easier
to move between countries to
live and work?

Task 5
Study Source E.
a Discuss the advantages and
disadvantages of increasing
freedom of movement within
the EU.
b How has your country been
affected by migration?

E The EU – some migration issues

Advantages
1 Encourages greater mixing of European cultures.
2 Freedom of movement means that workers can easily move to
other countries to fill job vacancies.
3 EU funds can be used to improve transport and infrastructure in
poorer countries.
Disadvantages
Countries may lose their distinctive culture.
Large movements of workers from poor to rich countries may cause
resentment, racism and conflict.
Large companies from the richer countries may move into poorer
countries, forcing local businesses to close.

29
CASE
STUDY 5 Polish workers move into the UK

A The A8 countries and the UK

FINLAND
The A8 countries NORWAY
Average income

Unemployment
in 2005 (% of
labour force)
SWEDEN
A8 country

N ESTONIA
RUSSIA
(US$)

Scotland LATVIA
DENMARK Part of
Czech 9.130 8. UNITED RUSSIA LITHUANIA
Republic Northern
KINGDOM
Ireland
Estonia 7.080 10. Koszalin
England BELARUS
REPUBLIC Boston
Hungary 8.370 5. OF IRELAND Wales NETHERLANDS WARSAW
Latvia 5.580 11. (EIRE) LONDON GERMANY POLAND
BELGIUM CZECH
Lithuania 5.740 12.
REPUBLIC UKRAINE
Poland 6.100 19. LUXEMBOURG SLOVAKIA
Slovakia 6.480 18. AUSTRIA MOLDAVIA
FRANCE SWITZERLAND HUNGARY
Slovenia 14.770 7. SLOVENIA ROMANIA
UK 33.630 5. 0 200 400 km ITALY CROATIA

In come the A8 countries …

In 2004 eight countries from eastern Europe
Task 1
joined the European Union. All of these countries Study Source A.
had relatively high unemployment and wages a Describe the location of the A8 countries in relation to the UK.
around 40 per cent of the EU average. With the Refer to distance and direction.
freedom of movement available within the EU, b Draw a bar graph in rank order of average income (highest first) for
many workers from these countries migrated the A8 countries.
to work in other EU countries. Nearly 600 000 c From which A8 countries would you expect the highest and lowest
migrants chose to work in the UK in 2004. The emigration based on these statistics? Justify your choices.
largest number (62 per cent) were from Poland.
Task 2
B Working in the UK Study Source B.
a What and where is the Sciana Placzu?
b What suggests that most jobs are low-paid?
c Which unskilled and skilled jobs are the most popular that the
migrants do?

Examples of jobs being done by east Europeans in the UK (2006)

UNSKILLED Numbers SKILLED Numbers
Factory worker 40.270 Lorry driver 1920.
The Sciana Placzu – the so-called Wailing Wall – is in Kitchen assistant 11.800 Bricklayer 445.
King Street, Hammersmith, London. Here Poles gather Packer 11.650 Computing/IT 130.
to look for work in the UK. It is better known in Poland
than in the UK. Here you will find qualified doctors Farm worker 9.145 Plumber 95.
scribbling down details of work in catering and cleaning Cleaner/domestic staff 8.895 Barrister 10.
or giving out restaurant leaflets. But the rate of pay is Building labourer 4.585 Circus performers 10.
hardly ever mentioned!

30 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 1 Topic 5

C Positive and negative impacts

For the UK For the Poles

Positive Negative Positive Negative

Jobs filled that UK Fewer jobs for unskilled Chance of a job May leave family at
workers do not want UK workers home
Can pay low wages May move back once Better pay than in Poland May encounter
earned money hostility in UK
Will work long hours Anti-immigration issues Can save money and return Language and cultural
and racism to improve life in Poland issues in the UK
Increased population Services such as hospitals Chance to get away from May struggle to obtain
will spend more in and schools cannot cope living with parents as they housing in the UK;
local economy with extra numbers cannot afford to move out some end up homeless
D Johanna’s journey

Behind the 19th-century town centre
buildings, Koszalin (population
140 000) is crumbling. Its industry
has died, investment is crumbling and
unemployment at 23% is among the worst
in Poland. Since joining the EU in 2004
hundreds of young Poles have left their
families to ‘catch our dreams’. Johanna
Rosinska (25) is one of them. She is known
as a ‘boomerang migrant’ – one who
migrates overseas to work hard, saves hard
and then returns home to use the money to
set up a business. She eventually plans to
run a florist shop in Koszalin so has found
work as a gardener. Although Johanna is
a graduate in agricultural studies, Poland
cannot provide work for most graduates so
she has to migrate overseas.

E Polish migration into Boston, UK

In 2001 the population
of Boston was 55 700. Seven years
later it was estimated at 70 000 – a rise
of over 25 per cent. Most of these are migrant
workers from eastern Europe, especially Poland. They
do make a vital contribution to the local economy and
there is plenty of work on the farms and in factories. But
rapid migration brings problems, for example there are 65
different languages spoken here – you sometimes feel there
are more foreigners now than English people! Pressure is
also put on public services – houses and hospitals can’t be
provided that quickly – and, anyhow, we can’t be certain
that the migrants will stay in Boston.
Task 3
Study Sources C and D.
a Give one advantage and one disadvantage of Polish migration into the
UK. Do this for the UK and then for Polish migrants.
b Give two push and two pull factors which explain why young people are
leaving Koszalin in Poland to work in the UK.
c Why is Johanna Rosinska a ‘boomerang migrant’?
Task 4
Read Source E.
a By how much did the population of Boston rise between 2001 and 2008?
b What types of jobs were the migrants recruited to do?
c How have Polish migrants changed the community?
d Imagine you were migrating to Boston to live and work.
• What sorts of problems might you come across?
• How might you solve them?

Task 5
In 2008 many Poles decided to return to their home country using money
Boston earned in the UK to settle there. Suggest some advantages and disadvantages
Councillor of Poles returning to Poland, for the home country and for the UK.

Sample case study question

Name two countries between which people have migrated. Explain
why migration has taken place between these countries.

31
TOPIC 6 Rural settlements Why did
people begin
to live here?
Locating settlements When did
Unless you live a nomadic life, you will be living in people begin to
a fixed place such as a village or a town or city. If live here?
you live in an MEDC you are likely to be living in
a town or city – an urban area. Over 85 per cent of
people in MEDCs live in towns or cities. However,
in LEDCs the pattern is different. In many LEDCs
over 75 per cent of people still live as nomads How has the
or villagers in the countryside – in rural areas – settlement changed in
despite the growth of large cities. This is partly my lifetime?
because most of them have to provide their own How
food through farming. will it
A Questions about where you live change in the
future?
B Africa’s urban and rural population
North Africa is the area of the N
continent that includes much of
the Sahara Desert and borders the Task 1
Mediterranean Sea. These countries a In which country do you live? Is this
are part of the Arab world.
an MEDC or an LEDC? Explain your
Sub-Saharan Africa is the area
of the continent that lies south of
choice.
the Sahara Desert. It includes those b Do you live in an urban or a rural
countries that are entirely south of area?
the Sahara Desert and c Describe the location of your home
those that are partly in Urban population % in relation to your school.
the southern section of
70 or more
d Discuss your answers to the
the desert. questions in Source A. Add three
The African 60–69
other questions.
population is mostly 50–59
rural. Only around 40 40–49
per cent live in urban
areas. East Africa, with
30–39 C World poverty facts and figures
20–29 0 1000 km
23 per cent, is far less
urbanised than West Less than 20 * 1.2 billion people – one in five of the global
Africa (with 40 per Division between North population – live in absolute poverty (on
cent) or southern Africa Africa (The Arab World) income of less than US$ 1 per day).
and sub-Saharan Africa
(with 43 per cent). * 75% of these people live in rural areas and
60% of the people who live in absolute
poverty will still live in rural areas by 2025.
* Over 50% of the poor depend directly on
agriculture for their livelihood.
Task 2
* Over 70% of the poor live in south-east
Study Source B. Asia and sub-Saharan Africa.
a On an outline map of Africa create your own
map showing rural population. You will need
to change the key in Source B to do this. Use Task 3
choropleth shading to complete your map.
b Use either map to identify: Study Source C.
• two countries with a low rural population a What proportion of people live on less than US$ 1 per day? Find
• two countries with a high rural population. out the current exchange rate for US$ 1 in your currency. Could
c Compare the rural population of north Africa you live on this?
with that of sub-Saharan Africa. b Do most of these people live in rural or urban areas? Suggest
Suggest reasons for any differences. reasons why the poorest people live in these areas.

32 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 1 Topic 6

Rural settlement D Contrasting patterns in sub-Saharan Africa

patterns vary
Wellingara
Wellingara
Villages have usually grown over
hundreds of years. They were not Bantanding
Bantanding Toranka
Toranka
planned but there were usually Nyang’ande
Nyang’ande
Wellingara
good reasons for people to create a
village community at a particular Wellingara Bantand
Nyang’ande
place. Types of rural settlement
range from isolated farms to hamlets Bantanding Toranka
Nyang’ande
to villages.
0 0 1 km
1 km
Kisumu
Kisumu East,
East, Kenya
Kenya Mdungu
Mdungu Kebbe,
Kebbe, Gambia
Gambia
Task 4 Houses
Houses Town
Town or village
or village
Built-up
Built-up area
area 0 1 km
Study Source D. Kisumu East, Kenya Mdungu K
a Compare the settlement Nucleated Houses
settlements have their buildings0 1 km settlements, such as farms and
Dispersed Tow
Kisumu East, Kenya Mdungu Kebbe, Gambia
density of the two areas. clustered together, usually around a central
Built-up areaisolated buildings, are scattered across the
Houses Town or village
b How are the settlement point. They can vary in shape. A small number countryside, often in highland areas. Villages
patterns in Kisumu East and Built-up
of clustered housesarea
form a hamlet, a large are often surrounded by dispersed settlements.
Mdungu Kebbe different? number form a village.

0 1km
E Selecting a settlement site
E F
N The area is divided into six zones. Each
er
zone offers a different opportunity for
Riv
225
265 settlement.
A Part of low-lying marshland
B Low ridge of limestone

269 C Part of low-lying marshland

15
45
45 D A gently sloping area at the foot
15
30
of hills
er
R iv 150
E A steeply sloping west-facing
hillside
er
R iv

F The exposed upland surface of

A B C D the hills

Task 5 Calculating the Attractiveness Index

Study Source E. This is a contoured sketch map of the relief and Positive factors Negative factors
drainage of an area. A B C D E F A B C D E F
a Assess the attractiveness of each zone for settlement using Water available 1 1 1 1 0 0 Lack of water 0 0 0 0 1 1
the five factors in the table (right). You should copy this table
Gentle slopes 1 Steep slopes 0
and insert either 0 or 1 against each factor. For example, in
Zone A there is a stream so it scores 1 for ‘available water’. Low altitude 1 High altitude 0
Complete the scoring for Zones B–F. Good natural 1 Poor natural 0
b Add the total positive and negative scores for each zone. drainage drainage
Subtract the negative from the positive for each zone. This No flood hazard 0 Flood hazard 1
gives you the overall score of attractiveness for each zone. TOTALS 4 TOTALS 1
Zone A has been completed for you. Attractiveness Index for Zone A = Positive total – Negative total = 3
c Put your zones in order of attractiveness and then compare
your table with those of others in your class. Discuss any
differences.
d Discuss and list other information you would need before
you made a final decision on the best site.

33
CASE
STUDY 6a Rural settlement in Ethiopia

Rural settlement
Ethiopia lives off the land. More than 75 per cent of the population depends
on agriculture for a living but only 13 per cent of the land can be used
for crop production. The rest is forest, mountain, savanna and pasture
land. The majority of people live in villages or roam the desert as nomadic
Ethiopia is the most mountainous pastoralists. Small communities have been created where there is the
country in Africa. Some 85% of possibility of growing crops and the availability of water. Many of these
Ethiopians live in the highlands are in the Ethiopian Highlands where, despite the steep slopes, rainfall is
in small villages. plentiful and the plateaus provide flat ground.

Task 1
Study Source A.
The flat plateaus, with fertile
soils and terraced slopes, are
a Imagine you were taking this
intensively cultivated, but soil photograph from an aeroplane. Write a
is washed into the Blue Nile due two-minute description of the scene to
to deforestation. Barley, wheat, be used on your local radio station.
maize, peas and beans are grown. b Draw an outline sketch of this
photograph. Label the following:
• steep slopes
• flat plateaus
• fields
• huts and settlements.
c Describe the location of the settlements.
Heavy rainfall (over 1500 mm a
Include references to site and situation
year) and high temperatures in
the mountains are good for crops.
from Source B.
But the rain does not always
arrive on time, so planning is
difficult.

A Rural settlement in the Ethiopian Highlands

34 Cambridge IGCSE Geography


B What interests geographers about settlements?
Site: the actual land occupied by the settlement, e.g. on flat land,
on fertile soils, on a hilltop, at a bridging point, in a gap
between hills.
Situation: the location of the settlement in relation to the area around
it, e.g. close to a reliable water supply, close to a main route,
close to other settlements for trade and services.
C A lowland village near Addis Ababa
0 400 km
N
Red Sea
ETHIOPIA
Addis Ababa
Korodegaga
Korodegaga village is a collection of nine
small hamlets south of Addis Ababa. It
has a population of about 1400 living
in 300 houses. This area was first settled
in the early 20th century by nomadic
pastoralists. There were many advantages
for settlement. It had access to water from two rivers, flat fertile soil,
and forests for building and firewood. Here maize, tef* and beans
could be grown and cattle, sheep, goats and hens kept.
The main disadvantage is lack of rain all year. Drought is a major
problem and hunger and starvation are common. Korodegaga is more
fortunate than other nearby villages. It receives around 600 mm
of rain from June to August but then has a nine-month dry season.
However, irrigation is practised and the rivers do not dry up. This is
important as the sandy soil does not hold water for long. One other
problem is that the heavy rain can wash away soil into the rivers.
In recent years a number of changes have taken place.
Task 2
Study Source C.
a Describe the location of the village in relation to Addis Ababa.
b Describe the site and function of this village.
c Give three advantages for the villagers of this location.
d How have problems caused by the dry season been overcome?
e How has the village changed in the last 30 years?
f What part has Self-Help International played in changing the village?
Theme 1 Topic 6
Shape: the shape of the village, e.g. linear (along a river
valley or road) or nucleated (around a crossroads or
on a hilltop).
Function: the main activities of the settlement, e.g. defence,
farming, mining.
Deforestation since 1980 for firewood and housing is a problem
as it encourages soil erosion by wind and rain. Also, extra settlers
have moved in here since 1990. The services are an attraction with
schools, mosques, rafts to cross the river and a grain mill. Self-Help
International (an NGO based in the USA) has also sponsored an
irrigation scheme since 2001 providing water for 130 households
using pumps running on diesel. Although there is no market or shop
here, villagers walk to Dera (25 km), Bofa (10 km) or Awash Melkase
(8 km) to access these services.
* tef: an important grain crop only grown in Ethiopia from which a
form of bread is made
Adapted from Ethiopian Village Studies – University of Bath
Task 3
Self Help International (SHI) is advertising for an
18-year-old student to spend a ‘gap year’ helping
people in villages like Korodegaga. The job is
voluntary but all expenses are paid.
a Suggest different ways in which SHI could
advertise the post.
b Choose one way and create the job advert.
35
CASE
STUDY 6b Rural settlement in France

Countryside changes
Dramatic changes have affected the French countryside in Rural populations have changed too. Young people have
the past 50 years. Changes in farming activity, often driven moved to urban areas, leaving an ageing population facing
by the European Union (EU), have led to larger fields, a decline in services. Replacing these younger people
fewer hedgerows and different crops being grown. Farmers are people from other countries who often buy a second
have also diversified into using their land for other activities home, and tourists. Despite these changes, the pattern of
such as caravan parks and renting out barns and cottages rural settlement, which has been established over many
(gites) to tourists. Some have sold land for new housing on centuries, can still be recognised. It is what goes on in
the edge of villages to urban commuters. the village – its function – and where it takes place – its
structure – that is changing.
A Rural France is changing
FOR SALE: Silfiac, BRITTANY Task 1
160 000 euros*
Beautiful large farmhouse for Study Source B, an area of Normandy.
sale, fully renovated, centrally a What is the scale of this map? Calculate the area shown
heated, 4 beds, 2 baths, wood- on the extract to the nearest square kilometre.
burning stove and original beams. b Describe the relief of this area of Normandy. Refer to
Planning permission for 2 gites heights given.
with large stone barn ideal for
c On an overlay or tracing paper, mark off the
more gites set in 3100 m2 of land
with original well.
settlements and name them.
Mild weather, scenic views of hills, d To what extent is this pattern ‘nucleated’?
just 5 min. walk from fishing lake e Identify one grid square that shows examples of linear
and bar/crêperie, not on a main road, surrounded by open fields. settlement. Suggest why settlements may develop in a
* 1000 euro is approximately US$ 1500 linear pattern.

Task 2
Hedgerowed pastures, gorse heaths, dense forests, and
vineyards roll away inland where there are scattered sleepy Study Source C, an area of Brittany.
slate-roofed villages, elegant manor houses and hidden a Give a six-figure reference for the highest point on this
castles – this is Brittany’s countryside or pays. But change is map.
happening in rural areas. Silfiac (pop. 449), in central Brittany, b Compare the relief of this area with that in Normandy.
is a village that typifies such changes. Due to the ageing
c In what ways is the pattern and size of settlements
population the school at Silfiac is now closed. The village has
different to Normandy?
lost local people, especially the younger generation, who have
moved to urban areas for work or other services.
Task 3
Villagers now visit superstores in nearby towns like Pontivy;
small shops such as boulangeries* and post offices have Silfiac in Brittany is a village that has undergone change.
closed. The café, a garage and Le Relais Armoricain restaurant Study Sources A and C.
remain but rely on passing tourist trade more than local a In which four-figure grid-square is Silfiac? Describe the
people. Urban commuters, however, are moving into new location of Lanouan.
houses being built on the edge of the village where farmers
b How has the village and the area around it changed in
have sold land.
the last 20 years? Write about people, services and the
Near to Silfiac another change is taking place. At Lanouan environment.
some local owners and migrants from the UK are renovating c Suggest why the area is attractive to people from the
nine old farmhouses and barns. Of the four UK owners, two
UK. Suggest any advantages and disadvantages that
have migrated permanently and two use them as second
people from other countries have brought to Silfiac and
homes. French owners may rent them out as gites for tourists.
Tourists can also stay at the Arts and Language Centre which the area around the village.
used to be a French Catholic school but is now English-owned
and run. With Silfiac being only a one-hour drive from ferry
ports to England, such as Roscoff, UK owners and tourists are Sample case study question
a common sight here.
For a named area that you have studied in an LEDC,
* boulangerie = baker
explain why rural depopulation has occurred.

36 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 1 Topic 6

12
B Rural settlement in Normandy, France Nucleated
settlements have
often developed
in lowland areas
where land is
fertile. These areas
attracted people
many years ago to
settle here and farm.
11 Each parish farmed
a similar amount
of land around it
to feed a similar
population. This
led to a pattern of
clustered villages at
fairly equal intervals
across the landscape.
Sometimes,
10 within nucleated
settlements, there is
an important road
or a narrow river
valley. In these cases
settlements often
develop along the
road or valley in a
linear (or ribbon)
shape.
9
39 40 41 42 43
35 C Rural settlement in Brittany, France
Dispersed
patterns are
often found in
upland areas
where settlement
is difficult. Here
people settled
in small farms
and hamlets in
areas which may
34
be sheltered, or
provide a route
through the hills
or have some
potential for
growing crops or
grazing livestock.
Settlements are
small, randomly
located and
33 isolated due to
the difficulties of
living here.

Scale for both

maps is 1:25 000
(4 cm = 1 km)
32
86 87 88 89 90
37
TOPIC 7 Urban settlements
A A settlement hierarchy
Settlement hierarchy
Increase in size
A settlement hierarchy shows how settlements in any area can be put in of settlement,
order based on their size or the services that they provide. Higher up the population and
number of
hierarchy the population size and number of services in the settlement services
increases, although in any area there are fewer large settlements than Capital Above 2 million
small ones. city

Settlements in an area depend on each other as people will use a variety of URBAN
Regional 150 000–500 000
services found in different settlements. The area served by a settlement is centre
known as its sphere of influence. The size of this will depend on the type
and number of services offered by the settlement and the transport links to it. Large 25 000–150 000
town
Rural settlements only have a few services, which are low order services.
Low order services are those that are used often, for example a small Small 2500–25 000
general store which sells convenience goods. Urban settlements have a town
greater number and variety of services, including both low order and high
order services. High order services are not needed so often. They may sell Village 100–2500
comparison goods, such as furniture or clothing, and people are usually RURAL
prepared to travel further to buy them. The distance that people are prepared
Hamlet 10–100
to travel to use a service is known as its range.
In order to make a profit a shop or service needs a minimum number of
potential customers, which is known as its threshold population. Services
providing low order goods or services need a lower threshold population
(as the service is used daily) than high order services, which need many
more potential customers and thus have a higher threshold population.
Task 1
Study Source A and a map of the country
B Different types of services in which you live.
Draw a settlement hierarchy diagram for
your country. In your diagram you should
name examples of the settlements of
different sizes.

Gdansk, Poland

Mumbai, India

Lexington, North Carolina, USA

Task 2
Study Source B.
Identify the services in the photographs which are:
• high order services selling comparison goods
• services that could be found in villages, towns or cities
Madrid, Spain • services with a large sphere of influence
Georgia, USA
• services that need a high threshold population.

38 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 1 Topic 7

C Functions of urban settlements The function of a

settlement is its main
Market town: where farmers buy and sell goods. These:
economic activity or
• are found in farming areas purpose.
• have many services, e.g. shops and offices
• have good transport links – often they are route centres The functions of many
• are often near bridges over rivers (mills to process farm produce were settlements have
built on the river) changed over time.
Newark, UK • have a market place in the town centre.
Example:
Marmaris (Turkey)
Port: where goods are loaded and unloaded by ship. These:
In the 1960s Marmaris
• are found where there are sheltered harbours, such as on an estuary, was a small, attractive
at the mouth of a river or in a bay fishing village. Few
• have flat land for building or storage close to the water people visited it
• have deep water for large ships despite the attractive
• may be close to major industrial areas inland to import and export
Olbia, Sardinia their goods. scenery and warm
summers. However,
Industrial town: where many people work in factories, processing raw over the next 30 years
materials or assembling products. These: travellers discovered
the lovely little village
• may be found on or near coalfields
• may have old factories near to the centre of the urban area, close to and began to flock
railways or canals there.
• may have old housing areas and factories built close to each other By 1990 Marmaris
• may have new industrial estates on the outskirts, near main roads had been transformed
Leicester, UK for transport.
from a small fishing
village to a sprawling
Resort: a place where tourists visit to enjoy themselves. These: mass of hotels based
• may be on the coast with beaches or in scenic inland areas around the needs of
• may be large historical cities tourists. The town had
• may be close to industrial areas with large populations, with good changed its functions
rail and road links completely.
Nice, France • have hotels and entertainments of various types.

D Identifying the functions of a settlement Task 3

Your map
Study Sources C and D along
with the maps in Part B of this
Is it near a large area of sea?
book (pages 171–208).
a Find one example of each of
Yes No the following:
• Market town
Does it have a beach? Does it have a lot of countryside • Port
or woodland areas?
• Industrial town
• Coastal resort
Yes No Yes No For each example you should:
• name the settlement
Resort Port Market town Industrial • give the page number of
the map on which you
Identifying features Identifying features Identifying features Identifying features found it
on maps: on maps: on maps: on maps: • give a four-figure grid
• beach • docks • market square • factories reference for the square
• caravan sites • factories • crossroads • canals/railway where the settlement is.
• campsites • railway sidings • bridging point sidings
• tourist information • quays • mill – by river • coal mines b Give examples from your own
centre • factories country of settlements with
• golf course • spoil heaps different functions.

39
CASE
STUDY 7a Urban settlements in Sardinia

A A settlement hierarchy
Population
B Sardinia’s urban population

La Maddalena
N
Over 250 000 Arzachena
Cagliari
Porto Tempio Olbia
Torres Pausania
Sassari
Olbia 50 000 to 250 000 Ozieri
Sassari Alghero Siniscola

Nuoro
Carbonia Bosa Dorgali
Macomer
Iglesias
Oristano 15 000 to 49 999
Nuoro
Porto Torres Cabras
Alghero Oristano Tortoli
Lanusei
Terralba Ozieri Villaputzu
Siniscola La Maddelena Terralba
Macomer Guspini Dorgali 5000 to 14 999
Bosa Tempio Pausania Pula Sanluri
Lanusei Cabras Arzachena Guspini
Sanluri Tortoli Villaputzu
Iglesias
Cagliari
Hundreds of small villages, Less than 5000 Carbonia
hamlets and dispersed settlements
Pula
Population
Over 250 000
50 000–250 000
15 000–49 999
Sardinia – a Mediterranean island 0 50 km 5000–14 999

Sardinia is an Italian island in the Mediterranean Sea

with a total population of about 1.7 million people. Until
recently most of the population lived in inland areas, and
the economy was based on agriculture and the mining of
coal, lead and zinc. However, in the last 50 years tourist
development has taken place in the coastal areas.
There are a number of large and small towns with different
functions. Three examples are:
• Cagliari, the capital city, is the main commercial and
industrial centre of the island. It has one of the largest
fish markets in Italy with a vast array of fish for sale to
both the public and trade. It is also one of the biggest
container terminals in the Mediterranean area.
• Carbonia was built to provide housing for the workforce
of the nearby mines. The name Carbonia comes from
the Italian word for coal, a resource that was abundant
in this region. Since the mines closed in the 1970s,
Carbonia has had to deal with high unemployment.
• The small town of Bosa is situated on the west coast of
Sardinia, about 3 km inland on the bank of the Temo
River. Traditionally agriculture and fishing played an
important part in the economy. Its beach has been voted
the most beautiful beach in Italy and the town is growing
in popularity for tourism.
Task 1
Study Sources A and B.
a Describe the hierarchy of settlements in Sardinia.
b What are the functions of the following towns:
• Cagliari
• Carbonia
• Bosa?
c How and why have the functions of Bosa changed?

40 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 1 Topic 7

C The port of Olbia D Where is Olbia?

N 0 5 10 km

Tyrrhenian
Sea

Gulf of
Olbia Olbia

Tavolara
Island

Porto Molarotto
San Paulo Molara
Island

SARDINIA

An important port
Olbia is a town of over 50 000 inhabitants in north-east Sardinia. It is
the main connection between Sardinia and the Italian mainland, with Task 2
an airport, a passenger port, and a railway to Porto Torres and Cagliari. Study Sources C and D.
There is an expressway to Nuoro and Cagliari and main roads to
Suggest reasons why Olbia has become an
Sassari, Tempio Pausania and Palau.
important port.

E Services in Sardinia

Task 3
Study Source E.
a Make a list of the services shown in the
photographs.
b Explain why services of this type are
located in Olbia. You should refer to:
• order of services
• sphere of influence
• threshold population.

41
CASE
STUDY 7b Barcelona – urban land use

Barcelona – a A Population statistics

Mediterranean city
District Population Average life Population Population born
Barcelona, located on the density (people expectancy with higher overseas (%)
Mediterranean coast of Spain, per km2) (years) qualifications (%)
has many features that are typical
Cuitat Vella 19 757 73.2 11.4 22.7
of a city in western Europe. Its
traditional manufacturing industries Eixample 33 275 79.7 23.9 8.1
have been declining, and are being Gracia 27 237 79.2 21.6 6.8
replaced by service industries and Les Corts 13 675 80.4 26.9 6.7
high-tech industrial parks. Nou Barris 20 422 78.2 6.2 4.6
In the centre of the present city part Sant Marti 19 118 78.9 10.6 5.2
of the medieval city still remains Horta Guinado 13 879 79.0 12.1 4.7
with narrow streets, alleyways and
Sants Montjuic 7 832 78.4 11.1 7.2
small squares.
Sant Andreu 20 610 79.1 10.5 4.6
The area to the south of the medieval
Sarria Sant Gervasi 6 612 80.5 36.7 7.8
city is El Raval. It was the area where
factories and high-rise tenement
blocks were constructed during In the last 20 years, two major events an abandoned factory site. Remaining
the Industrial Revolution but – the 1992 Olympic Games and the factories and workshops in the Poblenou
now much improvement is taking Universal Forum of Cultures 2004 district are being changed into a zone for
place. During the 19th century the – have led to massive changes. For new technologies.
city grew with planned housing example, in the Poblenou district, an
development in a grid-iron pattern. area of old manufacturing industry,
This connected Barcelona to nearby an Olympic village was constructed on
smaller towns (e.g. Gracia), which
became a part of the main city.
To the north, on the slopes of the C Land use in Barcelona
hills, a number of large villas were
built in the late 19th and early 20th Highest-quality residential in the
Former shanty homes
foothills of Collserola Hills, upwind
centuries. These formed a high-class in hills close to industry
of the city and away from industry
residential zone. Between 1945 and low-class residential
Inc
and 1975, large areas of high- rea
sin
rise apartments were built along gr
lity

es
Dec asing r

ide
Incr
ua

the major routeways and on the nt

lq

ia
reas
e

lq
ia

edges of the city (e.g. La Mina) for ua

nt

lity
ing sidenti
e
sid

migrants from other parts of Spain

re

age
e

seeking work in the city. Medieval town of Gracia

g
sin

swallowed by Barcelona’s
and l qualit
a
re

B Districts of Barcelona growth in 1897

Inc

a
den y

ollow
sity

M low In u tes f sos

th ain -cl dus ro
rail iver Be
N

e v ro as try and R
all ad
ey an
sr a i n road of the
es nd CBD Ma valley
of d r ide and tial
th ail nt Medieval city the stry
Sarria Horta
e R ro
u
ial Indu s residen
Sant ive te Low-class clas
low-
Guinardo
Gervasi Nou rL sf residential
Barris iob oll
re ow
Les
Corts
Gracia Sant ga
Andreu t
Eixample
Sant
Cuitat Marti Low-class residential
Sants Montjuic Vella

Middle-class transition
Recent high-class residential developments on coastal
High-class residential brownfield sites at the Olympic Village and Diagonal Mar
0 1 2 km

42 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 1 Topic 7

D Urban land use models for an MEDC

Urban zones
It is possible in many cities to identify zones where you can Burgess model
find a particular type of land use, e.g. a residential zone.
Burgess model Burgess model
Land use models are theories that attempt to explain the
layout of urban areas. A model is used to simplify complex,
real-world situations, and make them easier to explain and
understand.
Source D shows two different land use models that apply to 1
urban areas in MEDCs.
1 12
The Burgess model is based on the idea that land values
are highest in the centre of a town or city. This is because 3 Hoyt model
2 Burgess model 2
competition is high in the central parts of the settlement.
This leads to high-rise, high-density buildings being found 3 3 4Hoyt model Hoyt model
2 3
near the CBD, with low-density, sparse developments on 5a
4 4
the edge of the town or city. 4
5a 5a 2 3 2 3
The Hoyt model is based on the circles on the Burgess 1 Central Business District (CBD) 4 34
model, but adds sectors of similar land uses, e.g. the 3
2 Factories/Industry 1
industrial zones that radiate out from the CBD.1These could
Central 1 Central
Business District (CBD) Business
1 District (CBD) 3 3 3
be following a main road or a railway line. 3 Working-class housing 3 1 3 1 33
2 Factories/Industry2 Factories/Industry 3 5b 5
4 Middle-class 2 housing 4
3 Working-class housing3 Working-class housing 3 2 3
Hoyt model
Task 1 4 Middle-class housing
5 a Commuter
4 Middle-class
zone
3housing
4 3 4
b High-class housing
4 2 2
Study Sources A and B. 5 a Commuter zone5 a Commuter zone 3 3
b High-class housing b High-class5a housing 2 3
a On a copy of the map show the information about
population density, using choropleth shading. Use 4
different shades for less than 10 000, 10 000 to 19 999,
20 000 to 29 999 and 30 000 or more. Remember to 1 Central Business District (CBD) 3
include a key. 2 Factories/Industry 3 1 3
b Draw a scatter graph to show the relationship 3 Working-class housing 3
between the percentage of the population with higher
qualifications and the percentage who were born 4 Middle-class housing 4
2
overseas. 5 a Commuter zone 3
c Does the pattern on the graph suggest a relationship b High-class housing
between these two statistics? Comment on any pattern
shown.

Task 2
Study Sources A, B and C. Task 3
High-cost housing areas are likely to have: Study Sources C and D.
• lower population densities a Describe the similarities and differences between the
• a greater percentage of the population with higher Burgess and Hoyt models of urban land use.
qualifications b Suggest reasons why in a typical MEDC city:
• a lower percentage of foreign-born population than • high-cost, modern housing is on the outskirts
low- cost housing areas. • traditional industry is close to railway lines.
Produce a map of Barcelona showing high-cost and low- c How well does Barcelona fit with the two models of
cost housing areas. urban land use?

Sample case study question

For a town or city that you have studied, explain the
reasons for its growth and functions.

43
TOPIC 8 Urbanisation
A The world’s urban population
What is urbanisation?
Urbanisation is the increase in Percentage
population l
the proportion of people living in in urban are
towns and cities. Urbanisation
Over
occurs because people move from
60–80
rural areas (countryside) to urban
40–59
areas (towns and cities). This
usually happens when a country is 20–39
still developing. Unde
Tropic of Cancer
Before 1950 most urbanisation
occurred in MEDCs. Rapid
Equator
urbanisation took place in Europe
and North America in the 19th and Tropic of Capricorn
early 20th centuries. Many people
moved from rural to urban areas
to get jobs in rapidly expanding
0 2000 4000 km Key Over 80 20–39
industries. Since 1950 urbanisation
Percentage of total 60–80 Under 20
has slowed in most MEDCs, and population living in
now some of the biggest cities urban areas 40–59
are losing population as people
move away from the city to rural
environments. This is known as
counter-urbanisation. B Percentage of total population
living in LEDC cities
Task 1
Since 1950 the most rapid growth
in urbanisation has occurred in Study Source A and an
LEDCs in South America, Africa atlas.
and Asia. There are two main a Name a continent
causes of urbanisation in LEDCs. where over 60 per cent
1 Rural to urban migration is of the population live
happening on a massive scale in urban areas in all the
due to population pressure and
80 countries.
b What percentage of the
% of total population living in LEDC cities

a lack of resources in rural areas. 70

These are known as ‘push’ population live in urban
factors. 60 areas in:
2 People living in rural areas • Brazil
believe that the standard of 50 • Egypt
living in urban areas will be • India?
40
much better than in rural areas.
They hope for well-paid jobs,
Task 2
30
South
greater opportunities to find America Study Source B.
‘informal’ work, and better 20
Africa Compare the rates of
health care and education.
10 urbanisation in Africa,
Asia South America and Asia.
0
1950 1975 1995 2030
Year

44 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 1 Topic 8

C Pushes and pulls ... and the reality ...

D Moving to the city

You don't seem local? My father ran a farm but there So what made you I wanted a better
was a drought and my brothers come here? way of life…
No , I was born in took the best land.
the countryside.

E Slum crisis?
‘Slumdog Millionaire’ highlights global crisis
Toronto, February 25 (IANS)
A Canadian NGO
working in the slums
of India hailed multiple
Oscars for ‘Slumdog
Millionaire’ as the film has
highlighted the hard life
of people in urban slums
the world over.
‘Slumdog Millionaire’ has
put the hard truth about
urban slums before world
audiences.
‘Although the film is set
in India, similar living
conditions can be found
Task 3
Study Source C.
a Identify three reasons why
people want to leave rural
areas in LEDCs.
in most countries,’ said REPORT REVEALS GLOBAL b Identify three attractions of
Pat Ferguson, president of SLUM CRISIS
Operation Eyesight which urban areas for people who
funds projects in Mumbai Slum-dwellers who make up live in the countryside in
and other Indian cities. a third of the world’s urban LEDCs.
‘Almost a billion people population often live no better –
if not worse – than rural people,
live in squalid slums
a United Nations report says.
Task 4
scattered across the
globe, and it’s a growing Worst hit is sub-Saharan Africa Study Sources D and E.
problem. where 72% of urban inhabitants
‘The UN predicts the
live in slums rising to nearly Many people move to urban
100% in some states. More than areas in LEDCs for a better
number of slum dwellers
one billion people live in slums quality of life.
will double to 2 billion
now and, if no action is taken,
by 2030 if no action is
the world’s slum population Do you think they achieve this?
taken,’ she said. could rise to 1.4 bn by 2020. Give reasons for your answer.

45
CASE
STUDY 8a Urbanisation in Peru – Lima

A Peru – an LEDC in South America

N
ECUADOR
COLOMBIA Moving into the city
oN

Ri
ap Source B shows housing in Lima,
o
Amazon the capital city of Peru, which has
Tumbes Iquitos been built by migrants who have
Rio Maranon
arrived from rural areas. About
35 per cent of Peru’s 10 million

u
Piura
ya
ca people live in its capital city, but
R io U
BRAZIL
Chiclayo the population has not always
Cajamarca been distributed like this. In 1940,
Trujillo Pucallpa
Caraz Lima’s population was 600 000, or
Chimbote 10 per cent of the country’s total,
T H

PERU and most of the population lived

E

Pacific in rural areas, mainly in the Andes

Ocean Cusipata mountains. As Peru’s population
Lima Huancayo
has grown, more people chose
Ayacucho Cuzco
to move away from their villages
A

Pisco BOLIVIA and small towns to the capital city,

N

Ica E
D

0 200 400 km Nazca S where they hoped for a better life

Puno Lake
Titicaca
for themselves and their children.
Arequipa
Desaguadero Cusipata is a typical village in the
Land above 2000 metres
Tacna Peruvian Andes. Its population
is about 500 people who live by
combining agriculture with paid
work outside the village. The main
crops grown are potatoes, maize,
Task 1 Task 2 barley and beans, and most families
keep some sheep, a pig and some
Study Source A. Study Sources B and D. llamas. Due to steep slopes and the
a Describe the location within Peru of Lima Use evidence from the photographs unpredictable climate, farming is a
and Cusipata. to describe differences between the difficult job and yields are often low.
b What is the distance from Cusipata to Lima? housing in the village and Lima. So, traditionally, family members
have worked for part of the year in
the large town of Cuzco, which is
one hour away by bus. However,
B Housing in Lima increasing numbers of young men
and women are leaving Cusipata
to migrate permanently to Lima to
find work in the capital city.

Task 3
Study Source C.
How and why does migration
affect the population structure of
rural Peru and Lima?

46 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 1 Topic 8

C Population pyramids for rural Peru and Lima

ainly
single males wi tion of females with no
m th n
o Migra chi
of chi
ldr
ldr
io n en e

n
rat

Age Age
Mig

85+ 85+
80–84 80–84
75–79 High proportion 75–79 Low proportion
70–74 of old people 70–74 of old people Old dependants
65–69 65–69
60–64 60–64
55–59 55–59
50–54 50–54
45–49 45–49
40–44 High proportion 40–44 Economically active
35–39 of working males 35–39
Low proportion 30–34 30–34
of working males 25–29 25–29
20–24 20–24
15–19 15–19
10–14 High proportion 10–14 Low proportion
5–9 of children 5–9 of children Young dependants
0–4 0–4
10 8 6 4 2 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 2 4 6 8 10
% of total males % of total females % of total males % of total females
Rural Peru Lima

Factors influencing migration to Lima from villages in Andes What migrants experience when they get to Lima
Not enough agricultural land because it is shared between sons Racial discrimination
Drought and other natural hazards Separation from family
Low prices for agricultural products Better-quality services, e.g. water, electricity
Cannot afford clothes and food for children Better schools for migrants’ children
Not much opportunity for children to go to school Low pay and long working hours
No running water, electricity or sewage disposal in many villages Forced to live in self-built houses or on the streets

D A village in the Peruvian Andes Task 4

Imagine you have migrated from
Cusipata to Lima. Write a letter to
your parents who still live in Cusipata,
telling them about your new life and
experiences in the capital city.

47
CASE
STUDY 8b Urbanisation in India – Mumbai

How is life changing

in India’s cities? A Urban growth in India’s cities
Urbanisation in India is taking place Mumbai N Delhi Kolkata
25 25 25
at a faster rate than anywhere else

Population (millions)

Population (millions)

Population (millions)
in the world. By 2030, 41 per cent 20 20 20

of India’s population will be living 15 15 15

in urban areas compared with about 10 10 10

28 per cent now. Many inhabitants Delhi
5 5 5
of cities expect a high quality of life
0 1950 1975 2000 2015 0 1950 1975 2000 2015 0 1950 1975 2000 2015
and a Western lifestyle. In 2006 more Year (pred.) Year (pred.) Year (pred.)
than 38 million Indians were online,
70 million owned cellphones, and Kolkata
India’s cable TV market is one of the Bangalore Chennai
world’s largest with more than 60 25 Mumbai 25
Population (millions)

Population (millions)
million subscribers. 20 20

15 15
But the growth of cities, largely as
a result of rural to urban migration, 10 Bangalore Chennai 10

puts a great strain on urban 5 5

infrastructure, such as road networks 0 1950 1975 2000 2015 0 1950 1975 2000 2015
0 200 400 km
and public transport, power and Year (pred.) Year (pred.)

water supplies, along with pressure

on health care and education services.
There are great contrasts between
rich and poor. The well-built homes
B Population growth of Mumbai
of the rich contrast with the huts of 25
the poor. Shops filled with electrical
goods and air-conditioned restaurants 20
cater to the privileged, while children
Population (millions)

with outstretched hands wait outside 15

in the hope of receiving a few coins.
10

Task 1
Study Source A.
a Which city in India had the
largest population in 1950?
b By how much did Kolkata’s
population increase between
1975 and 2000?
c What is Mumbai’s expected
population in 2015?
Task 2
Study Source B.
Compare the growth of Mumbai’s
population between 1901 and
1941 with its growth between
1951 and 2008. Use figures in
your answer.
5
0
1901 1911
C Dharavi – Asia’s largest slum
Dharavi, the largest slum
in Asia, houses more than
a million slum dwellers
in cramped homes, close
to the centre of India’s
financial capital, Mumbai.
The migrants who
originally made Dharavi
their home are the
Maharashtrians from the
Konkan coast, the Gujarati
1921 1931 1941 1951
Year
community, the Muslim
tanners from Tamil Nadu
and artisans from Uttar
Pradesh.
In present-day Dharavi
there are poor standards of
sanitation and health care.
But there is a silver lining
as well, as Dharavi provides
a cheap home to people
who move to Mumbai to
1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2008
earn their living. Even
in the smallest of rooms,
there is usually a cooking
gas stove and continuous
electricity.
It has a thriving leather
trade and garment industry
and there are many
small-scale industries that
produce clothes, leather
goods, pottery and plastic.

48 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 1 Topic 8

D Images of Mumbai

E The layout of the Dharavi slums

Task 3
N
Study Sources C and D.
Rajiv
Gandhi
Nagar Bus Make a list of the advantages and problems
Depot
of living in Mumbai for people who have
Playground
migrated from rural areas.
ra Link Road
nd Sta
To Ba tion
Bandra
Sio
n
R oad Task 4
MANGROVE ad
ink Ro Study Source E.
i m Sio n L d
M ah School oa Sion
inR Railway a Identify:
Dharavi C

Industrial a Station
area Kalyanwadi avi M Church • three services in Dharavi
ar
Mosque Dh • two areas where employment is
ross

d
oa

School available
We

Road

tR

Police School
e
ster

Temple • two methods by which people could

Fe

Station
60

90
nR

travel to other parts of Mumbai to work.

Fe

y
ailw

et

wa

b Use the scale to estimate the area of

R

ail

Hospital
oa
ay

lR
d

Dharavi.
a
ntr

Mahim Cemetery
Ce

Railway Fire
Station Station Kumbharwada
Potters Area
Sion
School Hospital
Tata
Receiving
Station
Sample case study question
School
To 0 500 metres For a named city in an LEDC, explain how
Matunga
the living conditions have been improved.

49
TOPIC 9 Urban problems
A Urban protests!

Stress in the cities

As cities increase in size they become stressful and difficult places to live in. Parts of
the cities become run-down and undesirable. As the land use of many cities was not
planned for the current population, they are finding it more and more difficult to cope
with the large numbers of people. Efforts to provide homes, services, transportation
and jobs are already losing the race against rapid population growth.

B Quality of life indicators for eight urban areas

Task 1
Murders per 100 000 people
% of homes with water and

Study Source A.
Average number of people

(1–10) 1 = low 10 = high

(1–10) 1 = low 10 = high

In groups of four, discuss the problems of living in cities

Levels of air pollution
(km/hr in rush hour)

as follows.
Mean traffic speed

a As a group, identify the four biggest problems of living

Levels of noise

in cities.
Urban area

electricity

b Each group member should choose one of the four

per room

problems that your group has identified and make a

presentation explaining why it is a major problem.
Cairo 1.5 94 56.4 7 12.4 10 c Do you think all residents of the city will agree with
(Egypt) your choice of problems? Give reasons for your answer.
Jakarta 3.4 85 5.3 6 16.3 10
(Indonesia)
Task 2
London (UK) 0.6 100 2.5 8 10.4 3 Study Source B.
Melbourne 0.5 100 2.0 3 20.3 1 a Name one urban area where:
(Australia) • housing is overcrowded
Moscow 1.3 100 7.0 6 31.5 7 • the air quality is poor
(Russia) • levels of traffic congestion are high.
San 0.6 98 5.8 3 16.0 3
b Using only information from the table, identify the
Francisco differences between the quality of life of people in
(USA) Moscow and Shanghai.
Seoul (South 2.0 100 1.2 7 13.8 7 c Which of the cities would you prefer to live in? Explain
Korea) your choice using data from the table.
Shanghai 2.0 95 2.5 5 15.3 3
(China)

50 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 1 Topic 9

C Solving problems in LEDCs

Task 3
Study Source C.
a Explain how Shanghai has
attempted to solve the
traffic problem.
b Suggest the advantages and
disadvantages to residents
of Shanghai of using a public
transport system such as
The Shanghai Metro Pedestrian street in Shanghai this.

Solving Shanghai’s traffic congestion Task 4

The Shanghai Metro is an urban rapid transit system which is used daily by Study Source D.
an average of 2.18 million people. The system incorporates both subways and With a partner discuss the
elevated light railways. Shanghai is the third city in China to build a subway advantages and disadvantages
system after Beijing and Tianjin. Whilst traffic congestion is still a problem in of comprehensive development
some parts of Shanghai, the metro system provides people with a cheap, efficient and urban regeneration as
public transport service to most parts of the city, including traffic-free parts of the methods of solving problems of
Central Business District. urban decay.

D Solving problems in MEDCs

Urban decay criticised as people have to move from their established

Urban decay occurs when parts of the city become
run-down and undesirable to live in. Examples of urban
decay are:
• slum housing, with outside toilets, overcrowding, no
hot water or central heating
• buildings in disrepair with leaking roofs, draughty
windows and crumbling brickwork
• empty buildings boarded up or vandalised
• areas where buildings have been knocked down and
which turn into derelict land.
There have been a number of schemes to reduce the
problems of urban decay. Comprehensive redevelopment
occurs when all the buildings are knocked down and
the area is completely rebuilt, for example old housing
and factories demolished and replaced by new flats and
multi-storey high-rise buildings. This approach has been
communities and workplaces – they no longer know their
neighbours and they are moved away from their friends
and relations.
Urban regeneration is the renovation of existing housing
and improvement of the environment and economy
including:
• rewiring the houses and fitting central heating
• fitting double glazing
• cleaning the outsides of old buildings by sand-blasting
• improving the environment by landscaping
• building or improving the social facilities such as clubs
and medical centres
• encouraging new businesses and industry to set up in
the areas with grants and loans.
This has proved more popular as people have been able to
stay in their own area.

Comprehensive redevelopment Urban regeneration

51
CASE
STUDY 9a Urban problems and solutions – Cairo

A Cairo – a city in Egypt Cairo – a city with problems!

Cairo is located around the banks and islands of the river Nile in the north
30°E Mediterranean Sea 35°E of Egypt, immediately south of the point where the river leaves its valley
Alexandria Port Said
ISRAEL and enters the Nile delta. Since the 1950s the city’s growth has been rapid,
The Nile Delta rising from 2 million to 18 million by 2000, as a result of natural increase and
rural to urban migration. The growth has been too rapid for the city to cope,
30°N Cairo Suez with increasing demands for services such as piped water, sewers, schools,
JORDAN
paved roads and electricity. Traffic congestion, along with noise, air and water
El Fayyûm
ba
pollution, add to the problems.
Gu

of Aqa
lf o

E GY P T
fS

Gulf
ue
z

El Minyâ
Nil

SAUDI
ARABIA Task 1 Task 2 Task 3
e V

Western
Desert Asyût
al

y
Red Study Source A. Study Source B. Study Source C.
e l

Sea
a Give a reference, a List the four main problems Describe the
Qena
0 50 100 km
using latitude and faced by Cairo. Use pattern of
Luxor
longitude, for Cairo. examples in your answer. migration to
25°N b Using evidence b Put the problems in a rank Cairo. Refer to
N from the map, order 1–4 depending on
Irrigated land named places
Desert suggest reasons for which you would want or areas and use
Aswan
the location and to solve first. Do your statistics in your
growth of Cairo. classmates agree? Justify answer.
your order.

B Planning problems
Lack of • Self-built brick houses are built illegally on farmlands by C Migration to Cairo
housing the river Nile. These ‘informal’ houses cover 80% of Cairo.
rranean Sea
• In the Cities of the Dead, 2–3 million people have set up Medite Damietta
Alexandria Port Said
homes amongst the tombs of Old Cairo. Behera

• Half a million people live in homemade huts on roof Ismailiya

spaces of office blocks and flats in the city centre. SINAI

Traffic • Between 1970 and 2000 the number of cars in Cairo rose MATRUH Giza Cairo
Suez
congestion from 100 000 to over a million.
• Travel to work times can be very slow. El Fayyûm
Beni
• Many drivers are aggressive and do not keep to the Suef
rules of the road, causing danger for road users and R
pedestrians.
ed
S

El Minyâ
ea

Lack of jobs • Jobs for unskilled workers are hard to find.

• Whilst many university graduates get jobs with the
Asyût
government, salaries are low.
N
• Many poor people are forced to work in the informal Sohag
sector, selling things on the streets to earn a meagre Qena
living. 0 50 100 km

Pollution • The air is heavily polluted by a cocktail of vehicle exhausts

30

and fumes from fuels used in homes and workplaces.

20 00

00
10 00

Nile
00

0
0
50

• Groundwater is polluted by waste illegally dumped by

0

factories and workshops.

Populated area
• Leaking and inadequate sewers pollute water courses. Aswan

52 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 1 Topic 9

D Six solutions? E New towns – another solution?

Task 4
Homes and public Mediterranean Sea
New satellite
services were
N Study Source D.
and dormitory Damietta
towns built upgraded in the Port Said a How might each solution
most run-down
around the city Alexandria help to solve Cairo’s

Suez Canal
parts of the city
problems?
Ring road Attempts to A modern
Tanta
Ismailiya
b Suggest two problems
built, solve urban metro that will not be solved by
encircling problems in system Sadat these solutions.
the city Cairo was built 10th Ramadan

October 6th Cairo

15th May
Suez Task 5
People with The Greater Cairo
donkey carts Waste Water R Study Source E.
were licensed to Project, extended

ed
a Name two new towns and

Nile
collect and and repaired the

S
0 50 km

ea
recycle garbage sewage system two dormitory towns.
Irrigated land in New towns b Explain how the building
the Nile Valley
Dormitory towns of new towns and
and Delta
dormitory towns will help
to solve Cairo’s problems.
F The Cairo metro
Shobra 2
Koliet El-Zeraa
(Embaba) Mezallat
1 New El-Marg
3 Khalafawy
El-Marg
Ezbet El-Nakhl
Ain Shams
Task 6
Sainte Teresa El-Matareyya
Helmiet El-Zaitoun
Road El-Farag
Hadeyeq El-Zaitoun
Saray El-Qobba
Study Sources F and G.
Hammamat El-Qobba
Massara
Kobri El-Qobba
Manshiet El-Sadr Two groups of international tourists are visiting Cairo.
El-Demerdash
Ghamra They will land at the international airport. Produce an
Mubarak
Orabi annotated (fully labelled) map to show:
(Mohandiseen) ( Airport)
3
Ataba
3 a the directions to drive from the airport to the Giza
Nasser
Gezira pyramids
Bohooth Dokki (Opera)
Naguib b the directions to use the metro from the airport to Cairo
Cairo University
Faisal Saad Zaghloul
Sadat
University.
Giza Railway Sayyeda Zeinab

El-Malek El-Saleh
Giza Suburbs
Mar Girgis
El-Zahraa
Sakiat Mekki Dar El-Salam
Hadayeq El-Madi
Maadi
G The Cairo ring-road
Sakanat El-Maadi
Tora El-Balad
N To
2 El Mounib Kozzika Alexandria
To
Ismailiya
Tora El-Asmant

El-Maasara Bahtim
Hadayeq Helwan
Cairo
Wadi Hof Usim International
Heliopolis
Helwan University To Airport
6 October
Ain Helwan City
1 Helwan To
Abbasiya Suez
Kardasa City Nasr
Bulaq Centre City
al-Dakrur
The Fifth
Aggregation
Muqattam
Old Hills
Cairo Ring road
Giza Highway
Pyramids
To Ni Main road
le To Upper
Fayoum
Egypt 0 5 km Bridge

53
CASE
STUDY 9b Urban problems and solutions – Baltimore

Baltimore – a city with problems! A Baltimore – a city in the USA

Baltimore is the largest city in the state of Maryland in
the United States of America (USA), with a population of Interstate highways and
N
major road links
650 000. In Baltimore’s early days, the harbour was the
Other main roads
landing destination for boats and ships bringing cargoes Railway
such as bananas, sugar and cocoa from all over the world. Friendship international
Baltimore
airport
By the 1970s the port and associated manufacturing and City boundaries
shipbuilding industries had declined in importance. The CBD

inner harbour and surrounding urban landscape consisted Redevelopment area

of abandoned warehouses and derelict land. y

Chesapeake

a
sw
Bay

res
Today the area is a successful example of urban renewal.

nExp
The Baltimore Convention Center was opened in 1979 and

to
ng
hi
renovated and expanded in 1996. Harborplace, a modern

s
Wa
–
ore
urban retail and restaurant complex, was opened on the

tim
waterfront in 1980, followed by the National Aquarium

B al
and the Baltimore Museum of Industry in 1981. Over 100 Washington
hectares of previously derelict industrial buildings and DC CANADA

wasteland have been transformed into a mix of businesses,

housing, recreation and tourist attractions.
USA

MEXICO

B Baltimore’s inner harbour 0 20 km

C What people say about redevelopment

Stanton Eckstut,
New York architect Baltimore
has been
and planner
called ‘the most
The downtown livable downtown in
has to be one of the most America’, attracting
diverse, comfortable and industry and the
convenient in America. Cars do middle class back
not dominate, people do. into the inner
city.
Today the city, and
Paul
especially the harbour area,
Goldberger,
is one of the most beautiful
modern places I have ever New York
visited. Times

Richard Rogers,
British architect

Task 1
Study Source A.
a Describe the location of Baltimore in the USA.
b Give three reasons why Baltimore is in a good position to
attract businesses and tourists to the new inner harbour
development.
Task 2
Study Sources B, C, D and E.
a Describe the main features of the urban landscape shown
in the photographs.
b Using the evidence in the photographs, do you agree with
the quotations in Source C? Give reasons for your views.

54 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 1 Topic 9

D Baltimore’s ‘Power Plant’ development E Redeveloped housing in Baltimore

Why has this scheme succeeded?

This urban redevelopment scheme has been very successful
in that it has created both jobs and housing, and changed the
economic base of the city. The mixture of business, residential,
The Power Plant is a mixed-use project developed in the late recreational and cultural developments has made it attractive to
1990s in a historic power station, built in 1900. The $30 million
different groups of people.
project includes loft offices on the upper floors, a bookstore,
Hard Rock Café, a gym, nightclubs and entertainment. Baltimore’s proximity to Washington DC has been crucial.
Investors, including large businesses such as IBM and Lazard
Freres, liked this. Costs were
F How do you feel ...? lower than in Washington
DC, but the standard of
Retired dock living was as high. It is only
worker
45 minutes between the
centres of Washington DC
and Baltimore. There are over
30 trains a day linking the
two cities and the Baltimore/
Washington international
airport is located between
them. Within the city
commuting is highly efficient:
Banker who from suburbs like Guilford
works in and Ashburton it takes no
Washington more than 10 minutes to the
DC and lives harbour area using public
in a new 16-year-old transport.
inner-harbour Owner of construction firm
school leaver with
apartment in Baltimore
no qualifications

Sample case study question

Task 3
For each of the four people shown in Source F,
decide what they will feel about the redevelopment
of Baltimore’s inner harbour. Give reasons for their
views.
In all large urban areas there have been changes in land
use. These include the development of:
• road networks • industrial areas
• residential areas • leisure and shopping facilities.
For a named urban area, identify a recent change in land
use. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of this
development for people who live in the urban area that you
have named.

55
TOPIC 10 Urban sprawl
04 A The rural–urban fringe B Changing views
1992 2 546023

03

3 558999

02

1 557003
01 4 548999

Sprawl – different causes, same result!

00 A century ago, nine in every ten people lived in villages and the
countryside. Now almost 50 per cent of the planet’s population
jostles for space in fast-growing congested cities. By 2050 the
figure is expected to reach 75 per cent. All these people will hope
99 for or expect housing, work, services and a high quality of life.
53 54 55 56 57
As population increases in towns and cities, urban sprawl takes
Map 1 shows the rural–urban fringe to the south-west of place. This happens in both MEDCs and LEDCs but the causes are
Leicester, a city in the United Kingdom (UK), in 1992.
different. Urban sprawl tends to be unplanned in LEDC cities and
planned in MEDC cities – but the outcome is similar. In both cases
04 the urban area expands into the countryside, affecting people and
© Crown Copyright and/or database right. All rights reserved. Licence no. 100001679

2007 changing the environment at the rural–urban fringe. Land use

changes around the urban area for the benefit of some and to the
disadvantage of others.
03

Task 1
A
Study Source A.
02 a Estimate the land use in km2 that was built on in 1992.
How had this changed by 2007? (Note: The scale is 1:50 000
or 2 cm = 1 km.)
b Use 4- or 6-figure grid-references to identify two different
types of land use that have been built on since 1992.
01
c In which direction do you think sprawl will take place in the
next 15 years? Justify your decision.

B Fosse
Park Task 2
00
C D Study Sources A and B.
a Match photos 1–4 with locations A–D on Map 2.
b List the four different land uses shown.
c Suggest why these have been located in the rural–urban
99 fringe.
53 54 55 56 57 d Suggest groups of people who will benefit from or be
Map 2 shows how the same area has changed due to urban disadvantaged by this sprawl. Explain your choices.
sprawl over the 15-year period 1992–2007.

56 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 1 Topic 10

C Urban sprawl in MEDCs

In MEDCs the building
of houses and services
on the edge of existing
towns and cities is
planned. A decision
is made by the local
government that it is
necessary to expand
into rural areas and
the countryside.
Although there may
be objections, once
a decision is made
to expand into the
countryside then
the urban sprawl
will happen in an
organised way. Housing developments on
the edge of Sacramento, Little Boxes
California, USA Little boxes on the hillside,
Little boxes made of ticky-tacky,
Little boxes, little boxes,
Little boxes, all the same.
D Urban sprawl in LEDCs There’s a green one and a pink one
And a blue one and a yellow one
And they’re all made out of ticky-tacky
And they all look just the same.
E Waiting for the city Written by Malvina Reynolds

"We're waiting for the city to come to us..."

Task 3 Task 4 Task 5

a On an outline sketch of Study Source D. Study Source E.
Squatter settlements
Source C shade in: a How might the materials
(favelas) on the edge of Draw a cartoon
• housing used to build these houses
São Paulo, Brazil or write a short
• roads differ from the houses poem or a song
In LEDCs urban sprawl is often • trees shown in Source C? that puts across
unplanned. The urbanisation of cities in • fields. b How ‘planned’ does this the message
LEDCs has been so rapid that planners b How can you tell that this urban sprawl appear to be? related to urban
rarely have time to organise and build urban sprawl is ‘planned’? c Suggest three problems sprawl in either
the infrastructure to cope with the c Read ‘Little Boxes’. How that residents here may
newcomers. This means that many an LEDC city or
well do you think this experience that would
unplanned squatter settlements develop an MEDC city.
describes urban sprawl in not be found in Source C.
around the edge of the city without MEDCs?
permission from the authorities. Explain your choices.

57
 CASE
STUDY 10 Urban sprawl in Atlanta

Salt Lake City

A Sprawl at night – growth since 1993

Salt Lake City
Raleigh
Raleigh
Salt Lake City
Salt Lake City

Raleigh
Raleigh

Raleigh
Raleigh
Raleigh
Raleigh

Existing development as of 1993 ATLANTA GA.

Galaxies of light across the eastern USA
High density
illuminate the scopedensity
Medium of sprawl; yellow
and red reveal the expansion
Development since 1993.
since 1993
opment as of 1993 People haveHigh
migrated
density to the edge of cities ATLANTA GA.
h density
to ‘find moreMedium
housingdensity
for less money’.
ium density 15 fastest growing metropolitan areas
Existing development as of 1993 ATLANTA GA.
elopment since 1993 Existing development as of 1993
High density ATLANTA GA.
h density Existing development as of 1993
Medium
High density
density
ium density
Development
Low density since 1993
density
Medium
ng metropolitan areas Development
High density since
Development since 1993
1993
Medium
High density
density
Low density
Medium
15 fastest growing density
metropolitan areas
15 fastest
Yuma growing
15 fastest metropolitan
growing areas areas
metropolitan

A rapidly growing city B Atlanta, a City in the Forest – once!

Atlanta is the capital city of Georgia state. Its population has
grown from 1.4 million in 1970 to a figure of 5 138 000 in the US
2006 census. Between 2000 and 2006 Atlanta added almost 1
million residents to its total – the fastest-growing metropolitan
city in the USA. One-third of the increase was by births, the
rest from newcomers. Inevitably this growth, over 40 years, has
resulted in urban sprawl.

The city was established in the 1840s in woodland near the

Task 1
Study Source A and an atlas.
a List the five fastest-growing
cities in the eastern USA.
b Which parts of the USA have
seen most growth since 1993?
c Describe the location of Atlanta.
d Estimate by how much the city
has grown since 1993. Why has
this growth continued into the
21st century?
junction of railway lines. It was called the ‘City in the Forest’.
Task 2 Its location was ideal to link the north-east with south-
east USA. An airport was built and it became a financial
Study Source B.
centre. Atlanta has attracted migrants for over 150 years.
a Give two reasons why Recent population growth has been caused by newcomers
Atlanta became an from cities around the Great Lakes where unemployment
important city. is high. Others have moved from expensive housing in
b Why has recent growth the north-east to Atlanta’s relatively cheap housing. The
taken place? city now has a reputation of wall-to-wall offices, shopping
c What problems has centres and suburbs. The Atlanta of today is traffic-choked,
overdeveloped, polluted and has a major water supply crisis.
rapid population
Today’s planners are trying to give the city an environmental
growth created? What
makeover and economic boost. Martin Luther King (1929–
are the planners 68), the civil rights activist, was born in Atlanta and the
aiming to do? 1996 summer Olympic Games was held here.

58 Cambridge IGCSE Geography


C Growth creates problems
Population growth – Atlanta is the largest
metropolitan area in south-east USA. With 5.1
million people in 2006 (up from 1.4 million in 1970)
urban sprawl was inevitable.
Cobb
Traffic congestion – plus air and noise pollution is
the fourth worst in the USA. There are 50 000 km of
roads in Atlanta. 90% of residents drive to work
experiencing 68 hours of delays per year.
Air quality – traffic congestion causes increases in
respiratory illnesses such as emphysema, bronchitis
and asthma. Air stagnates here so fumes from Douglas
vehicles are rarely blown away.
Water quality and quantity – suburbs along the
Chattahoochee river increase run-off and
contaminate drinking water with pollutants.
Sanitation systems cannot cope. Over 1 million
Atlantans use septic tanks, which often leak. Coweta
Increased water demand for industry and irrigation
uses up supplies, affecting fishing habitats.
Agricultural land – expansion has meant that
farmland has been bought and covered with
shopping malls and other developments.
There are no large bodies of water, mountains or other obstacles to limit the city’s outward growth.
Atlanta’s urban area has more than doubled since 1973.
D Reversing sprawl
Outer Limits
Sprawling Atlanta seeks new route
to the future
May 2008
The city’s new plan is focused in the
city rather than on the edge. It includes
public transport with a 35-mile Beltline
project that combines light rail with
new pedestrian and bike links. There
is also a heavy investment in ‘green’
buildings such as the university campus
setting new standards for sustainable
construction. Brownfield sites are also
being regenerated with ‘green’ buildings
rather than extending the city’s edge.
Atlantic Station is being built on a former steel mill site. When
completed this will provide office space plus 5000 high-rise
loft units, town-houses and single-family homes. Cars can be
left here as there are dedicated lanes for walking or biking to
work. This is part of Atlanta’s ‘smart growth’ project where
homes and businesses are easily linked by transport routes.
Reversing sprawl by infilling the centre with sustainable high-
rise buildings linked to transport routes is a key part of the new
plan. ‘Trees Atlanta’ is also using volunteers to plant maple,
oak and holly trees. Residents are now starting to move back
inside the city limits.
Theme 1 Topic 10
Cherokee Forsyth N Loss of green space/ecosystems – between 1982
and 2002 over 38% of green space within Atlanta’s
city boundary was built on. The city loses an average
of 125 hectares of trees per day by deforestation.
Gwinnett Ecosystems suffer as wildlife dies or migrates away.
Norcross
Marietta Impermeable surfaces – more concrete and asphalt
replacing soil and trees means surface water cannot
drain away, causing flash floods and water
contamination.
Dekalb
Fulton
Conyers Cultural loss – civil war battlefields surrounding
Atlanta, such as the Kennesaw Mountain National
Battlefield to the north, are under threat from
Rockdale suburban homes.
Clayton
Socio-economic division – most sprawl is to the
Henry north where white middle-class suburbs have
developed. The inner city has had less investment;
Fayette 0 16 km this is where the poorer black population has stayed.
Hotlanta – the removal of trees such as maple, oak
Urbanised areas and elm and the addition of concrete encourages
Edge of Atlanta metropolitan area 1973 more heat build-up and a ‘heat island’ over the city.
Temperatures can be up to 10°C higher than in the
Edge of Atlanta metropolitan area 2008 countryside.
Task 3
Study Source C.
a Describe how Atlanta has expanded since
1973.
b Identify two problems that affect people and
two problems affecting the environment. For
each one suggest a strategy to deal with it.
c Discuss with your classmates how you would
solve the problems they chose.
Task 4
Study Source D.
a List three ways in which Atlanta is trying to
solve its sprawl problems.
b In which part of the city are these ideas
taking place? Why?
c Is there any evidence of success with this
plan? Give examples to explain your answer.
d What other plans do you think are needed?
What should be the priorities for Atlanta?
Sample case study question
Name an example of a town or city you have studied
where urban sprawl has taken place. Describe its
impacts on local people.
59
GLOBAL
ISSUE 1 HIV/AIDS
A What is HIV/AIDS? Task 1
The Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) is a sexually transmitted infection (STI) – a virus Study Source A.
that attacks the body’s immune system. The virus attacks special cells found in blood which help
immunity. Once these cells stop working the immune system stops working. With no immunity a a Write down what the initials
person can develop a serious infection. Once diagnosed the virus will stay with the person for life. HIV, STI and AIDS mean.
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is a term used to describe later stages of HIV b How is the body’s immune
when the immune system has stopped working. At the moment there is no cure. system affected by HIV/AIDS?

B Adult rate of HIV/AIDS infection C HIV/AIDS and population structure in Botswana

TUNISIA Mediterranean Sea
MOROCCO
With HIV/AIDS Age
ALGERIA LIBYA
WESTERN EGYPT Without HIV/AIDS 81–85
SAHARA 76–80
Old
MAURITANIA 71–75
dependent
MALI NIGER 66–70
SENEGAL CHAD ERITREA
BURKINA SUDAN 61–65
GAMBIA DJIBOUTI
FASO 56–60
GUINEA GUINEA NIGERIA CENTRAL SOMALIA
BISSAU GHANA AFRICAN ETHIOPIA 51–55
SIERRA CAMEROON REPUBLIC 46–50
LEONE LIBERIA IVORY TOGO
BENIN UGANDA 41–45
COAST
GABON DEM. REP. KENYA 36–40
Economically
EQUATORIAL GUINEA OF CONGO RWANDA active
CONGO BURUNDI 31–35
REP. TANZANIA
Adults (ages 15–49) 26–30
infected (%) 21–25
ANGOLA MALAWI
More than 20 ZAMBIA 16–20
MOZAMBIQUE 11–15
11–20 ZIMBABWE 6–10
Young
NAMIBIA
MADAGASCAR dependent
6–10 BOTSWANA 0–5

SWAZILAND 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

1–5 Males Females
SOUTH LESOTHO
Less than 1 AFRICA Population (thousands)

D Tackling HIV/AIDS
Task 2
HIV can be
transmitted in several ways: Study Source B.
through unprotected sex, from a Name two countries where over 20% of the adult
mother to baby during pregnancy population are infected by HIV/AIDS and two countries
or in breast milk, or from blood-
where 5% or less are infected.
to-blood contact through
sharing needles. b Compare the pattern for southern Africa with that in the
rest of Africa.
HIV/AIDS –
Progress in Africa Threatened Task 3
Together with conflict, HIV/AIDS poses
the greatest threat to development Study Source C.
in Africa. It has the potential to a Describe the likely impacts of HIV/AIDS on the size and
change population structures, damage structure of Botswana’s population.
economies and undermine political
b Suggest how HIV/AIDS could affect the economic
stability. Any progress made in recent
years could be reversed.
development of Botswana.

Task 4
Design a poster similar to the one in Source D to advertise to
people in Botswana ways to reduce the spread of HIV/AIDS.

60 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 2
The Natural
Environment

High and dry: ecologist Anne Jensen below the flood marker at Banrock
Station, Australia. The wetlands here depend on being flooded two or
three times a year. Now they are dying, as the Murray river dries up.

61
TOPIC 11 Plate tectonics
Under and at the Earth’s A Like biting an apple
surface Hot material
rising
The surface of the Earth is known
as the crust. This is a collection
Plate
• Have you experienced an earthquake? boundary Crust of solid tectonic plates that join
Plate 50 km (average depth)
• Do you live near a volcano? together like a jigsaw puzzle.
Mantle
• Do tourists visit your country for the te 3000 km Around the solid core at the centre

a
Pl
mountain scenery? of the Earth is a layer of molten
For millions of years powerful forces have Outer core magma. This is called the mantle.
2300 km
Through this layer flow convection

Plate
been at work creating these features. Today
Inner core currents. The plates float on the
scientists know a great deal about the 1200 km
mantle. The convection currents
Earth’s structure. This is because they study
move these plates away from
earthquakes, volcanoes and fold mountains. or towards or alongside each
These give clues to what is happening Cool material
sinking
Hottest
materials other. These movements along
beneath the Earth’s crust. Although it is at core
plate boundaries give rise to
difficult to predict when they will take place, earthquakes, volcanoes and fold
we do know they only occur in certain parts mountains.
of the world.

B We all live on a plate … Plate boundaries

Possible boundaries
Plate movements
20 Average plate velocity
Task 1
North 25 (mm per year)
Pacific Ring
American Eurasian g of Fir
e Study Source A.
Rin
of F

Plate Fold mountain range

ROCKIES Plate a Make your own labelled
Pacific

ALPS
ire

70 Pacific
28
HIMALAYAS Plate drawing of the Earth’s
Pacific Atlantic 5 structure.
ATLAS 54
Plate Ocean MOUNTAINS
30
Pacific b Why is the structure ‘like
Ocean an apple’?
38 African 27
Plate
Pacific
Ocean 160 ANDES
101
Indian
Ocean Task 2
105
South
American Study Source B.
Indo-Australian
Plate
Nazca
Plate
20 Plate a On which plate do you
183
live?
4 74 b List the plates that form
Antarctic boundaries with the plate
Plate
you live on.
Plates are moving very slowly – on average around 40 mm per year – but over millions of years this
c How close are you to a
can amount to great distances in kilometres. plate boundary?
d Are these plates moving
towards or away from
C The plates are still moving! each other?

Force of nature parts Red Sea Task 3

The Red Sea is parting and creating
a new ocean basin. The African and
Arabian tectonic plates that meet
near the Afar Desert in Ethiopia are
Red Sea pulling apart, creating cracks in the
Earth’s crust. In six weeks an 8 metre
crack appeared along a 60 km stretch
of desert. The cracks are being filled
with molten magma from the mantle
below which then cools to form new Study Source C.
crust. The plates are being pushed What evidence suggests that
apart, or diverging, by the rising the plates are moving apart?
magma. The widening is usually
about 30 mm per year but the rate of
sea-floor spreading below the Red Sea
is more rapid than that.

A satellite image of the Red Sea

62 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 2 Topic 11

D Converging and diverging plates

A convergent plate A divergent plate

boundary (destructive) boundary (constructive)

Conical volcano, Horizontal layers of sedimentary rock Plates pulling apart Edges of plates
steep-sided are squeezed up into fold mountains can cause pushed up by
with lava, ash earthquakes at ridges convection currents
and rocks to form ridges
thrown out Shape of junction is a trench
Shield
Cont Friction here causes earthquakes tinent
inen volcano Con
t Ocean
Crust
Plate
Plate Plate
ng
cti
b du ate
Su p l Convection currents
Mantle
Hot
spot
Mantle

Continental plate – this part of a plate is mostly above the

Oceanic crust (heavy)
sinks beneath continental
crust (light) and melts,
creating heat and
pressure and magma
(molten rock)
ocean, forming land. It is between 25 and 100 km thick and is New crust as magma
cools from mantle
mostly made of granite, a lighter rock than basalt. Sea floor spreads as
Oceanic plate – this part of a plate is mostly below the ocean. It plates move apart
or diverge
is mainly made of basalt between 5 and 10 km thick. It is a dense,
heavy rock so it sinks below the continental plates.

Earthquakes, volcanoes and fold E Fold mountains

mountains
All recent earthquakes, volcanoes and fold mountains are found
along plate boundaries. However, as these plates have been moved
around for millions of years, it is possible to find ancient volcanoes
and fold mountains some distance from current boundaries. You
may live near ancient volcanoes and fold mountains that are
now a long way from activity at plate boundaries.

Task 4
Study Source D.
a Make your own copy of the diagram including all
labels.
b Write down the meaning of the following terms:
• convergent • divergent • subducting plate.
c Compare the features found at a destructive plate
boundary with those found at a constructive plate Mount Everest is named after George Everest (Surveyor-General
boundary. of India who surveyed it in 1865). Locally (in Nepal) it is called
d What role do convection currents play in plate Sagermartha, ‘Goddess of the Sky’ or (in Tibet) Chomolunga, ‘Mother
movement? Goddess of the Universe’. Fold mountains consist of folded sedimentary
rock which can be up to 12 000 metres thick. Originally the rocks
Task 5 were deposited beneath a sea or lake in horizontal layers. Converging
plates squeezed together and raised these beds up to form fold
Study Sources D and E. mountains. Mt Everest, in the Himalayas, is the highest mountain
a Explain where and how fold mountains are formed. above sea level at 8848 metres. It was formed about 60 million years
b Why is Mt Everest still rising? ago. It is still rising by a few millimetres each year as the Indian plate
continues to move towards the Eurasian plate.

63
CASE
STUDY 11a A volcano in Chile

A country of contrasts
Chile is a country of enormous contrasts.
A From volcano to caldera
It stretches for over 4000 km in length
and, at the most, is less than 200 km Ash and lava cone Caldera formation – 9000 years ago
Crater sealed by
wide. Among the Andes mountains e.g. Chaiten plug of lava Gases and ash
(1) Violent eruption
there are more than 2000 ash and lava Most of the takes place thrown out
ash thrown Top of cone
volcanoes, of which 500 are active. On 2 out lands near Original breaks
Many layers
May 2008 the Chaiten volcano – which of ash crater: makes surface
concave sides
was thought to be dormant – surprised Molten
Original magma
everybody by suddenly erupting for the surface Nazca South American
Plate Plate
first time in over 9000 years.
(2) Top of cone Earlier top
Nazca South American blown away or of volcano
B Chile – relief Plate Plate sinks into magma
chamber 1122 m above
PERU Relief (metres) Magma
chamber Original Secondary sea level
N BOLIVIA surface cone
4000
Arica Ash
3000
Atacam

2000 Lava 0 3 km Nazca South American

20°S
1000 Plate Plate
500
aD

200 Ash and lava volcanoes

esert

Sea level These form at convergent plate boundaries. The subducting plate melts and heat and
Tropic of Capricorn Mountain height pressure build up due to friction between the plates. The eruption is explosive. Hot lava
6960 (metres)
Antofagasta flows out and lighter ash clouds settle on the lava in layers. The volcanoes have steep
Permanent ice sides because the material under pressure contains acid. The lava does not flow far before
Pacific cooling quickly to form solid rock. A caldera is usually formed when the top of a volcano is
Ocean
CHILE blown off. It sometimes contains a crater lake.

30°S
C Notes for a press briefing
Aconcagua NOTES FOR PRESS BRIEFING RE.
CHAITEN VOLCANO
ted a crater 3 km wide
6960 Last erupted 9000 years ago – crea
ARGENTINA last eruption ...
of previous volcano blown off in
Santiago
Chaiten is a caldera volcano – top
SOUTH AMERICAN PLATE

d by scientists
Dormant status – was not monitore e which forces
sits on edge of South American plat
Chile very active volcano region –
Nazca plate beneath it beneath crater …
dary and built up huge chamber
Magma trickled through plate boun
Los Angeles

40°S
Valdivia
NAZCA PLATE

Task 1 Task 2 Task 3

Chaiten Study Source A. Study Source B. Imagine you are a
a Describe Chile’s a Make your own government scientist
location. Refer to: drawing of an ash who has been asked to
• a continent and lava volcano. brief journalists about
• lines of latitude b Explain how this the eruption. Write
out your briefing using
ATE

50°S and longitude. volcano is formed –

b Describe Chaiten’s refer to Source D on Source C as an outline
IC P L

location in relation page 63 to help you. of the key points to

CT

Strait of to Santiago and two c The Chaiten volcano expand upon.

TAR

Punta Arenas Magellan

Tierra tectonic plates. Refer is a caldera. When
AN

del Fuego to distances and and how was this

0 200 400 km
Cape directions. formed?
80°W 70°W Horn

64 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 2 Topic 11

D Chaiten – a tourist destination E Hot in Chile!

Chaiten (which means ‘basket of water’), on Chile’s jagged CHILEAN VILLAGERS FLEE AS ‘DORMANT’ VOLCANO ERUPTS
coastline, has a population of 4500. It is developing as More than 4000 people had to flee
a tourist centre because of the towering snow-capped their homes after a huge cloud of
mountains, glaciers, lakes and valleys of the Andes. ash and lava was thrown into the
Hiking, climbing and rafting are popular. Sea fishing sky by a long-dormant volcano in
is also offered between inlets and islands. The Chaiten southern Chile. Some residents
volcano, which overshadows the town, is a particular had never travelled beyond
attraction. Today it has a small Chaiten until the volcano forced
airport (only local flights), them to go. Terrified citizens of
a ferry service and a the fishing village, 10 km west
narrow dirt road of the volcano, spoke of a series
from the of tremors lasting hours. Getting
south. people out has been difficult due to
the terrain. Because the mountains
rise immediately from the coast,
people had to queue to be
evacuated by naval ships. The ash
rose to a height of 20 km and was
still settling in Chile and Argentina
five days later. Cars, houses and
trees were coated with ash up to
15 cm thick. Forests were set on
fire by hot rocks thrown out in
the explosion. Schools have been
turned into makeshift shelters
and people provided with bottled
water after the ash contaminated
the groundwater. People were
advised to avoid rubbing their
eyes and to wear glasses and long
sleeves to avoid contact with ash.
May 2008

F Why live here? – village voices

Task 4
Although the
Study Source D. land is steep there are
a Design a poster some flat valleys where the soil
to attract more is fertile from the volcanic deposits.
tourists to Chaiten. We can grow wheat and grapes and it
is wet enough for good pasture land
b Why might tourists
for cattle and pigs.
have difficulty
accessing Chaiten?
Use an atlas to
help you.
My
Task 5 grandparents
and parents were
Study Source E. born here. Our history
This
a Why was it difficult is here. We have never
is not the
to evacuate people lived anywhere
easiest place to
from Chaiten? else – nor do we
move away from or to
want to.
b List the damage get to. I have no car, the
caused by the bus services are poor and
volcano. ferries are slow. It is
easier to stay. We were told
c How did the that the volcano had not
authorities erupted for over 9000 years
respond to the so there was a good chance
effects of the ash? that it would not erupt in
our lifetimes. We know
Task 6 More differently now!
tourists are coming every
Use Source F to help year so I can get work as a guide
you explain why some or by taking them out fishing. I also
make souvenirs in my spare
people live close to a
time.
volcano.

65
 11b
100°E 105°E 110°E 115°E 120°E 125°E
CASE
An earthquake in China
1626 7 5 200 1976 7.8 242 800
1738 8 50 000
STUDY 1927 8 35 000 Yinchuan Shijiazhuang
Tianjin
Bo Hai
Dalian
Taiyuan
1966 7.2 8 064
Xining 1622 7 12 000 Yellow
1695 8 10 000 Sea
Jinan Qingdao
Lanzhou
1718 7.5 40 000 1668 8.5 10 000
35°N 35°N
1654 8 10 000
A Sichuan – no stranger to earthquakes Xian
1879 8 10 000
1555 8 830 000 N

1933 7.5 6 800 Nanjing

100°E 105°E 110°E 115°E 120°E C H I N A 125°E
Shanghai
1738 8 50 000
1626 7 5Chengdu
200 1976 7.8 242 800 Earthquake energy is measured
Hefei
Tianjin
ShijiazhuangChongqing
Wuhan
Dalian on the Richter scale. Most are felt
Hangzhou
1927 8 35 000 Yinchuan 30°N Bo Hai 30°N
Taiyuan
1966 7.2 8 064
between 3.5 and 8 magnitude.
Xining 1622 7 12 000 Yellow The higher the number
Nanchang
East
the
1695 1850 7.5 20 650
8 10 000 Sea
Jinan Qingdao
Changsha more energy is released
China and
Lanzhou
1718 7.5 40 000 1668 8.5 10 000 more damage caused. Sea The Great
35°N Guiyang 35°N Fuzhou
1654 8 10 000
N
Chilean earthquake of 22 May
Xian 1555 8 830 000
1879 8 10 000
Konming 1960 was measured at 9.5. The
25°N 25°N
1833 8 6 700 Sichuan area is vulnerable to
Nanjing 1771 7.4 12 000
1933 7.5 6 800
CHINA Guangzhou earthquakes because
TAIWAN it is close to
Nanning Shanghai
Chengdu
Hefei Macau the
South
boundary of two converging
Wuhan
VIETNAM
Fangcheng Gang
Hangzhou Victoria
Kowloon plates. These have also created
China
30°N Chongqing 30°N 0 100 km
LAOS many surface
Sea cracks or faults.
100°E 105°E Nanchang 110°E
1850 7.5 20 650 East 115°E 120°E 125°E
Changsha China
Sea Death toll
Guiyang Fuzhou 0 – 12 613

Konming 12 614–40 000

25°N 25°N
1833 8 6 700 40 001–142 807
1771 7.4 12 000
142 808–300 000
Nanning Guangzhou TAIWAN
Macau 300 001–830 000
South
Fangcheng Gang Kowloon China Epicentre 12 May 2008
VIETNAM Victoria
Sea 0 100 km
LAOS Year Magnitude Death toll
1833 8 6700
100°E 105°E 110°E 115°E 120°E 125°E

Death toll
0 – 12 613

CHINA’S ONE-CHILD
12 614–40 000
Almost 2000 children families to adopt some to have died since the
40 001–142 807
have been made orphans of the orphans over the earthquake hit Sichuan

FAMILIES OFFER HOME

by the earthquake.142The808–300 000
next 6 months. Some 3 weeks ago; 10 000
Chinese authorities300have one-child families also
001–830 000 were school children.

TO ORPHANS
relaxed their one-child lost2008
Epicentre 12 May their only child in Over 18 000 are still
policy and areYear
allowing the toll
Magnitude Death disaster. Over 68 000 missing.
childless and 1833
one-child 8 6700
people are estimated
2 June 2008

From Chaiten (Chile) to

Task 1
Chengdu (China)!
Study Source A.
No country has suffered natural disasters
on the scale of China. Tens of millions died a How many earthquakes have been recorded in this area of China
from famine, floods and earthquakes in with a magnitude of more than 7?
the 20th century alone. Just ten days after b Describe the distribution of the earthquakes with a magnitude larger
the Chaiten volcano erupted, on Monday than 7.
12 May 2008 China’s most devastating c Describe the location of the epicentre of the 2008 earthquake. Refer
earthquake in 30 years took place. The to latitude and longitude in your answer.
epicentre of the 7.9 magnitude earthquake d The 2008 earthquake killed over 87 000 people. How many
was in a mountainous region of Sichuan earthquakes listed on the map caused a higher death toll? When did
province. This was about 100 km north- these earthquakes occur and what was their magnitude?
west of Chengdu, a bustling city of 10 e How can you tell that the area west of Chengdu is vulnerable to
million people. earthquakes? Give evidence.

66 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 2 Topic 11

B The first day: what happened, where and why?

Beichuan county
The earthquakes in this region are caused
10 000 believed injured
80% of buildings Beijing
by the Indo-Australian plate subducting
collapsed CHINA beneath the Eurasian plate at a rate of
Sichuan
Shifang province 50 mm per year. Occasionally the plate slips
Wenchuan county Several schools, factories Shanghai as it overcomes friction, causing earthquakes.
Epicentre: Quake struck and dormitories
at just before 2.30 pm collapsed The focus (directly below the epicentre)
yesterday at a depth of Hong Kong
10 km where the plate ‘slipped’ was only 10 km
A series of aftershocks
followed
Chengdu beneath the surface which increased the
All trains ordered to Official estimated
stop, airport closed
death toll area affected by the shocks. They were felt
S i c h u a n in Beijing, Hong Kong and Shanghai – nearly
P r o v i n c e 87 587
Sichuan 1500 km away.
Basin Eurasian
Plate

Dujiangyan
900 students feared
buried under a collapsed Chongqing
high school building Five children dead and
100 injured after two Indo-
primary schools Australian
collapsed Plate

C h o n g q i n g
P r o v i n c e
400 300 200 100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 km
Major faults
Scale (in kilometres) from the epicentre

C 13 May onwards – after-effects

‘JUST 10 SECONDS. ONE MOMENT 600 000 AT RISK FROM LANDSLIDES BLOCK RIVER
THE SCHOOL WAS THERE, THEN IT DAMAGED DAM VALLEYS AS RAIN THREATENS
WAS GONE’ Two thousand soldiers have been FLOODS
A primary school of 900 pupils in Dujiangyan sent to plug cracks in a dam upriver Heavy rain and landslides have
was amongst thousands of buildings that from the earthquake-stricken town of added to the earthquake effects.
collapsed on Monday. There were also reports Dujiangyan. The Zipingpu dam is one Almost 200 000 survivors have been
of 1000 students and teachers killed or missing of the most modern in China but was evacuated as lakes and reservoirs fill
after a six-storey school in Beichuan county built, against experts’ advice, close to a up. They may burst their banks and
crumbled into a pile of rubble. Rescuers pulled significant fault line. Two HEP stations flood towns and villages downstream.
out bodies while, with no power, survivors ate have been seriously damaged. 1.3 million people have been moved
bread and biscuits, unable to light a fire or boil 15 May 2008 to higher ground.
water. Soldiers were drafted in to repair roads
18 May 2008
and restore electricity.
14 May 2008

Task 2 Task 3
Study Source B. It is 12 May 2013 – the fifth anniversary of the Sichuan earthquake.
a Why did this earthquake take place in Sichuan? You are a journalist who has been asked to write an article about the
b List the damage caused at two places on the earthquake for a magazine. The audience is 14–16-year-old teenagers
map and estimate the distance of these places who remember little about this earthquake.
from the epicentre. Your article should contain one headline, one illustration and one map,
and have a maximum word-count of 250 words. You should cover causes
and effects. (Use Sources A–C and the Internet to help you.)

Sample case study question

Name an area you have studied and state whether it has been affected by an earthquake or a volcanic eruption.
Describe how the earthquake or eruption affected people and the environment in the area.

67
TOPIC 12 Weathering
A A landscape decays

1 Granular disintegration: Many rocks are
made up of small grains of sand which have
cemented together. Rainwater soaks into the
pores between the grains. In cold weather the
water freezes and expands. The increase in
volume forces the grains to loosen.
1 4
2 Freeze–thaw weathering: Water gets into
the rock through vertical cracks (joints) and into
the horizontal bedding planes that separate
rock layers. As water freezes it expands by 9% in
volume. This freeze–thaw cycle puts pressure on
the rocks, which break up by frost-shattering.
Bedding plane
3 Thermal expansion and contraction: In
hot conditions the rock surface expands but in
the cool of the night it contracts again. This
creates stress in the rock which breaks up
slowly in layers. This is called exfoliation.
Joints
2

Ice

River
erosion 6 3

4 Carbonation: Rainwater combines

with carbon dioxide in the air to form
dilute carbonic acid. This attacks the
rock surface as well as soaking into
joints and bedding planes. The carbonic
acid reacts with rocks such as limestone
to make calcium bicarbonate. This is
soluble and gets carried away in
solution in streams.
5 Oxidation: Oxygen in the air combines with metal,
especially with iron in rocks. This reaction expands
and weakens the original rock mineral which breaks
down easily as rust. A red-brown colour on rock
surfaces indicates that oxidation has taken place.
6 Gravity: It is a constant force that aids
weathering. The weathered material falls or is
carried by rainwash to accumulate at the
bottom of a slope. This debris is called scree.

Two types of weathering

Task 1
Weathering is the breakdown of rock by mechanical, physical and
biological forces that do not remove it. No transport of material is Study Source A.
involved apart from the weathered material slipping or falling downwards a How is weathering different from
under the influence of gravity. Erosion is the breakdown of rocks by erosion?
moving water, ice and, to a small extent, wind which then transport the b What is the difference between
eroded material away. mechanical weathering and chemical
There are two main types of weathering: weathering?
c Draw six boxes around a copy of Source
• Mechanical (physical) weathering – this involves disintegration or A. Summarise captions 1–6 in the
breaking of rocks into smaller pieces with no chemical change in their boxes. Draw arrows from each box to
composition. It takes place in all regions where there are changes in the matching circular diagram. Shade
temperature and is seen in hot tropical desert areas where there is a mechanical and chemical weathering
large daily (diurnal) temperature range. boxes in different colours.
• Chemical weathering – this involves the decomposition of rocks by
changing their chemical composition. It takes place in all regions where
there is rain but is seen mostly in humid tropical areas with high
temperatures.
Most landscapes experience both types working together at the same
time. Some climates favour more mechanical weathering; others favour
greater chemical weathering.

68 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 2 Topic 12

B Biological weathering C Tenerife, one of the Canary Islands

N 15°W 10°W 5°W
40°N
Tenerife is the largest of the
PORTUGAL SPAIN Canary Islands, which are formed
from volcanoes sticking out
MADEIRA
Atlantic
above the sea. It lies off the
(Portugal) 35°N
Ocean west coast of Africa north of the
Rabat Tropic of Cancer. It has a climate
CANARY ISLANDS that is hot all year with a dry
La Palma (Spain) MOROCCO
Tenerife Lanzarote 30°N season in the summer months.
La Gomera
El Hierro ALGERIA
Gran Fuerteventura
Canaria
0 150 300 km
25°N

Rabbit burrows, UK Tree roots, Cuba

J F M A M J J A S O N D
Plants contribute to mechanical weathering
by using their roots to force apart rocks Temperature (°C) 15 15 17 16 18 20 24 23 22 21 19 17
along bedding planes, joints or cracks. Rainfall (mm) 45 66 55 37 6 1 1 10 2 55 72 76
Burrowing animals contribute to the
Average annual temperature = 18.9 °C Average annual rainfall = 426 mm
breaking up and loosening of rocks. Both
plants and animals contribute to chemical
weathering by releasing acids and other
chemicals in their life-cycle, including
during their own decomposition. They are
especially important in soil formation which Task 2
continues the weathering process further.
Study Source B.
In what ways do plants and animals contribute to mechanical
and chemical weathering?
Task 3
Study Source C.
a Describe Tenerife’s location. Refer to hemisphere, D Postcards from Tenerife
latitude and longitude.
b Describe the average climate of Tenerife. Can These postcards show the scenery close to El Teide – the peak of a
‘average’ figures be misleading? Use evidence from volcano 3718 metres above sea level. One photo was taken in July and
the data to support your view. the other in December.
c Suggest how and why the type of weathering
rife
Greetings from Tene
affecting the rocks of Tenerife might change
during the year based on this climate data.

Task 4 On top of the

Study Sources C and D. The rate at which world... at El
temperature decreases with altitude is known as the
T eide
lapse rate. An average figure for this in dry conditions
is about 0.6 °C for every 100 metres height.
a Use the height of El Teide to calculate the
difference between average temperatures at the
peak and sea level on a dry, cloudless day.
b What advice would you give to a person who
wanted to climb El Teide in July? Explain your
advice.
c What evidence supports the fact that postcard 1
was taken in July? What type of weathering might
be taking place here?
d How and why has the scene changed in postcard
2? How might the type of weathering taking place 1
2
here have changed?

69
TOPIC 13 Rivers – from source to mouth
A The water cycle
C Condensation: as water vapour is blown towards B Evapotranspiration: vegetation not only
mountains by the prevailing winds it is forced to rise, intercepts rainfall but also takes it up through roots
cools and condenses back into water droplets. These from the soil. This water is eventually returned to the
form clouds and relief (orographic) rainfall or snow. atmosphere by transpiration from leaves. Surface
water is also evaporated from leaves.
2
Precipitation = rain and snow A Evaporation: water is stored in the sea as a liquid.
Clouds High temperature and warm winds change the
RIVER SOURCE liquid water into gas (water vapour) which rises into
Where river 4 the atmosphere.
begins in
the uplands Waterfalls
V-shaped Prevailing 1
valleys 3 wind
Trees
Ox-bow
Upper course Lon 5 lake
g prof
ile o Meanders Sea
f rive RIVER MOUTH
r ’s fall Delta
Middle course Floodplain Where the river
meets the sea
Lower course

D Interception: some rainfall is intercepted by E Overland flow: upland streams flow downhill
plants and trees before reaching the ground. Some and join at confluences to form slower-moving,
falls on land and infiltrates the ground or flows on wider, deeper rivers which eventually discharge the
the surface as small fast-flowing streams. water into lakes or the sea.

B Upland and lowland valleys

In the upper course the stream
flows over steep ground.
The main process is vertical
erosion. It flows around
obstacles creating interlocking
spurs. Weathering processes
wear back the valley sides as
the stream erodes vertically,
so a V-shaped valley is formed.
Erosion is the main process
being carried out by the
stream.
1 In the lower course the river 2
flows over flatter ground. It
often meanders on a wide
floodplain. The valley is wide
due to lateral erosion of the
valley sides. Deposition is a
major process, especially at
times of flooding.

From clouds to the sea

Task 1 Task 2
and back
Study Source A. Study Source B.
Only about 3 per cent of the Earth’s water is
fresh. Most of that is stored in the ice-caps of
a On an outline copy of the a Label the following on a sketch of
diagram match captions photo 1.
the Arctic and Antarctic. The Great Lakes of
A–E to locations 1–5. • interlocking spurs
North America contain one-fifth of the Earth’s
fresh water. The small amount left is spread
b Explain how the water • steep slopes • the stream
cycle works. • poor-quality grass
out unevenly across the surface of the globe
in rivers and lakes. When water falls from
c How does the long profile b Annotate your sketch to show where
of a river change as it processes of erosion and weathering
clouds as rain, a small amount falls directly into
moves from uplands to are taking place.
streams and rivers and flows back to the sea.
During this journey many landforms are created
lowlands? c How and why are the cross-profiles
of the valley and river different in
by river erosion, transport and deposition.
the two photographs?

70 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 2 Topic 13

C Erosion, transport and deposition

Task 3
River erosion River transport River deposition
Study Source C.
A river erodes in four Once eroded, material is Once the river slows down
main ways: transported by the river. and loses energy, it deposits a In which type of load would you
• hydraulic action There are four types of material. Three main expect to find the following:
• corrasion (abrasion) load: landforms are formed: • a heavy lump of granite
• attrition • solution load – • meanders and ox-bow lakes
• solution (corrosion). minerals such – erosion on the outside of
• dissolved chalk
These processes can as limestone are bends and deposition on • blue clay?
take place at the same dissolved and carried the inside of bends leads to b Give two reasons why there is less
time. Erosion creates in solution the river ‘swinging’ along vertical erosion in the lower course of A River floods and o
material ranging in size • suspension load – the valley; ox-bow lakes a river than in the upper course. Refer Water flows slowly
from heavy boulders very light materials form when a meander is cut banks and depositi
to silt. Waterfalls and
to the long profile and the load in Wate
are carried near the off
A River floods from
and the main
overflows river
its banks
rapids, V-shaped valleys surface giving theWater flows • slowly
floodplains
your answer. r
over the– when the d
and potholes in river river its colour, e.g.banks and deposition
river floods
begins it deposits Deposition
beds are landforms of the Blue Nile Water moves
material quicklyainwide,
forming
river centre and no
the Task 4
erosion. • saltation load – large flat valley flooroccurs
deposition
B Appearance of ba
particles are bounced • deltas – when the river Source D illustrates how a river creates
along the river bed. slows on entering a sea different landforms. (Waterfalls and
• traction load – theB Appearanceorofabanks
lake andit deposits more
bed after repeated floods deltas are not included here – see case
heaviest rocks are material than can be
Raised river bed studies on pages 72–75.) Raised bank is
rolled along the river removed. called a levee
bed. a For each landform, state whether you
would expect to find it in the upper or

fs
Raised bank is

luf
Floodplain
called a levee lower course of the river. Explain your

fb
Levees Ox-bow
Types of river erosion

eo
lake
choice.

Lin
fs

Lin
b Choose one of these landforms. Copy
luf

Hydraulic action: the impact of moving water.

eo
fb

the diagram of your choice or use

fb
eo

Corrasion (abrasion): the wearing away of the bed and banks of a river by
luf
Lin

other sources to find other diagrams.

fs

the load being carried. Plain produced

Attrition: the wearing away of the load as the particles bump against each Write a paragraph describing the by deposition
Al
other while being carried in the river. landform and explaining how it was (silt a
Plain produced
Solution (corrosion): the dissolving of material by the river water.
by deposition Bedrock formed. Floodplains and
Alluvium Valley produced
(silt and mud) by erosion
D River landforms Floodplains and levées Stream
undercuts
A River floods and overflows its banks River Erosion Deposits of Soft rock the outer
cliff of bank sediment bank to form
Hard rock a river cliff
Water flows slowly over the Stream
banks and deposition begins Deposition undercuts Soft rock
River bed Deposition
Soft rock Water moves quickly in the the outer on the inside
river centre and no bank to form Slip-off
Hard rock occurs
deposition of the bend
a river cliff 1 slope 1 X Y
Soft rock X Cross-section Y
Deposition Rapids
on the inside Meanders
of the bend Slip-off 3 Soft rocks more
slope move slowly
1B Appearance of banks and bed after repeated floods X Y easily eroded downstream
2 than hard rock
Raised river bed
Rapids LOOPS
Meanders TIGHTEN River
Soft rocks more move slowly takes
easily eroded 2
than hard rock Swirling water falling Cut-off
downstream into a slight depression direct Eventually a waterfall may develop
Raised bank is Floodplain loop forms
erodes it into a cylindrical hole called a potholeroute when the soft rock is eroded
called a levee Ox-bow ox-bow lake
Levees
lake Soft rock
2 Potholes Impending Stages in the Rapids Meanders and o
depression Eventually a waterfall may develop H
fs

breakthrough development
Lin
luf

ed a pothole when the soft rock is eroded (neck) of cut-off loop

eo
fb

River bed
fb
eo

Rapids Meanders and ox-bow lakes

luf
Lin

fs

Plain produced
by deposition Bedrock
Alluvium Valley produced
(silt and mud) by erosion
2
Floodplains and levées Swirling water falling into a slight depression Eventually
erodes it into a cylindrical hole called a pothole when t
River Erosion Deposits of
cliff of bank sediment Potholes Rapids
Stream
undercuts
the outer
bank to form
a river cliff
Slip-off 71
1 slope
Soft rock X Cross-section Y
Deposition
CASE
STUDY 13a River erosion – Niagara Falls

A Where is Niagara Falls?

The formation of Niagara Falls N

Niagara Falls consists of two waterfalls on the Niagara river which Lake Ontario
marks the border between New York State, USA (the American
Falls) and Ontario, Canada (the Canadian or Horseshoe Falls).
In terms of geology Niagara Falls is quite young. The formation of
the falls began at the end of the Ice Age in North America around Niagara Falls •
18 000 years ago when the area was covered in ice sheets 3 metres CANADA
thick. Torrents of water were released into the Great Lakes as ice
• Buffalo
melted into what is now the Niagara river. About 12 300 years ago
this water, travelling north from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario, plunged r
rde
over the edge of the north-facing Niagara Escarpment. The force l bo
o na USA
of the water gradually wore away the rock layers and Niagara Falls Lake Erie
rnati
Inte
‘retreated’ as it moved upstream back towards Lake Erie.

B Aerial view of the Falls

Task 1
American Falls Goat Island Study Source A.
a Use an atlas to
name the five
Canadian
Great Lakes of
Horseshoe Falls
North America.
b Which
international
Niagara River
boundary is
shown on
Source A?
c Describe the
location of
The Horseshoe Falls are the most spectacular, carrying 90 per cent of the river’s water . Twelve Niagara Falls.
million tourists from all over the world visit the Falls each year. Tourism, and producing hydro-
electric power (HEP), are both money earners. In 1859 the tightrope-walker Charles Blondin walked
over the Horseshoe Falls. Since then other daredevils have gone over the falls in barrels, rafts, rubber
balls and a kayak. Not all survived!

C The making of Niagara Falls

>10 km to Niagara Escarpment
H = hard
The glaciers melted over 12 000 years ago. S = soft Direction of retreat
Meltwater poured over the Niagara Escarpment.
Dolomite limestone (H)
The rocks of the Falls are in horizontal layers. Niagara
Gorge
54 m Shale (S)
The top layer of hard dolomite sandstone overlies softer rocks.
River level Sandstone (H)
Splashback also erodes the soft rock, undermining the hard rock above.
Today the Falls has moved back or ‘retreated’ over 10 km to the south of the escarpment. Shale (S)
56 m Plunge
Without this support below, the top layer continually collapses pool
Sandstone (H)
under its own weight to fall into the plunge pool below.
Shale (S)
This movement back has eroded the narrow Niagara Gorge or canyon.

72 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 2 Topic 13

D A slow retreat – 10 km in 12 000 years!

55 56 57 58 59 60
81 81

The rim of the Niagara Task 2

Escarpment is shown by
contours. Over 12 000 years Study Sources B and D.
80
ago the Falls began here 80
a Use Source D (grid squares 5671 and
close to Queenston, Ontario. 5771) to help you decide from which
direction the camera was pointing to
take this photograph.
b Draw a labelled sketch of the
79 79 photograph.
c In what ways are people benefiting from
the Niagara river and Falls?

Task 3
78 78
Use the captions beside Source C to
The Falls retreated at a rate annotate a copy of the sketch to show how
of 1 metre per year until the the Falls was formed.
1950s. Since then flow has
been controlled by extraction
77 for HEP and canals. The 77 Task 4
erosion rate is less today. Study Source D.
a Measure the length of the gorge from
the scarp slopes of Niagara Escarpment
76 76 (5880) to the Falls (5671). Use this
measurement to calculate the average
annual rate of retreat (metres per year)
of the Falls since they were created over
12 000 years ago.
75 75 b Estimate the maximum and minimum
width of the gorge in metres.
c Draw a large sketch map of the Niagara
Gorge and Falls. Label the following:
• Niagara Escarpment
74 74 • American and Canadian Falls
• US/Canadian border
• canals and power stations
• Niagara Gorge, river and rapids
• Niagara Falls town.
73 73 d Annotate your sketch with captions of
key facts from these pages. The captions
on Source D are examples of some
annotations you could use.
72 72

71 71

Scale 1: 50 000
(2 cm = 1km)
0 1 2 3 km
70 70
55 56 57 58 59 60

73
CASE
STUDY 13b River deposition – the Ganges delta

Bangladesh – a ‘floating’ country

Bangladesh lies north of the Bay of Bengal and shares borders
with India and Myanmar (Burma). Over 120 million people A Bangladesh – the ‘drain of the Himalayas’
live here. It is one of the most densely populated countries
in the world, yet most of the country is part of a huge low- BHUTAN
NEPAL N
lying delta. This has been formed by deposition from some of
the longest rivers in the world – the Ganges and its tributary, INDIA
the Brahmaputra – and the Meghna river. Although the delta )
tra

Jammu (Brahmapu
deposits are continually shifting, large numbers of people prefer
to live here than in crowded city slums. Flooding and irrigation Ga
n
allow all-year cropping of rice and vegetables. Jute is a major

ge
s
crop and fish are plentiful. The price of living here can be
Pad
high – monsoon rains, cyclones and floods regularly cause ma
(G INDIA
natural disasters. an

a n
ges

gh
) Dhaka

Me
B Making the Ganges delta INDIA

Distributaries Delta front

moves out into Kolkata
Bay of Bengal
Chittagong
Chittagong
Mo
uth
Sundarbans
Hills
so
ft
ges
e Gan
Bay of
he

Ganges delta
Bengal Mouths of th
Ga

Bay of Bengal
ng

MYANMAR
es

0 100 200 km

Bangladesh (formerly East Pakistan until 1971) is an

LEDC. Over two-thirds of the country is made up of
the Ganges delta. The Ganges river is over 2500 km
Top-set beds Fore-set beds Bottom-set beds long, having its source in snowmelt and rainfall in the
River deposits and Coarse material Fine material carried
large amounts of deposited and in suspension sinks Himalayan mountains north of India. It flows eastwards
organic material builds out seawards slowly to the sea bed
and empties into the Bay of Bengal after being joined by
the Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers from the east.
Most of the load carried by a river eventually deposited in a lake or the sea. If
the river's journey is not too long or there is a small load then the freshwater
merges into the saltwater quite easily in an estuary. Large rivers, however,
often form deltas.

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

The lower course
of the slow-moving
Ganges river carries a
large quantity of fine
silt as suspension load.
The river’s energy is
used in transporting
it. As it enters the
Bay of Bengal its
speed reduces and
deposition takes place.
The heaviest material
is dropped first and
builds up to form
islands.
Over time more
sediment is deposited
as the waves are
too weak to remove
it quickly. The river
channel becomes
blocked by the silt.
More flooding also
takes place. The river
finds its way to the
sea by winding itself
around the islands.
These channels
are distributaries.
Swamps and brackish
water are found here.
The sediment
continues to be added
to the delta. Islands of
dry land emerge and
vegetation grows. The
delta is continually
moved by currents and
floods.
Task 1
Study Source A and an atlas.
a Which two countries on the map are close to
Bangladesh but do not share borders?
b What do the map and atlas tell you about the
relief of Bangladesh compared with countries
around it? What problems might this cause?
c Why is Bangladesh called ‘the drain of the
Himalayas’?
Task 2
Study Source B.
a Make your own copy of the diagram.
b Explain in your own words how the delta has
formed.

74 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 2 Topic 13

C The delta – a ‘true colour’ satellite image

89° E 90° E 91° E
Task 3
24° N 3 24° N
Study Sources A and C.
4
2
Dhaka On an outline sketch of
1 The Sundarbans
Source C, use the captions to
Meghna river Mouths of label the city at 1, the three
the Ganges rivers at 2, 3 and 4 and the
delta/water features 5–8.
23° N 23° N

The Ganges river of India becomes

Padma (Ganges) river Jamuna
5 the Padma in Bangladesh.
(Brahmaputra)
Bay of Bengal river
The Brahmaputra river of India
22° N 22° N becomes the Jamuna in Bangladesh.
8
7
6 Distributaries
The Sundarbans is the largest single
89° E 90° E 91° E area of mangrove forest in the world.

D And then the monsoon arrives at Dhaka …

Task 4
Study Source D. J F M A M J J A S O N D
a Draw a bar graph to show Rainfall (mm) 18 31 58 103 194 321 437 305 254 169 28 2
the distribution of rainfall in Average annual rainfall = 1920 mm
Dhaka. Identify the dry and
Bangladesh has a sub-tropical monsoon climate. It is one of the warmest and wettest places in
wet seasons on your graph. the world. Average temperatures range from 10 °C in January to 35 °C in August. The monsoon
b Describe the distribution of rainfall adds to the water flowing in the rivers. If the monsoon rains fall when the rivers are full
rainfall. Refer to data and and summer high tides up to 6 metres are present in the Bay of Bengal, disastrous floods occur.
months. Tropical cyclones between May and November can make matters worse!
c For Bangladesh to suffer
a disastrous flood, what
factors need to occur at the E … followed by Cyclone Sidr!
same time? Which months CYCLONE DEATH TOLL MAY
pose the highest risk? Why?
RISE TO 8000
Task 5 The death toll from Cyclone Sidr, which devastated
the south coast of Bangladesh, could reach 8000. The
Study Source E. cyclone generated waves up to 8 metres high that surged
a When did this cyclone take almost 50 km inland in some low-lying areas. Nearly 2
place? If it had struck earlier million flimsy bamboo and tin homes were swept away,
in the year it could have leaving at least 3 million people homeless and damage
caused more damage – why? to property and crops. Roads were blocked by fallen
trees and untreated sewage from rivers is creating a
b How did Cyclone Sidr
health risk. Sattar Gazi, a 55-year-old farmer, said ‘I lost
affect people and the six of my family members in the cyclone. I am afraid
environment? the rest of us will die of hunger’. Vast areas of farmland
c Suggest reasons why so were under saltwater so it will be several months before
many people still live on the farmers can work again. The storm struck at the end of
Ganges delta despite the the cyclone season just before the harvest.
dangers.
18 November 2007

Sample case study question

Describe and explain the formation of an ox-bow lake. You should use labelled diagrams.

75
TOPIC 14 Coasts
A Coastal erosion B Processes of coastal erosion
Attrition Particles carried by the waves crash against each
other and are broken up into smaller particles
Corrasion Particles carried by the waves crash against the
(abrasion) cliffs, eroding the cliffs

Solution The seawater slowly dissolves the cliffs. The material

(corrosion) produced is carried away by the process of solution

Hydraulic Waves have great energy which is released as they

action break against the cliffs. Waves trap air in cracks
in the rock. This air is compressed by the waves,
eventually causing them to crack
Cliffs on the Algarve, Portugal

Changing coastlines
If you sit on a beach, you can watch the waves crashing
against the shore. After each wave, the water runs
quickly back into the sea, carrying and moving fine
grains of sand and pebbles. If you stand in the sea, you
can sometimes feel the pebbles move under your feet. In
storms, large waves can move huge boulders. The waves,
with their load of sand, pebbles and rocks, batter the cliffs
and dislodge big pieces of rock, which fall into the sea.
Coasts are always changing. Erosion occurs when the sea
is wearing away the land. Deposition occurs when the
sea piles up sand and pebbles to form new land.
C Coastal deposition
Task 1
Study Source A.
Write a paragraph describing the main features which can be
seen in the foreground (at the front) and in the background
(at the back) of the photograph.
Task 2
Study Source B.
Copy these sentences. Complete each one by writing the
name of one type of erosion.
• The force of waves crashing on the cliffs is called …… .
• Waves carry bits of rock and sand which help to grind
down cliffs. This is called …… .
• Waves cause rocks and pebbles on the shore to hit each
other and become smaller which is called …… .
• Seawater will slowly dissolve certain types of rock by the
process of …… .

Task 3
Study Sources C and D.
a Describe the differences between constructive and
destructive waves.
b Which type of waves do you think are shown in Source C?
South of Muscat, Oman
Give reasons for your answer.

D Different types of waves

Source C shows an area of
coastline where deposition
is taking place. When an
area is sheltered, sand and
pebbles may be deposited
by constructive waves
to build up wide, gently
sloping beaches.
Constructive waves:
• have a stronger swash than backwash, causing
the beach to be built up with sand and pebbles
• are less frequent than destructive waves,
breaking on the shore between 6 and 9 times
per minute
• are low, with a long wavelength so they roll
onto the beach rather than crashing onto it.
Destructive waves create a steep, narrow
beach and they:
• have a stronger backwash than swash,
removing material from a beach
• are frequent, breaking on the shore between
10 and 15 times per minute
• are tall waves with a greater distance
to fall when they break and with a short
wavelength.

76 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 2 Topic 14

E Bays and headlands

Erosional features
a Original coastline before erosion
In areas where soft rock reaches the coast this is easily eroded to form a bay.
More resistant rocks form headlands. On the headlands waves attack the
rock face along lines of weakness between the high and low water marks.
Eventually:
b Present-day coastline
• a notch is created
• overhanging rock above the notch collapses and falls as the notch is cut
Bay deeper into the rock
Headland • as the cliff is eroded backwards it leaves behind a wave-cut platform at the
Hard, resistant rock low water mark
Softer, less resistant rock • a line of weakness, such as a fault or joint, is increased in size until it
becomes a cave
• the waves continue to erode the back of the cave until an arch is formed
• when the arch roof falls into the sea it leaves behind a stack
• after more erosion it is reduced in size to form a stump.

F Features of headlands
Task 4
Study Sources E and F. Make a
copy of Source F.
a Label your diagram fully to
Beach
explain the formation of the
Bay features that are shown.
b If an examination question
asks you to explain how a
Headland stack is formed, why do you
Stack need to explain how caves
Stump and arches are formed?

Cave Arch

G Depositional features Depositional features

The depositional features shown in Source G are formed as a result of
longshore drift.
Rive
• Sand spit: a long, narrow stretch of sand and/or shingle, with one end
r

B attached to the mainland.

Land • Sand bar: develops when a spit stretches across a bay linking two
C headlands.
E
D • Tombolo: forms when a beach or sand spit joins up with an offshore
island.
F Sea
• Barrier islands: sandy islands that run parallel to the coastline forming a
tidal lagoon between them and the shore.
A
• Sand dunes: formed by winds blowing dry sand from the beach inland
and depositing it there to form mounds of sand on which marram grass
and other plants grow.
• Saltmarsh: a sheltered area, flooded at high tide, where silt collects
behind a sand spit or sand bar.
Task 5
Study Source G.
Name the features A–F which are
formed by coastal deposition.

77
CASE
STUDY 14a Coastal erosion – The Twelve Apostles

A Where is Port Campbell National Park?

N N
V I C TO R I A Melbourne

Cliffs
Port
Port Campbell
Geelong Phillip
To Adelaide
London
Arch Torquay
Cl i f fs
Allansford

es
ng
a
yR Bass
Southern Ocean Port Campbell t wa Strait
O
Apollo Bay
The Twelve
0 1 2 km Apostles 0 50 100 km Great Ocean Road

B The Twelve Apostles The Twelve Apostles

The Twelve Apostles and London Arch are famous
coastal landforms in the Port Campbell National
Park, Victoria, Australia which have been carved
by the sea from the limestone cliffs. Originally the
rock layers formed as horizontal beds of sediment
on the sea floor over 10 million years ago to become
sedimentary rock. Along this stretch of coast the
cliff base is constantly being eroded by the waves.
Steep cliffs which reach 70 metres high, wave-cut
platforms, notches, arches and stacks are formed.
Undercutting eventually causes the cliffs to collapse
along vertical joints, keeping the slopes steep.
The Twelve Apostles is a collection of stacks, the
tallest reaching 45 metres high. Originally they were
called the Sow and Piglets. The name was changed
in the 1950s to The Twelve Apostles – even though
there were only nine left. The rate of erosion at the
base of the limestone pillars is approximately 2 cm
per year and a number have fallen over entirely as
waves continue to erode their bases. The Twelve
Apostles were formed as a result of different rates of
Task 1 erosion along the coast due to the alternate bands
Study Source A. of hard and soft rocks. Headlands formed where the
rocks were most resistant. At the bases of the cliffs
Describe the location of The Twelve Apostles and London Arch. on these headlands hydraulic action, corrasion and
corrosion eroded along lines of weakness (e.g. joints,
Task 2 faults and bedding planes). Back-to-back caves first
Study Source B and the text. formed on each side of the headlands. Continuous
erosion caused these caves to extend backward
Design a tourist information leaflet about The Twelve Apostles. until the caves met and natural arches were formed,
Your leaflet should include a description and a clear explanation linking the tip of the headland with the mainland.
of their formation. Use a sequence of labelled diagrams to help When the arches collapsed, the pillars were left
your explanation. standing and became stacks.

78 Cambridge IGCSE Geography


C London Arch
D Collapsing stacks
Stack Collapse Leaves
Eight Apostles Standing
A pile of rubble is all that
remains after the collapse of
one of the sea stacks at the ‘12
Apostles’ off Victoria’s south-
west coast.
Around 9:00am the 50 metre
limestone pillar that stood
off Victoria’s south-west coast
crumbled into the water. In
a matter of seconds, all that
remained was rubble.
Stunned tourists took photos
of the dramatic change in the
landscape.
‘Reports were it sort of
shimmied or shuddered a bit, it
fractured and sort of imploded
in on itself and pretty much
slid straight into the ocean,’
Alex Green from Parks Victoria
said. ‘So we’ve gone from a
50-metre sea stack down to a
ten metre pile of rubble. ‘We
expect from reports of previous
collapses like this that that pile
of rubble will very quickly be
eroded away by the ocean.’
The collapse was part of the
natural process that has shaped
the popular tourist attraction
for centuries.
STOP PRESS Only 7 stacks left …
But it leaves only 8 of the 12
apostles still standing.
Just 15 years ago another of
the site’s main attractions,
London Bridge, fell into the
sea. Tourists trapped on what
was left of the bridge had to be
rescued.
But experts are confident the
disappearance of the apostle
will not detract from the
popularity of the area.
Before and after photos of
London Bridge already generate
much discussion about the
constant changes to the
coastline and the latest collapse
is another talking point.
Victorian Tourism Minister
John Pandazopoulos says he
does not expect the latest
collapse will have an effect on
tourism. ‘Since London Bridge
fell down tourism has grown in
the region,’ he said.
Numerous ads and promotions
featuring the 12 apostles may
now have to be re-shot.
20 May 2007
September 2009
Theme 2 Topic 14
London Arch
London Arch is a natural
arch which is one of the main
tourist attractions in the Port
Campbell National Park. It was
formed by the processes of
coastal erosion, and until 1990
formed a complete double-
span natural bridge. The
arch closest to the shoreline
collapsed unexpectedly on 15
January 1990, leaving two
tourists stranded on the outer
part. They had to be rescued
by helicopter. Before the
collapse, the arch was known
as London Bridge because of
its similarity to the bridge
over the river Thames in
London, UK.
Task 3
Study Sources C and D.
a The photograph shows what London Arch now looks
like. Draw a labelled sketch to show what you think
the feature was like before the collapse.
b Use geographical terminology to explain why one of
The Twelve Apostles collapsed.
Task 4
There are many other famous arches and stacks. Here
are some examples.
Stacks: Arches:
Goat Rock, USA Percé Rock, Canada
Old Harry Rocks, England Holei Arch, Hawaii
The Needles, England Durdle Door, England
Old Man of Hoy, Scotland Porte d’Amante, France
Hopewell Rocks, Canada Great Pollet Arch, Ireland
Po Pin Chau, Hong Kong
Needle of Arsene Lupin, France
Lange Anna, Germany
Carry out research in groups and prepare a
presentation, perhaps using PowerPoint. In your
presentation you need to choose one stack and one
arch from the list, or an example from your own
country.
a Describe the precise location of your chosen stack
and arch and show them on a map.
b Find photographs to show your chosen stack and
arch and describe their main features (e.g. shape,
size, rock type).
c Explain clearly how each of the features was formed.
79
CASE
STUDY 14b Coastal deposition – the Hel spit

A The Hel spit, Poland

N
The Hel spit,
Rozewie Cape

Poland
WLADYSLAWOWO
0 10km The Hel peninsula is a
long sand spit situated
at the western end of
Gdansk Bay of the Baltic
Baltic Sea
CHALUPY Sea in northern Poland.
It is long, narrow, low
PUCK KUZNICA He and relatively flat, with
lP
en sand dunes in many
ins
ula parts. The sand spit
JASTARNIA was formed by coastal
deposition, as a result of
longshore drift from west
Bay of Puck to east. The predominant
Reda River
JURATA winds are from the west
Rewa Cape and north-west and this
transports sediments
HEL from the west of the spit,
where it is subject to
erosion, to its eastern end
where sediment is still
Bay of Gdansk building up. The beach
GDYNIA
material is sorted by the
waves, resulting in large
sediments (e.g. pebbles)
B The process of longshore drift at the top of the beach
and smaller ones (e.g.
sand and shingle) close to
the sea.
Waves approach beach
at angle controlled by
prevailing winds Task 1 Task 2
Material moved up Study Source A. Study Sources A
the beach at an angle a Measure the length of the and B.
in the swash Hel peninsula in kilometres. Explain in detail how
b Measure the width of the the Hel sand spit was
Hel peninsula between formed. Refer to:
Chalupy and Wladyslawowo. • prevailing winds
Material carried
c How does the width of the • swash and
directly down the
sand spit change between backwash
beach in the
backwash under Jastarnia and Hel? Suggest a • direction of
gravity reason for this change. longshore drift.

Direction of
longshore drift

80 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 2 Topic 14

C Cross-section of Hel spit

North South
Task 3
Study Source C.
The highest waves which have
4m Bay of Puck been observed in the area
Baltic Sea were 8 metres high when a
Artificial dune Railway Road strong wind was blowing from
a northerly direction for more
300 m than two days. Explain why it is
necessary to protect the sand
spit from coastal erosion.

D Coastal protection

Groyne
Sea wall and rock armour

Beach replenishment

Task 4
Study Source D.
The three photographs show methods used to protect Hel
peninsula from coastal erosion. Carry out your own research so
that you can explain how each method works.
Sample case study question
For a stretch of coastline where coastal deposition
has occurred, describe the coastal landforms and
explain their formation. You may use labelled
diagrams in your answer.

81
TOPIC 15 Coral reefs
A Three different types of reef
Landforms beneath
the sea Fringing
reef
Barrier
reef
The river and marine landforms studied Shore
Several kilometres
so far have been created above sea level. Narrow
shallow Wide, deep- Ocean
Coral reefs, however, are landforms lagoon water lagoon
Fringingthe sea.
created beneath Barrier
reef reef
Reefs are established
Shore when
Several a large
kilometres
continuous mass of coral builds
Narrow 1 Monuriki Island, Fiji
shallow Wide, deep-
upwardslagoon
and outwards from a rockOcean
water lagoon
base. Scientists know the conditions 1 Fringing reef Coral platforms grow
needed for corals to grow out to sea attached to the mainland. A
but the development of different shallow lagoon lies above them.
types of reef over thousands of 2 Barrier reef Coral grows in a shallower
An atoll
a area away from the mainland. The
years is less well known.
water between is too deep for coral to
grow and forms a lagoon. These reefs
form off-shore barriers
Fringingalong coastlines.
2 Great Barrier Reef,
3 Atoll These develop around islands. Fringing reefs grow in a circle attached
Land reef to the land. Sea-
Coral Water Vegetation, e.g. palm trees
Queensland, Australia
level rise or subsidence of the land causes the coral to grow at the height of the rising
Ocean Ocean
sea level to reach the light. This eventually forms a ring of coral reefs with a lagoon replacing
the island in the centre. Deep Deep
water Island water
e.g. a volcano
Land Coral Water Vegetation, e.g. palm trees
An atoll
a b Reefs grow upwards and outwards
Rise in
Inner sea level
lagoon
Ocean Ocean
Fringing 3 Blue Hole Lighthouse
reef Reef Atoll, Belize
Ocean Ocean

Deep
water Island
Deep
water
Deep
water
Coral debris
from wave erosion
B Coral reefs – a delicate
e.g. a volcano builds up in layers and diverse ecosystem

b Reefs grow upwards and outwards

Inner
lagoon
Task 1
Ocean
Study Source A.
a Name the three
different
Deep types of debris
Coral
water
coral reef. from wave erosion
builds up in layers b Name two situations in
b Name a place where
an example of each
can be found.
c Describe how a
fringing reef differs
from a barrier reef.
d Explain how an island
with fringing reefs
can become an atoll.
Rise in
sea level
Coral has a
Task
Ocean
2 solid skeleton of
Study Source B. limestone, and
forms reefs at a
a List the factors needed for rate of 2.5 cm a
coral to grow. year. Coral needs
three main factors
which coral cannot grow. for growth: Biodiversity = The variety of
Suggest why. • warm water plants and animals and other
c What material from coral – between 23 living things in a place.
produces the reef? and 25 °C is best
d How much would a coral • clear, shallow saltwater, no deeper than 50 metres
reef grow in: • plenty of sunlight to aid photosynthesis.
Coral cannot grow in freshwater, and cannot tolerate silt nor water
• 1 year • 10 years
high in nutrients that allow plants to use the oxygen that the
• 1000 years? coral needs. Many countries in the tropics have the right climatic
e What evidence is there of conditions but do not always have a large area of shallow water to
a high biodiversity in the absorb sunlight.
photograph?

82 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 2 Topic 15

C Coral reef regions of the world D Reefs atreef

Major coral risk from human activity
regions
Great Barrier Reef
1 These are reef
– 10 Coral the top 10 coral
‘hotspots’ ‘hot
– coral spots' ranked
and
according to threat
biodiversity from human activity.
endangered
Pacific Atlantic • Philippines
(ranked in order of most at
threat from human activity)
Red
Ocean Ocean • West of central Africa, e.g. Gulf of Guinea
Tropic of Cancer
10
Sea 7 Caribbean • East of Madagascar, e.g. Mauritius
9
Equator
1 8 Sea • Indonesia, e.g. Sunda Islands
3
6 2 • Eastern South Africa
Indian
Tropic of Capricorn 5 Ocean • Northern Indian Ocean, e.g. Maldives
4 • Southern Japan, Taiwan and south China
• West of Africa, e.g. Cape Verde Islands
0 2000 4000 km • Western Caribbean, e.g. Jamaica
• Red Sea and Gulf of Oman
Corals can grow in temperate regions but are usually found in tropical and sub-tropical United Coral Reef Action Network
waters between 30°N and 30°S. Fifty per cent are found in the Indian Ocean and Red
Sea, 35 per cent in the Pacific Ocean and 15 per cent in the Caribbean.
Biodiversity ‘hotspots’ – regions that Endangered species – plants or Task 3
contain a great diversity of species and animals that face a high risk of
have been significantly affected by extinction in the near future due to Study Sources C and D.
human activity. human activity. a On an outline map of the world, shade
and name the major coral reef regions.
b Name two oceans where coral can be
Coral reefs – an ecosystem under threat found.
Coral reefs provide habitats for a marine ecosystem full of colour, pattern and c Describe where coral reefs are not
bizarre lifeforms. Some 3000 species have been recorded on a single reef. For found between the tropics. Suggest
these reasons they have an irresistible appeal to tourists. The visitors can have why.
positive and negative effects: d Match the numbers on Source C to
the places listed in Source D.
• Positive, e.g. they create employment and income in some of the world’s e Mark and name these places on your
poorest regions. map.
• Negative, e.g. they damage coral while swimming beneath the sea. f Name the top three coral reef ‘hot
Other human activities such as farming, fishing and water pollution also spots’ under the greatest threat.
affect the coral reefs. Already 25 per cent of reefs have been damaged or
lost. Some scientists estimate that, by 2020, 70 per cent might be Task 4
permanently lost. Study Source E.
a Why are coral reefs important to the
E Coral grief – reefs under threat economy of many countries?
b Identify which threats are due to
Coral reefs are important. They provide employment for millions of people and supply natural causes and which may be
seafood, building materials, medicines, and income from tourists. They also protect because of human activity.
shorelines and communities from storms and erosion. c Choose one article. Write a letter to
your local newspaper outlining your
Earthquake Damages LAWS PASSED TO PROTECT concern about the threat.
Coral in Indonesia
An earthquake measuring
PHILIPPINES CORAL REEFS
8.7 on the Richter scale Laws have been passed recently to prevent the use
of ‘blast-fishing’. Here cyanide bombs are used
has lifted all the coral
along a 190-mile coast a to stun fish on the coral reefs. Fisherman are also Coral Reef Turns White in Tobago!
metre above sea level. All being encouraged to use fine-mesh barrier nets Beneath the blue Caribbean seas, the Buccoo coral
the coral have died. to drag over the reef, so only large fish are caught reef, home to one of the richest marine ecosystems,
and smaller species are protected. has turned white. This ‘bleaching’ is due to global
warming. The seas have risen by 3 °C above normal

TOURISTS RUINING MALDIVE REEFS
Snorkelling and swimming out in hire boats to see the marine wildlife is
damaging the reef. Coral is broken off by careless swimmers. Boats drop anchor
onto coral or people just stand on it. Coral is also being sold as souvenirs.
– even to 31 °C – which is above the coral’s tolerance
limit. Algae, which live in and provide the coral life-
support system, die and are expelled from the coral
leaving white skeletons. This is a tragedy for an island
whose main industries are tourism and fishing.

83
CASE
STUDY 15 The Great Barrier Reef, Australia

A The Great Barrier Reef, Australia

145 B The reef from the air …
N °E
A
Gulf of
Papua
10°
S
Cape
York
Peninsula
Ferguson Reef
G R E AT
QUEENSL

Hastings Reef Coral 15°

Cairns S
Sea
AND

BARRIE

150
°E
The Great Barrier Reef – important for
R

Australia!
Townsville
The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park was created a World Heritage Area
RE

in 1981. Since then human activity has been managed by the Marine
EF

Park Authority to protect the shallow lagoon waters between the

Queensland coast and the reef from damage. The reef is important to
M

the country’s economy. It employs 6 per cent of the workforce and

A

contributes 12 per cent of all exports.

RI
NE

20°
S

Tro
pi Task 1
PA R

co
f Ca
pric
orn Study Source A.
K

a Describe the location of the Great Barrier Reef. Refer to distances,

Keppel Islands
North Reef
directions, lines of latitude, Queensland and the Tropic of Capricorn in
your answer.
Gladstone
b A and B on the map mark the ends of the Great Barrier Reef Marine
Park. Estimate the straight-line distance between A and B in
kilometres.
c Within what range of distances from the coast can the reef be found?
B
25° Task 2
Coral reef S
Study Source B.
Border of Great
Barrier Reef You have been asked to write a brief description of the reef aimed at
Marine Park 0 100 200 km
attracting tourists. Imagine you are flying over the reef looking down at
this area. Write down at least four key points you would mention in your
article.

84 Cambridge IGCSE Geography


C The Barrier Reef under threat
Agriculture: The Queensland coast is
sugarcane and cattle country, so
pollutants arrive in the sea from rivers
flowing into the reef areas. These are
often nutrient-rich, so encourage
plant growth which lowers oxygen
levels for other coral wildlife. This is
called eutrophication.
Industry and sewage: Rivers bring
toxic and metal pollutants to the reef
from industrial activities. Nitrates and
phosphates are present in sewage.
These lead to algal blooms and
eutrophication.
Fishing: Over-fishing the reef affects
the top layers of the ecosystem.
Cyanide bombs have been used to
stun fish so they can be collected
easily. Fishermen are to be banned
from one-third of the Barrier Reef.
Islands is completely bleached due to starfish expansion. Global warming
means that this natural predator has expanded into new areas, eating more algae and coral and leaving white
coral skeletons. How this will develop across the Great Barrier Reef is the number one question right now.
Professor Ove Hoegh-Guldberg – marine biologist at the University of Queensland, 2006
Task 3
Study Source C.
a What do you understand by
these terms: natural predator,
bleaching, eutrophication,
sediment?
b Choose one human activity
that is causing a threat to the
reef. Explain the damage it is
causing.
Task 4
Study Source D.
a When was the GBRMPA
established?
b What is meant by sustainability?
How is the GBRMPA trying to
manage the reef to achieve this?
Task 5
Study Source E.
Read the advice given in the cruise
company brochure. Devise a piece
of illustrated media (e.g. a poster,
video, interview) to support the
list of suggestions for preventing
damage to the reef.
Theme 2 Topic 15
Dredging: Taking out building
materials such as sand and gravel from
the sea bed causes mud to cloud the
clear waters. Coral die through lack of
sunlight.
Threats to the
Great Barrier Reef Housing and shoreline development:
On the Queensland coast more building
and construction not only creates
demand for materials from the sea bed
but also creates sediment that flows
into the sea. This muddies the waters.
AUSTRALIA
Tourism: Nearly A$5 billion* is
generated by tourists visiting the reef.
Day-tour boats (up to 400 tourists),
cruise ships, yachts and kayaks all use
these waters. Most tourists stick to
advice but some ignore it completely,
often standing on live coral or bumping
coral when snorkelling.
*A$1000 = US$800
Coral at the Keppel
D Managing the tourists
The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA)
The reef is a World Heritage Area which has been managed by the GBRMPA since 1981. The
main aim of the managers is sustainability of the reef. To achieve this they are developing
laws to protect the reef from oil pollution, over-fishing and tourist damage. Much of the reef
is now zoned for particular activities. Managers are also required to maintain its outstanding
natural beauty.
E Cruise company advice
HOW CAN YOU HELP PRESERVE THE
GREAT BARRIER REEF ON YOUR TRIP?
The coral reef you will visit on this trip is a World
Heritage Site. Its preservation is everybody’s responsibility.
• Don’t stand on the bottom while snorkelling, as the
coral is alive. THIS IS A MARINE PARK.
• Snorkel in deep water along the edge of the coral reef. COLLECTING IS NOT
• Only snorkel in shallow water if your fins will not ALLOWED.
bump corals. TAKE AWAY ONLY
• Don’t throw food to the fish – we will hold PHOTOGRAPHS AND
fish-feeding sessions at the swim platform. HAPPY MEMORIES.
• Don’t handle or harass marine animals. PROTECT OUR CORAL
• If smoking, use the ashtrays – do not throw FOR OUR CHILDREN.
butts overboard.
Sample case study question
For a place you have studied, explain why an area of coral reef provides
opportunities for people.
85
TOPIC 16 Weather and climate
A Weather and climate are different
Weather: Short-term
day-to-day changes in the
atmosphere for a place.
Rainfall, temperature, wind
direction and strength, air
pressure, sunshine, humidity
and cloud cover are all studied
as ‘weather’.
Climate: The average
weather conditions over
winds
a period of time – at least In Morocco, records show that desert
e temp erat ures
Moscow, in Russia, can experience a cold 30 years. Temperature and from the Sahara can caus
g the
and cloudy night with heavy snow, and rainfall are shown on climate easily exceeding 40 °C on average durin
temperatures in the morning of around graphs. Climate regions cover summer mon ths.
minus 16 °C. large areas.

B How do we measure the weather?

TAIL B TAIL F
Relativ H
percentage e humidity – Pre HEAD Cup a EAD 5
moisture in millibssure in W
therm et and dry
3 nemo
meter
air (%) ars (m omete b
b) r (hyg ulb -20°C 50°C
in
romet f a ll
er) rain )
HE Daily etres (mm
-10 40
Rain AD 1
millim
0 30
gaug TAIL C
e 10 20 5
100 1010 5
101

20
10
20 10 CHANGE FA

10
00
IN IR
RA

5
30 0

102
995

VE
TAIL A

Y
STORM

RY D
40 -10

1030
RY
990
TAIL E 50 -20

5
103
985
50°C 50°C

40
98

10
TAIL D

0
40 40
Dir 5 997 65

from ection win

970
30 30
(poin d
20 20 ts of is blowin
the c
003 4 25 omp g
Max
kmsm 10 10
Weather station ass)
0 0
.
in de and min -10 -10
A traditional weather station includes HEAD 4
gree .
s Cen tempera the instruments shown here. Computers Barometer
tigra ture
de (° and digital technology are making these
C)
2 Wind
D
HEA inimum instruments obsolete. kilome speed in
um-m tres (k D6
Maximermomete
r m) HEA vane
th i n d
W

The Stevenson screen

A traditional weather station has a Stevenson screen. It is built so
that the shade temperature of the air can be measured. It consists of
a square wooden box on a stand. The box has louvred sides to allow
the entry of air. The roof is made of double boarding to prevent the
sun’s heat from reaching the inside of the screen. Insulation is further
improved by painting the outside white to reflect the sun’s rays. It is
placed on a stand 110 cm above ground level to avoid any effects of
concrete or grass at the surface. It is sited in open space, clear of trees
and buildings to avoid any obstacles affecting the readings. In this
way instruments inside the screen avoid external influences.

Studying the weather

What is the weather like today? Has
Task 1 Task 2
it changed since you came to school Read Source A. Study Source B.
this morning? Weather affects so many a How is weather different from Make a three-column table. In the first
of our daily activities. We rely on climate? two columns match the instruments
weather forecasts to plan what we are b Study the statement with each labelled 1–6 with the drawings A–F. In
going to do and when. But how is the photograph. Decide which one is the final column use the other captions
weather measured and how can we about the weather and which is to state what each instrument measures
predict what is going to happen from about climate. and the units being measured.
these measurements?

86 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 2 Topic 16

C World climates
Arctic C Tropical wet rainforest
ircle
Tropical wet and dry savanna
Semi-arid
Cambridge Arid or desert
Mediterranean
Tropic of Cancer Humid subtropical
Temperate maritime
Timbuktu Mumbai
Continental warm summer
Equator Belem Continental cool summer
Subarctic
Tundra
Ice cap
Tropic of Capricorn
Mountain
Sydney

0 2000 4000 km

World climates … D Reading a climate graph

Task 3
and Cambridge! Cambridge, UK (52°N 0°E) Read Sources C and D.
Many people mix up the 20 20
weather and climate. Climate
Temperature (°C) a Work out where you live on this
is more related to what we can 15 15 map.
expect to happen over a large b Which climate type do you
area based on the records of 10 10 experience?
at least 30 years of weather. c What type of climate does
5 Growing season 5 Cambridge, in the UK,
A world map of climate types temperature (6°C)
helps us find out the type 0 0
experience?
of climate we live in. These 75 75
d From the graph describe the
Rainfall (mm) climate of Cambridge. Refer to:
vary from extremely cold, dry
climates to extremely hot, wet 50 50 • average monthly temperatures
climates. • annual temperature range
25 25 • average annual rainfall
To decide how the climate we • rainfall distribution.
live in compares with others 0 0
J F M A M J J A S O N D
we must have an idea of what
one average climate is like. We
need a place where it is neither J F M A M J J A S O N D
too hot nor too cold, too wet
Temperature (°C) 3 4 6 8 12 15 17 16 14 10 6 4
nor too dry, as a reference
point. The United Kingdom Rainfall (mm) 41 31 35 38 46 48 60 57 50 53 49 44
(UK) has a climate without
Average annual rainfall = 552 millimetres Temperatures are average (mean) for each month
extremes. It is between the cold
Arctic region (north of 66½°N)
and the hot Tropic of Cancer
(23½ °N). Cambridge (52°N),
in the UK, is a good reference
Task 4
point for a climate between Find climate data for where you live. Draw a climate graph and compare your graph with
the two. that of Cambridge. (Use the same scales for comparison.)

87
TOPIC 17 Tropical rainforests
A Where are the rainforests?
At the global scale Arctic C
ircle
Moving towards tropical regions and
the equator from temperate regions the
climate changes. It gets hotter and the
temperatures stay high all year, though
rainfall varies between the Tropics of Tropic of Cancer
Cancer and Capricorn. It can be well
over 1500 mm or less than 250 mm a
year. Tropical rainforests grow where Equator

both rainfall and temperature are high

all year. Ten per cent of the world’s
rainfall depends on the rainforest putting Tropic of Capricorn
water back into the atmosphere through
evaporation and transpiration. In recent
years there have been many threats to the
rainforest from deforestation.
Tropical rainforest 0 2000 4000 km

B Structure of rainforest vegetation

45 Emergent trees
Lianas creep up from
the floor to the canopy The tallest trees
40 emerge through the
main canopy layer.
35
Main canopy layer
This is the true
30 jungle. Most animals
live here.
25
Metres

Lower canopy layer

20 Small trees and
saplings grow in
shady, humid
15 conditions.

Rainforest in Langkawi,
Malaysia
These broad-leaved evergreen
forests show dense growth
and extremely diverse fauna
and flora, forming unique
ecosystems. There can be
40–100 tree species per hectare.
Large amounts of shade prevent
much growth at low levels so
most plant and animal species
are in the canopy where there is
light. All the plants compete for
light to photosynthesise – this
causes vegetation to grow in
layers. Those that reach the sky
– the emergents – form islands
of green above the main forest.
Rainforests are called the ‘lungs
of the Earth’ due to the oxygen
they produce.
Task 1
Study Source A.
a On an outline map of the
world, shade and label
regions that have tropical
rainforest.
b Use an atlas to help you
label three countries from
three different continents
that have rainforests.
c Describe the global
distribution of rainforests.
10 Shrub layer
Smaller trees and
ferns grown in deep
5 shade
0 Ground layer
0 10 20 30 40 50 Leaf and animal
Metres remains cover the
ground. Not much
can grow here.
Task 2
Study Source B.
a Make your own labelled copy of the vertical
structure of a rainforest.
b Are there any forests near where you live? If so,
how does their structure compare with that of the
rainforest?
c Why does so little rainfall and light reach the ground
in the rainforest? How does this affect the growth of
vegetation in the lower levels shown in the photo?
d Explain how competition for light leads to layers of
vegetation in the rainforest.

88 Geography IGCSE
 Theme 2 Topic 17

C A rainforest climate graph

Betafo J F M A M J J A S O N D
Betafo, Madagascar
30° 30° Temperature (°C) 29 29 25 22 21 16 17 17 21 26 29 30
Temperature (°C)
20° 20° Rainfall (mm) 270 251 183 71 52 46 54 48 62 87 171 345
Growing season Average annual rainfall = 1640 mm Temperatures are average (mean) for each month
10° temperature (6°C) 10°

0° 0° Although it is hot and wet for most of the year, temperature and rainfall are not evenly
350 350 distributed. The sun is over the Tropic of Capricorn in December, giving maximum insolation,
Rainfall (mm)
but is over the Tropic of Cancer in June so temperatures fall. All year the warm moist air rises to
300 300 give low pressure and clouds over Madagascar. The prevailing trade wind from the south-east
250 250
also brings rain from the Indian Ocean but from May to October it is weaker so less rain falls.

200 200
D Does Madagascar tick the boxes?
150 150

100 100 Heads Tails

50 50 Temperatures over 20 °C for … so photosynthesis can take

most months of the year … place all year.
0 0
J F M A M J J A S O N D High rainfall in each month of … result in the rapid recycling of
the year … nutrients.
Long hours of daylight and … so there is water available for
sunshine … growth all year.
Task 3 High temperatures and high … so plant growth is not limited
rainfall … by low temperatures.
Study Source C.
a Which month has the highest mean temperature?
b Which month has the lowest mean temperature? E Nutrient recycling
c Work out the mean annual temperature range. The trees grow buttresses Leaves, dead branches
d How can you tell this place is in the southern to hold them up because
their roots are shallow and
Rainfall and twigs fall from
trees all year.
hemisphere? do not give support.
Decomposers quickly
e Explain why rainfall and temperature are not evenly Recycling of nutrients back break down dead
into trees is rapid because plants and animals.
spread during the year. it is so hot and wet.
Roots search for
Nutrients only stay in the nutrients and water
Task 4 soil for a short time. near the soil surface.
Rocks provide trees with Water, nutrients and
Study Sources C and D. some minerals and
nutrients.
gases return quickly
into the trees through
a Match the ‘Heads’ to the ‘Tails’. their roots.

b Look back at the climate data for Cambridge on page

87. Explain why the climate at Betafo is better for F Rainforest issues
rapid plant growth than the climate at Cambridge.
Cups of Coffee Spell Doom for the Hairy Rhino
Task 5 20% of the rainforest in the Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park of
Sumatra has been hacked down for illegal coffee plantations due to
Study Source E.
a boom in export demand. Tigers, elephants, orang-utans and the
Imagine trees have been logged and removed. Redraw hairy rhino are all at risk … January 2007
the main diagram, changing or adding new labels to
show the effects of deforestation.
LOGGERS GO DEEPER Rainforests Felled to
INTO THE AMAZON
Task 6 JUNGLE IN BRAZIL
Feed Demand for Lipstick
Go into any shop and the chances
Study the articles in Source F. Illegal logging for mahogany are that palm oil could be in a tenth
is pushing loggers further into
a Label each of the countries named on your world of your purchases. Palm oil can be
the Amazon rainforest. One found in everything from margarine
map (see Task 1). Annotate the country to show how mahogany tree will make and ice cream to soap, shampoo and
the rainforest is being affected. furniture, veneers and floors lipstick. Benin, in West Africa, has
b Design a poster to show why tropical rainforest is worth US$200,000 … cleared forest for palm plantations.
being removed across the world. November 2002 March 2004

89
CASE
STUDY 17 Madagascar’s rainforest

Madagascar – a world apart

Madagascar is the world’s fourth largest island. Before people arrived here years ago,
nearly all of the island was forested. Since then local people have gradually cleared
A Where is Madagascar?
the land for farming which has led to deforestation. Today there are also threats from N 0 200 km Antsiranana
mining companies, and tourism is growing. The rainforest here is disappearing fast.

el
nn
B Rainforest and rainfall

ha
eC
iqu
Mahajanga

mb
Rainfall Vegetation zones

Moza
N N
Toamasina
Mozambique Indian Mozambique Indian Tsiroanomandidy
Channel Ocean Channel Ocean Antananarivo
Betafo 20°S
(in Ranomafana NP) Antsirabe
Prevailing Prevailing
wind wind Fianarantsoa Indian
Ocean
Betafo Betafo
Y Y Deforested Tropic of Capricorn
Toliara
X X areas
More than Town with over
1500 mm Rainforest 50 000 people

500–1500 mm Grassland 50°E

and scrub
0 300 km Less than 0 300 km
500 mm Semi-desert

Cross-section of Madagascar west to east

Western Lowlands
Coastal Plains
The prevailing wind is from the south-east. Task 1
The mountains force the moist wind to
The wind blows over the central plateau. It is dry rise. This causes condensation to give
here. There is not enough rainfall for rainforest to clouds and heavy rain in the east. This is Study Source A.
grow in the west. This area is in the rain shadow. called relief rainfall.
a Estimate the greatest length (north–south)
3000
and greatest width (west–east) of the island
Prevailing
in kilometres. Use a world map to find one
Metres

2000 wind
other island that is larger.
1000 b Describe the location of Madagascar in
X Y relation to Mozambique and the Tropic of
Mozambique Central Plateau Indian Capricorn.
Channel The mountains are over 1500 metres high. Maromoktro Ocean
in the north is the highest peak at 2876 metres.

C All these are under threat

Task 2
Consumers: herbivores, carnivores and omnivores
Study Source B.
Fosa Goshawk Buzzard
a Where does it rain most and least in Madagascar? (largest carnivore)
b Use the cross-section to explain the rainfall Boa
constrictor
pattern. Tenrec
Flying fox Chameleon (insect-eating Lemurs
Task 3 mammal)

Study Source C.
Mice Insects Frogs
a What is the difference between a producer, a and grubs
herbivore and a carnivore? Give one example of
each. Producers: palms, bamboos, orchids, coconuts, baobab trees, various seeds/fruits
b Using examples of food chains, suggest what
would happen to the food web if: The rainforest ecosystem on Madagascar is unique. Over 90 per cent of the
• all the producers were removed animals living here only exist on this island. Over 50 million years ago the
• the fosa (a large cat) became extinct. continents of India and Africa separated when two plates drifted apart.
Explain your answer. Madagascar was left as an island between two continents. This meant that
the ecosystem evolved in a different way from those in India and Africa.

90 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 2 Topic 17

Why has the forest gone? D Difficult choices

0 200 km N
TOBACCO
RICE
Madagascar is an LEDC – it is the ninth Rainforest CLOVES
poorest country in the world. The people cover is decreasing.
have relied on subsistence farming for What do you expect us to do?
RICE COFFEE Toamasina
many years. Early settlers lived on the We have to live. We need land to grow Antananarivo
Betafo Indian
east coast at first but, as population grew, crops. We need meat and skins so we have to Antsirabe Ocean
they moved inland and removed more hunt animals. Other countries want our rice and RICE

forest from mountain slopes for farmland. coffee. We grow it to earn money from abroad. Fianarantsoa COFFEE
In most rainforest areas this shifting This will help our economy develop. CATTLE

You may care about the lemurs. CLOVES Rainforest

cultivation allowed rainforests to recover. cover
I care about my family. SISAL
RICE
Now, however, more is being removed RICE COFFEE Crops
to plant cash crops such as rice, coffee SISAL Town with over
and tobacco. These provide 70 per cent 50 000 people
of overseas earnings from exports; this is
the main reason why the forest is being Madagascar factfile
removed so quickly – 90 per cent of the Population 15.5 million
original forest has already been destroyed.
Recovery of the ecosystem is impossible. Infant mortality rate 95 per 1000

Urban/rural % 28/72

Task 4 Children per woman 5.4

Doctors 1 per 4000

Study Source D.
Access to safe water 40%
a Why are the farmers Task 5
removing trees? Average income US$ 260
b List the crops being Study Source E.
Life expectancy 56M/59F
grown in Madagascar. a Describe the scenes in the
Employment structure (%)
How are other countries photographs.
Primary 78
causing the removal of b What is: Secondary 7
forest? • slash-and-burn farming Tertiary 15
c Select three indicators • shifting cultivation?
which suggest that c Put the eight captions in the
Madagascar is an LEDC. correct time order. Use them to
Justify your choices. produce your own storyboard. Sample case study question
d Suggest how developing d Some people say that Describe and explain how human activity
the tourist industry could Madagascar is ‘bleeding from is changing an area of tropical rainforest
help or harm the country. the heart’. Why? you have studied.

E Removing trees creates space … but bleeds away the soil

The ash supplies nutrients.

Heavy rainfall eventually washes nutrients and red soil into rivers.

People set fire to the trees – a practice called slash-and-burn farming.

Rainforest is destroyed.

Crops grow well for a number of years.

Crops no longer grow on the infertile soil.

Animals lose habitats and food.

People go elsewhere to remove more rainforest. This is called shifting cultivation.

An island ‘bleeding from its heart’

Madagascar is called the Great Red Island because soil
erosion washes the red clay soil into the ocean staining
it muddy red.

91
TOPIC 18 Hot deserts
A A desert scene B The world’s hot deserts
NORTH

Califor
AMERICA

nian
231/2°N

curr
nt

e
0°
SOUTH
Hot desert AMERICA

Peruv
climate

i
Fog rent
an
Semi-arid
climates 231/2°S

cu
r
Cold ocean
currents

es t ASIA

ren i
cur nar
Monument Valley, the Mojave Desert, USA

Ca

g
Fo
The Mojave Desert is a dry, barren desert. The Monument Valley area was originally a basin 231/2°N
of sandstone and limestone layers. It has slowly been uplifted to become a flat plateau up
to 3 km above sea level. Heat, wind and water have eroded the land for over 50 million
AFRICA
years, cutting it up and peeling away the rock layers. Hard horizontal rocks have been left
as isolated caps above softer sandstone. These are called ‘mesas’. Due to low rainfall the 0°

features are not rounded.

West Australia
current
Benguelta
curren
AUSTRALIA 23 2°S
1/

Fog
Deserts – challenging
231/2°S

places
A desert is an area that receives less C A hot desert climate
than 250 mm precipitation in a year.
Arid (dry) deserts can be hot, for Monument Valley, the Mojave Desert, USA
example the Sahara Desert in Africa; or
cold, as found in the northern tundra J F M A M J J A S O N D
regions of North America and Eurasia. 10 13 15 19 20 23 28 36 30 24 19 14
Temperature (°C)
These pages are about hot deserts that
are found in sub-tropical and tropical Rainfall (mm) 25 30 34 37 4 6 3 12 22 18 15 13
latitudes. They have very high daytime Average annual rainfall = 219 mm
temperatures, often over 50 °C, and Temperatures are average (mean) for each month
low night-time temperatures, below
20 °C with clear skies and sometimes a
ground frost. They are mostly found on
the western edge of continents because Task 2
the prevailing winds in tropical regions Study Source B.
are off-shore blowing from the east
a On an outline map of the world, shade the deserts shown.
across land, so cannot pick up moisture
b Use an atlas to name these deserts.
from the sea. Hot deserts are extreme
c Describe the distribution of hot deserts.
environments which present challenges
for people who live or visit there. Task 3
Study Source C.
Task 1 a Draw a climate graph using this data.
b What is the mean temperature of the hottest month?
Study Source A. c What is the mean temperature of the coldest month?
a Describe the scene. Give at least three reasons that d Work out the annual mean temperature range.
suggest this is an area of low rainfall. e How much below 250 mm is the average annual rainfall?
b Explain how mesas have been formed here. Describe its distribution.

92 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 2 Topic 18

D Creating hot deserts

Key to diagram (left)
The tropopause is the boundary between
the atmosphere and space. Rising air 1 Due to the heat of the sun, which is overhead at the equator, the land surfaces are warmed up and air
cannot penetrate it so it is diverted towards rises. This gives low pressure at the surface along the equator. This rising air cools and condenses to
the tropics.
give thunder clouds and heavy rainfall in equatorial regions.
N. Pole
Tro 2 Once this rising air reaches the tropopause it then travels to the north and south towards each Tropic.
p o
3 As it moves away from the equator at high altitude it cools. Between 20° and 35° north and south of
pa the equator the air begins to sink or subside towards the surface.
us
e
Tropic of Cancer 3 4 This gives permanent sub-tropical high-pressure systems (anticyclones) in these areas. Rainfall cannot
231/2°N occur where air sinks. These areas of aridity are the hot deserts of the world.
HIGH PRESSURE
4 2
Equator Areas of high pressure and outblowing winds Areas with cold ocean currents offshore
0° 1 e.g. Sahara Desert e.g. Namib and Atacama Deserts
LOW PRESSURE
4 2 Air descends from atmosphere Wind usually offshore
Tropic of Capricorn but any cold moist air
231/2°S Few high-level moving inland from
HIGH PRESSURE 3 Fog forms around
Air warms as it falls, clouds the sea is warmed
rapidly by the land coast as cold air
becomes very dry reaches very
Few if any clouds High number of Air soon warms:
Cold moist air warm land able to hold
sunshine hours
flowing over more moisture
Dry winds blow Little condensation
S. Pole from land Sub-tropical Gentle cold current
towards sea high pressure outblowing winds
Cold current
The air movement from 1 to 4 is called a in ocean Very warm land
Hadley cell after George Hadley who put
forward this idea in the 18th century.

E Living in hot deserts

Heads …
Plants are low-growing …
Some animals can store food
and water for days …
Animals are often small …
Camels are called ‘ships of the desert’
because they can cross the desert better
Plants store water in thick
than any other animal. They have bushy
stems …
eyebrows and two pairs of eyelashes to
keep sand out of their eyes. They only Small animals can hide in
have two toes and thick padded feet so burrows or under stones …
they can walk easily across sand. The Some rodents are nocturnal …
hump stores fat reserves that can be used
as food as the animals travel. If the hump
Plants have roots that travel
shrinks the camel’s reserves are low.
horizontally …
The Saguaro cactus is the state flower of Arizona, USA. The Insects and reptiles have
blossoms open during desert nights and close in the day. waterproof skins …
It has a tall, thick stem with smooth waxy skin and 20 mm Plants have long roots …
spines. The stem can expand to store water.
Plants have small, thick leaves
or needles …
… Tails
… to avoid water loss by strong winds.
… to prevent water loss by
evapotranspiration.
… to reach underground water
supplies.
…to use in dry periods.
… to reach the maximum area for
water and to find any surface moisture.
… so there is less water loss from a
small surface area.
… so they can avoid intense daytime
heat.
… so they can hunt in cooler nights.
… so they can retain water in their
bodies.
… so they can travel far without the
need for daily supplies.

Task 4
Study Source D. Task 5
a Explain how sub-tropical high pressure zones are Study Source E.
created.
a Match the ‘Heads’ and ‘Tails’ in two different tables: one for
b Why is it difficult for rain to form in these areas? plants and one for animals.
c Name two hot deserts in each of: b Draw an annotated sketch showing your design for a plant or
• areas of sub-tropical high pressure
animal that would survive desert life.
• the western side of continents close to cold ocean
currents. Task 6
d How can cold ocean currents help create fog but
also cause a lack of rainfall in some deserts? List some opportunities that deserts present for making a living.

93
CASE
STUDY 18 The Sahara Desert and Mali

The Sahara and the Sahel

The Sahara, sprawling across north Africa,
is the world’s largest and hottest desert – it
A The desert moves south
covers roughly the same area as the USA. N
About one-quarter is covered by sand Tunisia
desert – known as ergs. The rest consists of Morocco
gravel-strewn plains called reg and areas of Libya
barren rocks called hamada. Fossil evidence Egypt
W. Algeria
shows the desert used to be wetter a Sahara
S a h a r a D e s e r t
thousand years ago but human activity and 100 mm
climate change have turned the Sahara into Mali Chad Sudan
Niger
Mauritania 300 mm
a true desert. Today the Sahara is growing N orther n limit f win
g
o r c r o p gr o
even larger, spreading to the south due to Senegal 600 mm
Burkina
more overgrazing and deforestation. This Gambia
Faso
Guinea Guinea Benin 900 mm Ethiopia
moving edge of the desert is called the Bisseau Nigeria
Togo Central African
Sahel – an Arabic word that means ‘fringe’. Ivory
Sierra Leone
Coast Ghana Republic 1200 mm Key
Liberia 0 500 km Sahel
Cameroon

The Sahel is a semi-arid belt of

Task 1
Study Source A.
a Describe the distribution of rainfall
from north to south. Use figures in
your answer.
b List all the countries in which the
Sahel can be found.
c How will desertification affect these
countries if the 300 mm isoline moves
further south?
Task 2
Study Source B.
a What are the causes of desertification?
b How is this different from land
degradation?
c Explain how:
• the lack of rain since 1969 has led
to the Sahel extending south
• population pressure has led to the
Sahel extending south.
Task 3
poor, dry soil 300–500 km wide
from north to south. It stretches
from west to east across north
Africa between the Sahara Desert
and savanna grasslands. Here
average rainfall ranges from
300 to 600 mm per year. When
– and if – it rains, up to 90 per
cent of the moisture evaporates.
Drought is natural to the Sahel
A camel train travelling from Timbuktu
but desertification and land
to Taoudenni to exchange goods for salt
degradation by people have
moved the limit for growing crops
and grazing animals further south each year. Countries like Mali now have even less
inhabitable land to survive on.
B The changing Sahel
Rains have failed in POPULATION PRESSURE Key
Sahel since 1969
If people and animals
move: migration
Desertification caused
by climate change, i.e.
Less rainfall means less If people and animals less rainfall
water stored in rock, soil stay: starvation Land degradation
and plants caused by human
More water
activity

evaporated Scrub and desert plants

Study Source C. away replace grassland.
Crops fail. Animals have Less Overgrazing
a Describe the location of Mali. Refer poorer grazing areas. nutrients for
decomposers
Overcultivation
Deforestation
High Land supports few
to lines of latitude, neighbouring temperatures to return people and animals
heat bare More bare ground to soil
countries, the Sahara Desert and the ground exposed; less roots to More bare ground
Sahel in your answer. protect topsoil exposed; more wind
erosion
b In what ways is the Niger river Wind erosion and dust
important to Mali? storms remove soil THE SAHEL THE SAHEL
EXTENDS SOUTH EXTENDS SOUTH
c Suggest reasons why the population Desert conditions due Desert conditions due
Less topsoil to DESERTIFICATION to LAND DEGRADATION
of Mali is not evenly distributed.

94 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 2 Topic 18

Mali – a land-locked country C Where is Mali?

Once home to one of Africa’s greatest empires, 0 200 400 km N

Mali is a vast land-locked country nestled between

the Sahara Desert and six neighbouring countries Taoudenni ALGERIA
in West Africa. It is the largest country in West
Africa but one of the poorest countries in the
S A H A R A D E S E R T
world. Bordering the Sahel region of West Africa
in the north, 65 per cent of Mali’s land is desert
Kidal
100 mm
or semi-desert. In these areas Malians suffer Land-locked
from periods of drought and widespread food countries
in Africa
Niger
shortages. Population density is only 5 per km2. It Timbuktu Gao NIGER
MAURITANIA
is an extreme environment for plants, wildlife and
300 mm
people to survive in. SENEGAL Kayes Mopti

S en
BURKINA
Ségou

eg
l Kita FASO

a
Bamako
D Surviving the desert climate Koutiala
Population per km2
More than 10 100 mm Annual
Airport

Sikasso precipitation
GUINEA 2.1–10
Irrigated areas
The fennec fox 1.0–2.0
Niger inland
The fennec fox is a SIERRA IVORY
COAST
Fewer than 1 delta
LEONE
mammal and is the
world’s smallest fox. It The Niger river is the most important feature in Mali. It provides a reliable
has enormous ears to water supply and is a vital transport route for goods and people. The Niger’s
help radiate heat to high-water flood season is from August to December.
help it stay cool. It lives
deep in the ground in
long, cool burrows and emerges around dusk to hunt when the day is less hot. Most of northern
Mali has less than 100 mm of rainfall a year – sometimes none. In most places the main source of
moisture for animals is dew. The desert is fiercely hot by day but can freeze at night. Most animals Task 4
are small so they can lose heat more easily, as their surface area is large compared with their size. Study Source D.
The acacia tree a Draw a climate graph for
The acacia tree has developed a long shallow root system Timbuktu. Use the same
which enables it to find moisture. It has thorny leaves to scales on the axes as you
prevent water loss and its crown is wide so the foliage can
did for Monument Valley
absorb the maximum amount of sunlight. Smaller shrubs
and cacti have little foliage above ground but rely on
on page 92.
long or deep roots and fleshy stems for water storage. The b Compare and contrast the
best-known desert plant is the date palm which grows only two hot desert climates.
around waterholes or oases. c How have the fennec
fox and the acacia tree
Timbuktu, Mali J F M A M J J A S O N D adapted to survive in
northern Mali?
Temperature (°C) 23 24 26 31 35 34 34 33 33 32 27 23

Rainfall (mm) 0 0 10 0 14 30 77 50 20 17 0 0 Task 5

Average annual rainfall = 218 mm Study Source D.
Temperatures are average (mean) for each month
Imagine you are to lead a
camel train from Timbuktu to
Signs like this, found all over West Africa, indicate Taoudenni. The round trip will
the remoteness of Timbuktu from other places. It was take four weeks.
founded as a trading post in the 11th century midway
between the north and south of West Africa.
a At what time of year would
you not go? Why?
b Discuss and list the
equipment and supplies
you would need.
Sample case study question c How would you ensure the
For a named hot desert you have studied, describe and explain how plants have health and safety of the
adapted to the climate. people and the camels?

95
TOPIC 19 Natural hazards
Hazards are not new A Deaths from natural disasters
Do you live in a country where natural hazards or disasters have Drought and Earthquakes
occurred or might occur? Much of the 20th century and the early famines
years of the 21st century have seen an increase in devastating
disasters caused by natural hazards. These include:
Floods
• volcanoes • earthquakes • tropical storms • floods
• tsunamis • storm surges • droughts.

In recent years human activity may have contributed to the disasters

Other Hurricanes
but all of these have been taking place for many thousands of
(including Extreme and
years without any help from people! Only when lives are lost and volcanoes) temperature windstorms
property damaged do these natural hazards become disasters and
make the news.
C
B Disasters of the 21st century MEGA-CITIES
ADD TO PERILS
A survey by insurance companies has shown
that about 250 great natural disasters have
hit the planet in the past 50 years killing
at least 1.4 million people. The late 20th
century was especially dangerous with a
level of disasters four times higher than
TROPICAL STORM in the 1950s. Most of these were related
Hurricane Katrina, EARTHQUAKE
New Orleans, USA to floods, hurricanes and windstorms.
Kashmir, Pakistan
Tropic of Cancer 28 August 2005 DROUGHT 8 October 2005 Experts say these will continue to increase
Famine, Ethiopia as people move from the countryside into
Equator May 2008
FLOODS
urban areas on or near the coast. In 1950
VOLCANO only New York had more than 10 million
South-east Asian tsunami Mount Merapi, Java
Tropic of Capricorn 26 December 2004 4 May 2006
people; today there are 20 mega-cities
of which 16 are in the developing world.
Floods, earthquakes and cyclones easily
devastate shanty towns. Thunderstorms
0 2000 4000 km also increase over large urban areas due to
their ‘heat island’ effect. Global warming
will add to the problem due to high wind
speeds, rising sea levels and more storm
surges. While the number of volcanoes and
Task 1 earthquakes remains constant, climate-
related disasters are increasing. Landslides,
Study Source A.
forest fires, heat waves and periods of
a Which natural disaster causes the highest percentage extreme cold are far more common now.
of deaths? Suggest how human activity might have
caused this figure to be so high.
b Why do we not find out about some of the natural
hazards that take place globally?
Task 3
Task 2 Study Source C.
a On an outline world map, locate and label the five a What did the insurance survey find out about the
examples given. frequency of natural disasters?
b In boxed captions around your map, add a brief b Why do the numbers of volcanoes and earthquakes stay
summary about each natural disaster based on Sources fairly constant compared with climate-related disasters?
D–H on page 97. c How and why can urbanisation increase climate-related
c Add other disasters to your map. Keep it up to date. disasters?

96 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 2 Topic 19

D Volcanoes – Mount Merapi, Java E Earthquakes – Kashmir, Pakistan

N
In the news … 4 May 2006

MERAPI SHUDDERS BACK TO LIFE AFGHANISTAN

Islamabad KASHMIR
Indonesia’s Mount Merapi, the most feared volcano in the Pacific
‘Ring of Fire’ stretching from Japan to South-east Asia, has PAKISTAN
KASHMIR
rumbled back to life. Lava, ash and gases have erupted from the INDIA

cone forcing evacuation of villagers living on its slopes. It last 0 500 km

erupted in 1964 killing 60 people.

In the news … 8 October 2005

Worst Natural Disaster in Pakistan’s History

An earthquake measuring 7.6 on the Richter scale struck
an area 100 km north of Islamabad. The Kashmir and
North-West Frontier Region have seen hospitals and homes
flattened, roads, bridges and power destroyed, families
separated and all hope lost. In addition to 79 000 killed,
120 000 were injured and 3 million made homeless.

F Tropical storms – Hurricane Katrina, New Orleans, USA

N In the news … 28 August 2005
LOUISIANA
New Orleans
DEADLY KATRINA
Hurricane Katrina hit the low-lying coast of New Orleans causing
damage costing $81 billion to fix and killing up to 1900 people. This
Gulf of Mexico
was the deadliest Category 5 hurricane since 1928. All of the city’s
flood defences and levées were breached. Most damage was caused
0 500 km
by storm surges from the Gulf of Mexico.

G Flooding – South-east Asian tsunami H Drought – famine in Ethiopia

N
Afar

Tigray
In the news … May 2008 ETHIOPIA
BANGLADESH Addis
INDIA MYANMAR Ababa
THAILAND
DROUGHT CONTINUES IN ETHIOPIA Ogaden
SOMALIA SRI MALAYSIA Oromia
MALDIVES
LANKA
INDONESIA
By the end of May 2008, millions faced hunger 0 500 km
TANZANIA SEYCHELLES
in eastern Ethiopia as the drought caused crops
MADAGASCAR
Indian
to fail and food prices to rise, said UNICEF.
SOUTH
0
Ocean
2000 km
Successive seasons with no rain left the east of
AFRICA
the country in drought. Afar, Tigray, Ogaden
and Oromia are the worst-affected regions.
In the news … 26 December 2004
Estimates suggest 3.4 million people will need
Tsunami Devastates food aid this year as crops continue to fail.
South-East Asia
Up to 350 000 people were killed by
the tsunami, which mostly affected
coastlines bordering the Indian
Ocean in Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Task 4 An appeal for help from UNICEF
Thailand and India. The undersea
earthquake measured 9.3 on the Study Sources D–H.
Richter scale – the second highest Choose one of the disasters mentioned or another you know of or have experienced.
ever recorded. Its epicentre was west
of Sumatra and the quake lasted over a Find out additional information about the disaster of your choice.
8 minutes. Tsunami waves were up b Produce a front-page report on this disaster for your local newspaper. You should
to 30 metres high. include a headline, a location map, an illustration, a report and an appeal asking
for help to be sent.

97
CASE
STUDY 19a Cyclone Nargis – Myanmar

A When, where and why do tropical storms take place?

Between the Tropic of Cancer and the
Most tropical storms
are created between Tropic of Capricorn, warm air from the
15°N and 15°S north meets warm air from the south. Over
large oceans, where the sea temperature
Western North Pacific reaches 27°C and the water is at least 60
typhoons
mainly July to metres deep, the winds begin to circulate
Arabian Sea and November but some in an anticlockwise fashion in the northern
Bay of Bengal cyclones in all months
May to November hemisphere due to the Earth’s rotation.
Western North Atlantic
These forces create the eye of the storm,
hurricanes an area of intense low pressure, as the
May to December
15°N
spiralling air rises to create low pressure
Hurricanes Pacific along and close to the equator. Hurricanes
June to November Equator Indian Ocean Ocean
Atlantic and cyclones develop from tropical
15°S Ocean depressions and storms as the wind speeds
Pacific
Ocean
increase. The easterly winds at high level
(jet streams) move the tropical storms
South Indian cyclones from east to west to begin with; other
November to April South West Pacific cyclones
0 2000 4000 km
November to April high-level winds then carry them in other
directions. As they move north or south
away from the equator they lose strength
as sea temperatures fall. Eventually they
die out over land where there is less heat
B A section through a typical cyclone or hurricane and no water to keep them going. Each
hemisphere has its hurricane or cyclone
Flow of dry air from the season. In the northern hemisphere this
upper atmosphere is from May to November; in the southern
(keeps eye free of clouds)
hemisphere it is from November to April.
Direction of
movement at Rain bands
16–24 km/h
Height may
exceed 13 km

EYE

Task 1
Anticlockwise Study Source A.
surface flow 16–48 km
a Compare the distribution of
Typically 240–320 km cyclones with that of hurricanes.
X Y Z b What conditions are required for a
cyclone or hurricane to develop?
c Explain how the position of the
sun during the year affects when
Depressions, storms and cyclones tropical storms develop. Refer to
the equator and the Tropics.
In tropical regions the temperature is always high although it does change as
the position of the overhead sun changes during the year. Rainfall, however, Task 2
can be more variable. Much rain comes during the wet season of monsoon
Make your own copy of Source B. Carry
climates but intense rain is also brought by low-pressure weather systems
out research and add labels to show:
created by high sea temperatures. These systems are divided into three types:
• places with relatively high and low
• tropical depressions (winds at 60 km/h or less) wind speeds
• tropical storms (winds from 61 to 120 km/h) • places with relatively high and low
• tropical cyclones or hurricanes (winds over 120 km/h). pressures
In May 2008 Cyclone Nargis caused devastation and death in Myanmar • a place of calm.
(formerly Burma).

98 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 2 Topic 19

C Satellite image of Cyclone Nargis D An early report, 5 May 2008

N Tropical Cyclone Nargis hit the south-
east Asian country of Myanmar on
INDIA Saturday 3 May 2008. It blew roofs
off homes, hospitals and schools and
cut electricity in Myanmar’s largest
Bay of city of Rangoon where 6.5 million
Bengal people live. In Bogale, a town on the
Irrawaddy delta, almost 3000 people
are reported dead or missing. Blocked
roads, broken telephone wires and
MYANMAR
poor communications mean rural
casualties are unknown. Residents
and Buddhist monks were clearing
roads of trees with axes.
‘What is clear is that thousands of
people are in need of shelter and clean
drinking water,’ said a United Nations
official. ‘Roofing materials, plastic
sheets, temporary tents, medicine,
water-purifying tablets, blankets and
mosquito nets are essential.’
With Rangoon’s already unstable
electricity supply not working, citizens
lined up to buy candles and water since
lack of electricity to drive pumps left
households dry. Some walked to local
lakes to wash. Traffic lights did not
work and public transport stopped.

Andaman
Islands
Cyclone Nargis made landfall on the southern coast of Myanmar on 3 May 2008.
Wind speeds varied from 200 to 300 km/h. Very strong winds were responsible
for much of the damage. Flooding and mudslides were the result of heavy rainfall.
A 3.6 metre storm surge caused death and destruction by flooding the low-lying
0 100 km Irrawaddy delta where most people live. An estimated 2.4 million people were
severely affected including over 140 000 killed or missing.

E The coast of Myanmar suffered long-term and short-term damage

N Myanmar is one of Asia’s poorest countries. The cyclone disaster was not reported in the local press and overseas aid
INDIA was not allowed in until 24 May 2008. The military claimed it could deal with the disaster without outside help. South
CHINA
of Rangoon 75 per cent of houses were destroyed by wind, rain and flooding on the delta of the Irrawaddy river. This
area provides rich fishing and supports the most fertile rice fields in Myanmar. The country will be unable to export
MYANMAR
(BURMA)LAOS
rice overseas or feed its people. Rangoon airport was closed for four days. Thousands of cars formed queues waiting
Bay of up to six hours for their ration of 3 litres of petrol. Every road in the city was blocked by trees.
Bengal Shanty towns in Rangoon suffered most. The wood and corrugated-iron houses blew away first; heavier ones lost
Yangôn THAILAND roof tiles and had broken windows. Many slum dwellers work as
(Rangoon)
labourers across the city; now the cost of fuel means that bus fares
N
MYANMAR Yandoon
cost more than the daily wages. The flooding of sanitation systems
0 600 km (BURMA) increases the risk of epidemics, for example of malaria and typhoid.
Yangôn
dy

Pathein (Rangoon)
wad

Wakema Twante
Irra

Kyaiklat
Task 4
in
sse

Pyapon
Ba

Bogale
Labutta Andaman Study Sources D and E.
Sea
Areas worst
Cape
a Make two lists: one of short-term damage and one
affected
by flooding Negrais
0 15km
of long-term damage.
b Discuss how Myanmar could start to recover from
the cyclone damage. Decide on an action plan
stating what you would do in the first two weeks
Task 3 and then over five years. Explain your choice of
activities.
a When did Cyclone Nargis hit Myanmar?
b Draw a labelled diagram of Cyclone Nargis shown in Task 5
Source C. Label:
• the countries on the image Myanmar is a less economically developed country
• the outline of the cyclone (LEDC). Suggest why countries such as Myanmar find
• the clouds and the eye of the storm it difficult to prepare for, and recover from, disasters
• the wind direction around the cyclone. such as this cyclone.
c What factors caused most of the damage?

99
CASE
STUDY 19b Drought in Australia

A Australia – the world’s driest continent?

The Murray-Darling rivers flow west from the
Population of AUSTRALIA N
21 million (July 2008) Snowy Mountains towards Adelaide. These flat
Darwin plains have fertile soil and high temperatures
(66 300) Gulf of
Carpentaria but rainfall is low. The river water is used to

Gr
Timor
provide over 70 per cent of irrigation to the

ea
Sea

tB
farming areas which produce 40 per cent

ar
of Australia’s food. Since 2002, rainfall has

rie
N OR T HER N 20°S

rR
T ER R ITORY been well below average and river flows and

e
ef
reservoirs are too low to provide enough water
QUEENSL AND 231/2°S for crops and livestock to survive. This period of
W EST ER N Tropic of Capricorn drought has been called ‘The Big Dry’. Coastal
AU ST R A LIA cities have rainfall but need extra water from
Brisbane reservoirs to meet the demand from the urban
SOU T H (1.7 million)
ing populations.
AU ST R A L IA a rl
D
Perth NE W SOUTH
(1.3 million) Great Adelaide WALES Sydney
Australian Bight (1.1 million) M
u rr (3.6 million) Task 1
ay Canberra
Equatorial Edge of Murray-Darling VICTORIA (356 000) Study Source A.
drainage basin
Tropical
State boundaries
Melbourne
(3.4 million) 40°S a How many climate types can
Sub-tropical be found in Australia?
Important towns/cities
Tasman
Desert/arid with population Tasmania
Hobart Sea b Estimate the percentage of
Semi-arid grassland (bush) (129 000) Australia that is arid (desert)
0 500 1000 km
Temperate maritime and semi-arid (grassland).
c Describe the location of the
temperate maritime climate.
d Add up the population of the
B The Murray-Darling Basin dries up four cities that are found in
Monthly
Monthlyflow
flow
of of
water
water
into
into
Murray
Murray
river
river this climate type.
0 0 500500
kmkm
Murray-Darling
Murray-Darling 2000
2000 e What percentage of
drainage
drainage
basin
basin Long-term
Long-term
QUEENSLAND
QUEENSLAND
1800
1800
average
average
Australia’s population live in
Brisbane
Brisbane 1600
1600 these four cities?
N N 1400
1400 2002–03
2002–03
OU TAINS
INS

2006–07
2006–07
Gigalitres
Gigalitres

SOUTH
SOUTH ng ng
rli rli
1200
1200
Task 2
NTA

AUSTRALIA
AUSTRALIA 1000
1000 2007–08
2007–08
Da
Da

NEW NEWSOUTH
SOUTH
Y M UN

WALES
WALES 800800 Study Source B.
W MO

Adelaide
Adelaide 600600
Sydney
Sydney a Which four states contain
Y

MuM
W

rruaryrayNO NCanberra
O 400400
S S Canberra
VICTORIA
VICTORIA 200200 the Murray-Darling drainage
Melbourne
Melbourne 0 0
J JJ JA AS SO ON ND DJ JF FM M A AMM
basin?
b The rivers do not flow towards
Sydney and Melbourne.
Suggest how these cities
Australia runs out of water obtain their freshwater
supplies.
Australia is a country in the southern hemisphere. It is so large that it experiences c Compare the Murray river
several climate types. The daily weather can vary enormously depending on which flows since 2002 with the
climate zone you are in. There are monsoon rains in the north near Darwin, desert long-term average. Refer to
temperatures up to 50°C in the centre of the Northern Territory, and much of the data in your answer.
west and south are also dry. Only within 400 km of the coast in the south-east is the d How does the photograph
temperate maritime climate not too hot nor too cold and wet enough for people to on page 61 illustrate the
farm and live in. Many Australians live in the two states that cover this area: New drought?
South Wales and Victoria. Any failure in rainfall or river flow will cause a drought.
Australia is the world’s driest continent but, since 2002, this area has experienced
its worst drought in over 100 years.

100 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 2 Topic 19

‘The Big Dry’ hits Bourke C Bourke – close to the Outback

Bourke, in New South Wales, is one Task 3
of Australia’s most famous Outback
Study Source C.
towns. Known as the ‘Real Gateway to
the Outback’, which lies at the ‘back a What is the Outback?
of Bourke’, tourists flock here on their b Draw a climate graph using
way to the desert. But, since 2002, while the data for Bourke.
tourists come and go, the population of c Give one disadvantage of
‘The Outback’ refers to the remote and arid this climate for growing
3500 has fallen. Five years of drought
areas of Australia. It is where farming ends crops and keeping livestock.
have left the land dying of thirst; the and desert begins.
town faces social and economic ruin.
Bourke is not alone. Other settlements Bourke (30°S 145°E)
that exist on the margins of cultivation
J F M A M J J A S O N D
in the Murray-Darling drainage basin are
also seeing communities decline. People Temperature (°C) 29 28 25 20 15 12 11 13 17 21 25 27
cannot see a future in crop and livestock 36 38 28 28 25 28 23 20 20 23 31 36
Rainfall (mm)
farming any longer. They are moving out
or staying to make a living from tourists. Average annual rainfall = 336 mm Temperatures are average (mean) for each month

D Urban and rural areas have been affected since 2002 …

I own a 1200-hectare
Here in Bourke the temperatures farm just south of Deniliquin. In
have exceeded 50°C. The bone-dry heat is the last 4 years I haven’t made a cent.
oppressive and the ground parched. This is the last town I’ve suffered depression and spoken to a
before the outback – this is where pubs, post offices and shops stop. counsellor. Farmers’ children are leaving the
In the primary school children have not seen a downpour for half their land now. I know the town’s population
lives. Shop fronts are boarded up as people move away. Crime is up, and so of 4000 is falling fast.
is unemployment. The local Aborigines are struggling as they rely on farm Wayne Cockayne aged 44 –
work but do not wish to move. In good times anything can be grown cereal farmer
in Bourke, from cotton to citrus fruit, but the Darling river, which
provides water for irrigation, has stopped flowing. Their
best hope is to make a living from the tourists.

DROUGHT NOT ONLY AFFECTS Mountains (Great Dividing Range) … BUT ALSO THE CITIES ON THE COAST
THE SMALL TOWNS INLAND … N QUEENSLAND
Brisbane MELBOURNE – pop. 3.2 million
GOULBURN – pop. 22 000 • The worst drought in a hundred years led to water
Bourke
• Once it was Australia’s best grazing area SOUTH
g
restrictions.
AU S T R A L I A lin
for merino sheep. NEW SOUTH • Residents to be fined or imprisoned if they wash
r
Da

WA L E S
• Farmers cannot keep livestock in the hills their cars, fill swimming pools or sprinkle gardens.
Adelaide Murrumbidgee Sydney
as the Pejar reservoir has run dry. Banrock Goulburn SYDNEY – pop. 3.5 million
Deniliquin Canberra
• Abattoirs and wool plants have cut Station
Murray • Water-rationing after 4 years of drought reduces
V I C TO R I A
consumption by 30%. Southern Melbourne main reservoir to 40% of capacity.
Ocean
• Tap water unfit for human consumption. Tasman
• Bush fires ring the city of 4 million people,
0 500 km
Bottled water must be bought. Sea destroying homes due to the dry weather.

Task 4 Sample case study question

Choose a hazard you have studied, in a named
Study Sources C and D.
area, which was caused by the weather or
a On an outline map of this area, draw in the rivers, the Great climate. Choose from:
Dividing Range and the towns mentioned on this page. • a tropical storm (cyclone, typhoon or hurricane)
b Label each town with two impacts that the drought has had. • a flood • a drought.
c List five impacts that the drought has had on Bourke. Describe the causes of the hazard.
d Suggest how people who want to stay in Bourke could make
a living out of tourism.

101
TOPIC 20 Human activity has impacts
A Natural environments

A flood plain A coastal area A mountain area

Managing environments B The Trojmiasto conurbation

Different types of environment offer different opportunities for people
0 10 km Baltic N
to live, work and spend their leisure time, but in some areas the natural Sea
environment causes problems for people. The use of environments by
Hel
people may be a threat to the natural landscape and its flora and fauna, as Peninsula
in many areas human activity has been destructive. People are now more
aware of the importance of conservation of the natural environment. The
management of environments needs to be sustainable so that it can offer Gdynia
opportunities for people both now and in the future. Gdansk
Bay
Sopot

Task 1 Task 2
Gdansk
Study Source A. Study Source B.
For each of the photographs identify two a What is a conurbation? Vistula
opportunities for people in the area shown b Which three settlements River
and two problems which the natural make up the Trojmiasto
environment could cause for people. conurbation?

The Trojmiasto
C Opportunities in Trojmiasto conurbation
Trojmiasto, with a
population of over
800 000, is a conurbation
on the northern coast of
Poland (Source B). It lies
on the edge of Gdansk
Bay (near the Baltic
Sea), and consists of the
shipbuilding centre of
Gdansk, the resort town
of Sopot, and the port
of Gdynia. Gdansk is
situated at the mouth
of the Motlawa river,
which is connected by
the nearby Vistula river
to the national capital,
Warsaw.

102 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 2 Topic 20

D The Baltic Sea

Task 3
0 150 300 km
Study Source C.
Using the evidence in the
N Norwegian
Sea photographs, make a list of
FINLAND opportunities for employment in
the Trojmiasto area.

Gulf of
Task 4
NORWAY Bothnia
Bergen Vyborg Study Sources D and E and refer to
an atlas.
Oslo Helsinki St Petersburg
SWEDEN Gulf of Finland The Baltic Sea is one of the most
Stockholm Tallinn polluted seas in the world. Explain
ESTONIA the reasons for this, using the
RUSSIA following headings:
Gõteborg • Shape • Currents
North
LATVIA
• Rivers • Surrounding
Sea Riga
Arhus land uses.
DENMARK Baltic
Copenhagen
Malmõ Sea LITHUANIA Task 5
Kiel Kaliningrad RUSSIA Vilnius Study Source E.
Rostock Gdañsk Minsk
Draw a table like the one below
BELARUS
and fill in the two columns with
POLAND impacts of pollution of the Baltic
Berlin
Warsaw Ocean currents Sea on people and the natural
GERMANY environment.

Impacts on Impacts on
people the natural
E Polluting the Baltic Sea environment

CONCERN FOR A PRECIOUS SEA

In late summer the water lapping the
shores of the Baltic is warm. Children
would like to go swimming but their
mothers often have to stop them.
The reason for this is easy to see. The
water is cloudy and greyish-green, and
there are great rafts of blue-green algae
floating on top. Many types of blue-
green algae are dangerous to humans,
as the toxins they give out damage the
nervous system and liver. Many of the
fish species in the Baltic are at risk, and
pregnant Swedish women are being
warned not to eat herring because of
the chemicals in it.
In the Gulf of Finland, the seabed
is in many places completely dead.
There is no oxygen in the water and
no living organisms of any kind at the
bottom of the sea. In fact the Baltic is
the most polluted sea in the world.
Nine industrialised nations border on
it. Some 85–90 million people live
in the catchment area, and there is a Task 6
lot of heavy industry and intensive In groups, discuss what the
agriculture. The Baltic also carries a HELCOM countries can do to
large amount of shipping.
reduce pollution levels in the Baltic
In 1974 the Helsinki Convention to Sea by 2021.
protect the Baltic Sea was signed by
all the countries around the Baltic Sea
(HELCOM countries).
In 1992, the HELCOM countries
identified the worst sources of pollution,
and devised a 20-year programme
for cleaning them up and in 2007 an
ambitious new Baltic Sea Action Plan
was drafted to dramatically reduce the
Baltic’s pollution level by 2021.

103
CASE
STUDY 20a Floods in Mozambique

A Flooding in Mozambique B Living on the floodplain

Lake
TANZANIA
N
FLOODS DISPLACE
THOUSANDS IN MOZAMBIQUE
Malawi
ZAMBIA

Cabora
Bassa
dam
More than 180 000 people The navy began evacuating people
MALAWI
have fled from floods in from low ground in January using
MOZAMBIQUE
Mozambique and are living rubber boats. At first many people
in temporary accommodation refused to leave their homes but
Za centres. The Zambezi river with their fields still under water
mb
ezi has been over two-and-a-half and their food stocks exhausted,
Kariba
dam Harare metres above flood level for thousands are now making their
more than five weeks. Rain is way daily by foot or canoe to
ZIMBABWE
continuing upstream in Malawi accommodation centres.
Beira
Beitbridge and Zambia and floodwaters
dam The authorities were well
Mozambique are expected to remain at this
Save Channel prepared, but Mozambique is one
AFRICA level for at least a fortnight. So
of the world’s poorest countries
Limpopo far 81 people have died. Most
and it does not have the resources
people who live in Mozambique
Massinger to cope with the growing number
dam Chokwe work in agriculture, and they
Inhambane of evacuees. There are few paved
a ti live in the most fertile areas
Incom Flooded areas roads and heavy rains have
along the country’s rivers. Now
SOUTH AFRICA
Xai-Xai turned dirt roads to mud. It takes
Maputo these rivers are creating death
two days for a food lorry to travel
SWAZILAND and destruction to people
0 250 500 km the 200 miles from the port of
who usually depend on them.
Beira to Caia, the town used
Planning to move communities
as a food distribution centre.
away from the river valleys, to
It takes another day to reach
prevent future disasters, will
the three accommodation
not work. In countries as poor
centres further downstream,
as this, people have no choice
near Marromeu, which now
C Flood damage in Mozambique but to live where they can make
contain 24 000 people.
a living.
February 2000

A flood in Mozambique
Mozambique is one of the poorest countries in southern Africa with a GDP
per capita of US $800. Many of its 19 million people live on the floodplains of
the Limpopo, Zambezi and Save rivers. In 2000 floods occurred on 9 February
with high levels of rainfall across southern Africa. Mozambique received the
most rainfall, and the capital Maputo was flooded, as was the road between
the capital and the second largest city, Beira. Torrential rain continued until
11 February, and the banks of the Limpopo river burst, causing severe flood
damage. On 22 February, tropical cyclone Eline hit the Mozambique coast near
Beira, north of the areas already affected by flooding. On 27 February, after
further heavy rainfall, flash floods inundated low farmlands around Chokwe
and Xai-Xai.

Task 1
Study Source A.
a Describe the location of the areas of
land in Mozambique that were flooded.
b Use the scale of the map to estimate the
total area of land affected by the floods.
Task 2
Study Sources B and C.
In pairs, prepare a script for a short
news item about the floods in
Mozambique. It should describe the
cause and the effects of the flooding.

104 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 2 Topic 20

D Opportunities and problems of living on a floodplain

Opportunities Problems
• Fertile soils for farming • Farmland can be flooded
• Water for irrigation • Stores of food can be damaged by floods
• Can travel by boat along river • Foundations of homes are unstable
• Flat land for building roads and railways • To travel people may need to bridge the river
• River is source of fish for food • Flooding makes travelling impossible
• Flat land for building • Danger from crocodiles

E Aid for flood victims – short-term and long-term

Short-term
emergency relief aid
Aid from governments,
organisations and
charities to help people
survive straight after a
flood. This is sometimes
called humanitarian aid.
Long-term development
aid
Aid from governments,
organisations and
charities to enable
countries and
communities to ensure
people have access to
basic needs so they can
improve their living
conditions in the months
and years after a flood.

Task 3 Task 4
Study Sources B and D. Study Source E.
Explain the comment ‘Planning On a copy of the following table, shade the short-term and long-term aid boxes
to move communities away from in two different colours. Don’t forget to include the key.
the river valleys, to prevent future Key
disasters, will not work’. Short-term aid
Long-term aid
In your answer you should write about
the opportunities and problems for Helicopter Seeds for crops Building a well Clothing Training a
poor people in Mozambique of living rescue teacher
on the floodplains. Blankets Buying crops Lending money to a Tents Setting up a
at a fair price small business refugee camp
Building a Giving out Vaccinating babies Water Tablets for
dam food parcels and children pumps malaria

105
CASE
STUDY 20b National Parks in Costa Rica
A National Parks in Costa Rica
86°W 85°W
NICARAGUA
CO STA R I C A
C
E
N
Puntarenas
San Jose
0 500 km
Pacific
National Park
Ocean
Main road
Railway
National boundary
National Park
B Comparing three National Parks in Costa Rica
Tortuguero National Park
The area was a group of volcanic islands until
sediments filled in the spaces and formed
a network of marshy islands. Sand piled up
where the river met the sea, and the turtle-
nesting beaches of Tortuguero were formed.
The beaches, canals, lagoons and wetlands of
Tortuguero are areas of great biodiversity and
opportunity for nature lovers. The marked trail
along the beach is used mostly for observing
turtles nesting, but the best way to see most
of the park is from a boat. There are plenty of
places to rent canoes and kayaks.
Chirripo National Park
Chirripo means ‘Land of the Eternal Waters’. In
the rainy season there are many streams and
brooks. On the top of Cerro Chirripo Grande
the participant has a view of more than 30
lakes and lagoons. Many large rivers have
106 Cambridge IGCSE Geography
84°W 83°W
Caribbean
Sea
Tortuguero
Tortuguero
National Park
T
R
L
A Limon
M
O
U
N
T
A
I N
S 8°N
Chirripo
National Park
PANAMA
Corcovado
their source in the valleys of the Talamanca
Mountain Range, such as Rio Chirripo
Atlantico, Rio Telire, Rio Chirripo Pacifico
and the Rio Ceibo. This is one of Costa Rica’s
wilder parks, but it is relatively accessible by
foot. Much of the rugged terrain has been
protected from development and exploitation
by its inaccessibility. Besides the challenge
of climbing Costa Rica’s highest peak (Cerro
Chirripo) there are miles of trails that wind
through more ecologically rich zones than you
will find in most entire countries.
Corcovado National Park
If you want to swim up to a deserted golden
sand beach lined with coconut palms, then
bathe under a rainforest waterfall, you’ll find
Corcovado’s 39 km of beaches appealing.
Corcovado National Park is the backpacking
experience of a lifetime. It comprises 13 major
ecosystems, including lowland rainforest,
highland cloud forest, jolillo palm forest, and
mangrove swamps, as well as coastal marine
and beach habitats. There is a good chance
of spotting some of Costa Rica’s shyest and
most endangered inhabitants here: Baird’s
tapirs, jaguars, scarlet macaws, harpy eagles,
red-backed squirrel monkeys and white-lipped
peccaries.
82°W Task 1
12°N Study Source A.
Describe the location of the
following National Parks in
Costa Rica:
• Chirripo • Corcovado
• Tortuguero.
10°N
Managing the
National Parks
Costa Rica has 29 National Parks,
which cover 12.5 per cent of
the total land area. The National
Parks help to protect many of
the country’s 208 species of
6°N mammals, 850 species of birds,
220 species of reptiles and 132
species of amphibians, as well as
over 9000 species of plants. The
Parks also contain volcanoes,
caves, tropical forests and beaches.
The varied natural environments
of the National Parks offer many
opportunities for tourists, scientists
and naturalists who visit them.
The National Parks are carefully
managed so that the natural
environment is not threatened
by human activity, and any
developments are sustainable.
Task 2
Study Source B.
a For each of the National
Parks, list three different
opportunities that are
offered to people.
b Which National Park would
you recommend to someone
who:
• is interested in trekking
• enjoys observing plants
and animals
• wants to spend time on
attractive sandy beaches?
Give reasons for your answers.
 Theme 2 Topic 20

C Tortuguero National Park D Overseas visitors to Tortuguero National Park

50 000
N Hotel H
There are just too
45 000
many people wanting to
40 000 use the park. We should limit the
H Tortuga
Lodge number of visitors. At the moment,
Lagu

35 000 anyone can visit – we have no

Number of foreign visitors

control. We must make sure
na
Pen

30 000 the environment is not

iten

over-used.
Caribbean 25 000
cia

H Laguna Sea
Lodge
Jungle Lodge H 20 000
H Mawamba
Pachira Lodge H
Lodge 15 000
Evergreen Lodge H
H Manatus
Isla Cuatro Hotel 10 000
Esquinas
5000
Tort

0
ug

Tortuguero
ue

19 7
19 8
20 9
20 0
20 1
20 2
03

20 4
05

20 6
07
National Park 9
9
9
0
0
0

0
19

20

20
ro

0 1 km
Year National
Parks – for people or
nature? We could leave
things as they are, and
Task 3 Task 4 do nothing.

Study Source C. Study Source D.

Describe the Describe how the number of overseas visitors to
distribution of hotels Tortuguero National Park has changed since 1997.
shown on the map. Give dates and figures in your answer.

How can
Task 5 you decide who can
use the park and who cannot?
The Tortuguero National Park is an important wildlife I think we have to educate the
sanctuary. Since the 1980s the government has visitors, show them how to take care of
encouraged tourism as a way of bringing money to the plants and animals, and prevent fires. We
country. This has led to the environment of the park being should provide toilet facilities and perhaps
threatened. limit the number of boat trips. If you limit
the number who use the park, you deny
The government of Costa Rica has to consider how to:
people a place to relax
• protect wildlife and its habitats and enjoy nature.
• improve living standards of the people of Costa Rica
• cater for an increasing number of visitors to the area.
Below are three possible plans:
Plan A Make the whole area a wildlife sanctuary. No
further building or development will be allowed.
Plan B Build trails and campsites through the forest and
along the coast.
Plan C Develop a small tourist resort with hotels, shops
and an airstrip, and offer guided tours of the forest and Sample case study question
beaches.
Flooding sometimes causes difficulties for people who
In a group, discuss the advantages and disadvantages of live on floodplains and deltas.
each plan and decide which you feel will be the best one. For a river which you have studied, explain what has
Prepare a presentation giving reasons for your choice. been done to reduce flooding.

107
GLOBAL
ISSUE 2 Reducing carbon emissions
A The Kyoto Protocol
Human activity adds to global
warming Agreed targets at Kyoto
In December 1997 the Third
Nobody is sure how much human activity is responsible for United Nations Conference
global warming. There have been cold and warm periods on Climate Change took place
before in the Earth’s history. What is certain is that human in Kyoto, Japan. Over 160
countries took part, including
activity is increasing the amount of carbon dioxide in the all European nations. The
atmosphere. As a greenhouse gas this traps heat leaving conference adopted the Kyoto
the Earth, causing temperatures to rise. Many international Protocol which agreed on the
conferences have been held in recent years to agree on following:
policies to reduce air pollution. A conference held in Japan • MEDCs to reduce greenhouse
in 1997 established the Kyoto Protocol – part of which gas emissions by 5% below Air pollution from a factory in
1990 levels by 2012. Moscow, Russia. The country
included a requirement to reduce carbon emissions by 2012
• LEDCs to continue to reduce was the third highest polluter
and beyond.
carbon levels to 1990 levels in 1990 but carbon emissions
by 2005. are less now.

Task 1
Study Sources A and B. B Progress is mixed …
a Why is it important to reduce Carbon emissions, 1990 –2007
carbon emissions? Country Total emissions Emissions % change
b How were targets set at Kyoto (million metric per person 1990–
different for MEDCs and tonnes) (tonnes) 2007
LEDCs? Suggest why.
USA 1392 5.35 +20
c Draw a bar graph to show
the total carbon emissions China 848 0.76 +150
produced by these countries Russia 462 3.22 –20
in 1990.
Japan 303 2.53 +11
d On the graph rank the
countries from 1 (most carbon Germany 237 2.96 –18
emitted per person) to 6 Here’s one way of keeping India 225 0.31 +103
(least carbon emitted per carbon emissions per person
World – – +38
person). low – in Ahmadabad, India!
e Comment on your findings.
f Comment on changes in
I’m returning from
carbon emissions between
1990 and 2007. C Transport is a key issue London to Honolulu in Hawaii.
My one-way flight is over 23 000 km. On
average I will generate just under 3 metric
Task 2 ALOHA TO ELECTRIC CARS AS HAWAII tonnes of carbon dioxide. To offset this I will
TRIES TO BEAT OIL ADDICTION donate $100 to a tree-planting scheme in
Study Source C. Nepal which will use up the same amount
Hawaii is to become the first US state to create
a Describe the project. a transport infrastructure that will allow cars of carbon produced. It’s not much, but
b How and why will this benefit: to run almost entirely on electricity. The plan imagine if everybody who flew
• Hawaii involves building 100 000 charging stations in car did this …!
• the world in general? parks and streets by 2012 and importing electric
c How does ‘offsetting carbon’ vehicles made by Nissan and Renault. ‘This will
help? help us meet our goal of reducing fossil fuel
use by 70% within the next 30 years’, said the
Task 3 Governor of Hawaii, Linda Lingle. At present the
island imports 90% of its oil from Saudi Arabia,
Design a poster to encourage costing $7 million. The electricity for the charging
people to walk or cycle or use stations will be generated by renewable resources
transport that does not use fuel – mostly wind power. With 5 million tourists the
derived from carbon products. project should help educate them, too.
Easing a guilty conscience – offsetting carbon

108 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 3

Economic
Development and the
Use of Resources

This child is employed full-time in the brick

factories of Bangladesh, earning less than one
dollar a day. The factories use children – some as
young as 5 – because unlike adult workers they
are not protected by unions or workers’ rights.
UNICEF estimates that 3.3 million children are
working in Bangladesh – at least a third of them in
brick-making. Although the government insists all
children attend school between the ages of 6 and
10, only about half complete their education.

109
TOPIC 21 Agriculture
A Different types of farming
Types of farming
Agriculture (or farming) is the production of
food and other resources through the growing
of plants and the raising of domesticated
animals. About 35 per cent of the world’s
population makes their living through
agriculture. The proportion of the population
involved in agriculture varies from about 2 per
cent in the USA to about 80 per cent in some
parts of Asia and Africa.
B Intensive or extensive?
Extensive Intensive
Task 1
Dairying Factory
farming Study Source A.
Nomadic Ranching Commercial
herding livestock Suggest three differences between the two
Commercial
mixed types of farming shown in the photographs.
Commercial
grains
Shifting Subsistence Market
cultivation crops gardening Classification of farming
Plantations
types
Profits per hectare increase
Subsistence farmers produce only enough crops
Average yields per hectare increase
(or animal produce) to feed their families.
Number of workers per hectare increases
Commercial farmers, however, produce crops
Average size of farms increases
and/or animal products to sell at a market in
order to make their living.
Arable farmers grow crops whilst pastoral
C An agricultural systems diagram farmers keep animals.
Sedentary farmers farm the same land all the
INPUTS PROCESSES OUTPUTS
time whilst nomadic farmers move from place to
Physical Arable farm Cereals
Relief Ploughing (wheat, barley, rice) place, often with herds of animals, in search of
Temperature Planting Vegetables
Precipitation Fertilising (potatoes, salad crops) water or the best grazing land.
Length of growing season Pest control Flowers
Soils Weeding Crop waste
Land Harvesting Intensive farming is characterised by the
Animals
Human Pastoral farm (calves, lambs, piglets) high inputs of capital, fertilisers, labour, or
Farm buildings Grazing/feeding Milk, wool
Transport Cutting grass for Manure labour-saving technologies such as pesticides
Labour silage/hay
Subsidies Milking/shearing/ or machinery relative to the area of land.
lambing/calving
Capital Extensive farming involves a low input of
Seeds
Animal feed materials and labour, with the crop yield
Pesticides
Machinery depending largely on the naturally available
Fertilisers
inputs.

Task 2
Study Source B.
a Find out the meanings of the following farming types:
• market gardening • plantation • dairying • factory farming.
b Give two examples of extensive farming.
c Use the ideas in the diagram to compare nomadic herding with commercial livestock farming.

110 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 3 Topic 21

Task 3 Task 4
Study Source C. Study Source D.
a Give one example of a physical input to a farm and one example Map 1 shows the main types of farming in a part of an
of a human input. MEDC in Europe. Maps 2 to 6 show some of the factors
b Give one example of a process that takes place on an arable farm that influence the land use.
and one example of a process that takes place on a pastoral farm.
Describe and explain the location of market gardening
c Give one example of an output of an arable farm and one
and beef cattle farming.
example of an output of a pastoral farm.

D Commercial farming in an MEDC

Map 1 Distribution of agriculture Map 2 Population density Map 3 Communications

Sea Sea Sea

Vineyards Population per km2 Main roads

Dairying 60+ (cities) Railway
Market gardening 16–20
Beef cattle 11–15
Mixed farming (crops, livestock) 6–10
0–5
0 100 200 km

Map 4 Topography Map 5 Soil composition Map 6 Frost risk

Sea Sea Sea

Steep slopes Gravel outcrops High risk

Moderate slopes Thin mountain soils Moderate
Gentle slopes Alluvial river deposits Low
Thick loam (moderate fertility) Very low

111
 CASE
STUDY 21a Subsistence agriculture in Brazil

A Part of Amazonia, Brazil

Shifting cultivation
PANAMA VENEZUELA N AMAZONAS 0 100 200 km
Shifting cultivation is still practised
Atlantic
Ocean Augusto PARÁ by some tribes in the remote,
COLOMBIA Falls forested areas of the Amazon

Roosevelt
Jiparana
Amazon Basin, in Brazil. The tribe first

Aripuanã
B selects a small patch of rainforest.

ena
R

PERU Mato To create a clearing in the forest,

Juru
A

Brasilia Grosso Pontes e

Cinco Bôcas the people cut down the natural
Z

BOLIVIA Lacerda
I L

São Paulo vegetation using simple tools, and

Pacific PARAGUAY B R A Z I L Pôrto dos
Ocean MATO
Gauchos burn the logs. The nutrients are
RONDÔNIA GROSSO released as ash, which dissolves

os
CHILE URUGUAY Vilhena and is washed by rain into the

Arin
soil as natural fertiliser. A variety

g ue

l
Utiariti

ue
ARGENTINA Guaporé

an
S an
of food crops are grown, such as

oM
rice, maize and cassava. The crops

Sã
BOLIVIA
grow very quickly and are ready
International border ay to harvest after four to six months.

u
State border
ag
Par After two or three years, due to a
Highway Cuiabá
decline in the fertility of the soil,
the yield declines and the clearing
is abandoned. Another patch will
B Location of Erigbaagtsa settlement be cleared and the tribe will try not
to return to the abandoned clearing
for atTropical
least 50 years. This type of
rainforest
River farming is practised by tribes such
Footpaths
1as
5 mthe Erigbaagtsa, who also obtain
Contours
food Swamp
and other useful materials
by hunting
Mangrove
and gathering in the
m
15 rainforest. However, deforestation
Gardens with crops of manioc, yams,
now bananas,
threatens the continuation of
sugarcane
this lifestyle.
Abandoned gardens returning to forest

Task 1
m
15 Study Source A.
The Erigbaagtsa tribe lives
close to the Upper Juruena river.
N Describe the location of this
part of Amazonia.
Village
0 100 metres Task 2
Study Sources C and D.
Tropical rainforest
Footpaths
a Describe the natural
m Contours vegetation shown.
15
b What difficulties may the
Swamp
tribe experience in clearing
Mangrove
the land for agriculture?
Gardens with crops of manioc, yams,
bananas, sugarcane
Abandoned gardens returning to forest

112 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

m
15
 Theme 3 Topic 21

C Natural vegetation of the rainforest D Clearing the land

Like all the tribe, I
cultivate my ‘garden’ by shifting
cultivation.
Using an axe and a bushknife, I clear away
all but the largest trees. The branches are left
on the ground to dry. I pile all these branches
around the tree stumps and burn them.
The fire clears the ground, kills off some
weeds and pests and the ash fertilises the
ground. I plant the crops in holes made with
a digging stick. After that I go to the garden
from time to time to weed and harvest the
crops. After two or three years we just leave
the garden so that the forest can re-grow.

E Shifting cultivation

Forest clearance: small trees

cut by hand, bushes and
branches burned. Some trees
may be left standing to
provide food and protect soil.

Plants can be restored Fire destroys natural seeds

after 20 years but fewer and reduces weeding.
species. Ash dug into soil to
provide fertiliser.

Task 3 Farmers move on to clear Crops planted

a new plot elsewhere. (e.g. yams, manioc).
Study Sources C and D.
From the following list choose three statements Lack of vegetation cover
that are true about the land cultivated by the Crop yields decrease after subjects soil to leaching
2–3 years. and erosion.
Erigbaagtsa tribe:
• It is above the floodplain of the river.
• It is less than half a kilometre from the huts
where the tribe live.
• It is used to graze cattle.
F An Erigbaagtsa tribe settlement
• It is on the banks of the river.
• It is cultivated using traditional methods.
• It is abandoned after being used for a few
years.
• It has very fertile soils.
• It is marshy land.

Task 4
Study Sources D, E and F.
a Draw a systems diagram (see
Source C on page 110 for this technique) to
show the inputs, processes and outputs of
shifting cultivation by the Erigbaagtsa tribe.
b Explain why the areas cultivated by the
Erigbaagtsa tribe have to be abandoned
after a few years.

113
CASE
STUDY 21b Commercial agriculture in New Zealand

A Physical features B Climate data for New Zealand

Height in metres 20° Temperature (°C) 20°
N N
3000 10° 10°
1500 10°
Auckland
600 Auckland 0° 0°
300 160 160
150 17° Rainfall (mm)
Sea level North Island 140 140
Mt Egmont/ Mt Ruapehu
Taranaki 120 120
8°
100 100
Wellington
80 80

Mt Cook Christchurch 60 60
J F M A M J J A S O N D
15°
South Island 20° 20°
Temperature (°C)
10° 10°
Dunedin 5°
Dunedin
0 200 km 0° 0°
Rainfall
160 160
Over 4000 mm Rainfall (mm)
2000–4000 mm 140 140

1000–1999 mm
C Land use in New Zealand Less than 1000 mm
120 120

100 100
N Winter winds
Farming
Mixed crops Summer winds 80 80
and animals Winter temperature
Intensive 60 60
animal rearing 0 200 km Summer temperature J F M A M J J A S O N D
Extensive
animal rearing
Forests
Natural forest Pastoral farming in New Zealand
Commercial
softwood for Many of New Zealand’s farms rear animals – mainly sheep, dairy cattle and
logs, pulp and beef cattle. Pastoral farming is a successful land use in many parts of the
paper
country because the warm, wet climate is ideal for growing grass. Grass grows
well where the annual rainfall is between 1000 and 1500 mm and when the
temperature is above 6°C. The type of pastoral farming varies from one area to
another. In North Island beef cattle are most important in the far north, with
dairying in the western part. Sheep and beef cattle are reared on the higher
land and in the southern part of the island. In South Island merino sheep are
reared extensively for their wool on the higher land where the grass is poor.
0 200 km
On the lower land farming is more intensive, with sheep and some cattle being
grazed there for meat and milk.

Task 1
Study Sources A, B and C.
Make a copy of the table below and fill in the information about North and
South Island.
Relief Rainfall Temperatures Farming
North Island
South Island

114 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 3 Topic 21

D Map of Harwood’s Farm E Harwood’s Farm

Huru
ng i River
Land use
Hill country 936 hectares (60%)

ad
Rolling downs 351 hectares (23%)
Bluff Ro
Farmstead Flat land 270 hectares (17%)
(irrigated)
Stock
N
Sheep (Corriedales)
Breeding ewes 3.549. Ewes are female sheep.
Ewe hoggets 1.200. Hoggets are young sheep
over 1 year old.
Rams .055. Rams are older male sheep.
esin
er l

Lambs 2.000.
Pow

Total 6.804.
Scargill Creek

Shelter belts 0 250 500 750 1000 metres

Harwood’s Farm
Harwood’s Farm, in North Canterbury, is over 1500 hectares in
size, most of which is hill country or rolling downs, but there
are 270 hectares of irrigated flat land. Each year large quantities Cattle (Herefords)
of fertiliser are used on some of this land, which is planted with
Breeding cows .287.
special grasses to provide high-quality feed for the large herds of
sheep and cattle through the winter. Whilst the animals can graze Heifers .252. Heifers are young female
outdoors for much of the winter, they have to be fed on hay and cattle.
silage when snow covers the grass. Steers .145. Steers are castrated male
cattle.
The sheep bred on the farm are Corriedales, which give a good
quantity of both meat and wool. The lambs are born in the hills, Bulls .010.
and after six months they are brought down onto the lower land, Calves .690.
where the grass is richer, and fattened before they are taken to Total 1.384..
be sold for their meat. The cattle kept on the farm are Herefords,
Budget summary (NZ$)
and these are sold for meat in October to save the cost of feeding
them through the winter. Rabbits can be a problem on the farm, as Income Expenses
they eat large amounts of grass, so they are regularly culled which Sheep 89.500 Wages 35.000
means more grass is available for the sheep and cattle to graze on.
Wool 75.600 Shearing 11.500
Cattle 204.000 Animal health 21.000
Task 2 Other 5.300 Fertiliser 40.000
Purchase of 18.600
Study Sources D and E. stock
a Draw a pie chart to show the proportion of each type of land Seeds 8.200
on Harwood’s Farm.
b Which type of land will be used for: Other 95.060
• extensive farming • intensive farming?
c Where on the farm would you expect to find the flat, irrigated
land? Sample case study question
d Draw bar graphs to show the numbers of sheep and cattle on For a named area of small-scale subsistence
Harwood’s Farm. farming, describe the inputs, processes and
e Calculate the overall profit made by the farmer. outputs.

115
TOPIC 22 Food shortages
A Where are food shortages?
The 25 hungriest countries % of population
% of population undernourished undernourished
1 Somalia 75 35+
2 Burundi 66
3 Congo 64 20–34
4 Afghanistan 58 10–19
5 Eritrea 57
6 Haiti 56 0–9
7 Mozambique 54
8 Angola 51
9 Ethiopia 49
10 Tajikistan 47
11 Zambia 47
12 Kenya 46
13 Tanzania 46 Tropic of Cancer
14 Central African Rep. 43
15 Mongolia 42
16 Liberia 42 Equator
17 Nigeria 42
18 Sierra Leone 41
19 North Korea 40 Tropic of Capricorn
20 Madagascar 40
21 Rwanda 40
22 Zimbabwe 39
23 Azerbaijan 37
24 Cambodia 37
25 Sudan 36 0 2000 4000 km

The Hungry Planet

Some 815 million people in the world suffer from hunger – about 15 per cent of the world’s
population. Yet, according to the Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO), with record grain
harvests in 2007 there is more than enough food in the world to feed everybody – at least 1.5
times the current demand. Over the last 20 years food production has risen steadily at over
2 per cent per year while the rate of population growth has fallen to 1.1 per cent a year.
Population is not outstripping food supply.
Why is there hunger in the world? The World Bank has estimated that over 100 million
more people have been driven into hunger by rising food prices. In some countries this
has caused riots; in Haiti the Prime Minister was forced from office as food prices rose
by 50–100 per cent. World prices have risen by 83 per cent in the last three years.
Add to this the difficult issue of transporting food from areas of surplus to areas of need
and it is clear why many LEDCs cannot access the food that is available internationally – it is
too expensive and it is mostly in the wealthy MEDCs where obesity rather than hunger is a
problem. While the MEDCs enjoy plenty of food, LEDCs cannot produce enough for their own
needs for a variety of reasons.

Task 1 Task 2 Reason Named country/ies

Study Source A. Study Source B. Drought
a List four areas of the world where 9 a Copy and complete the Soil erosion
per cent or less of the population are following table by naming
Locusts
undernourished. a country, or countries,
b Describe the distribution of countries with a food shortage for Tropical cyclones
where 35 per cent or more of their the reason given. Severe winter
population are undernourished. b Which of the seven weather
c On an outline map create your own reasons for food shortages Economic and
choropleth map using the data in the listed do you think people political factors
table ‘The 25 hungriest countries’. Use can influence either for
a different key and group interval to Transport/
better or worse? Explain access issues
that used in Source A. your choices.

116 Cambridge IGCSE Geography


B Food shortages – different causes
Bolivia Struggling
to Feed its People
Bolivia, situated in the
heart of South America,
is a mosaic of high
mountains, valleys and extensive
tropical rainforest. One result of
the steep slopes of the Andes is soil
erosion. Farming, deforestation and
grazing livestock have all increased
soil loss and erosion at rates that
prevent replacement. Massive
amounts of topsoil have been lost
as vegetation cover is removed.
Population density is increasing with
over 7 million living on the marginal
farming lands, using wood for
cooking and clearing land for food.
Tajikistan Faces
Food Shortages
The central Asian
country of Tajikistan, the
poorest in the region, is
experiencing its coldest winter for decades.
As it depends so much on HEP, people
have to spend money on fuelwood as
many rivers are frozen. Roads are blocked
with snow and electricity is limited to two
hours per day. Two-thirds of the people live
below the poverty line so, after buying fuel,
not much is left to buy food. The severe
weather has destroyed the potato harvest
and over half a million local people are
unable to afford minimum food needs.
Task 3
A Chinese man, Lao Tzu, once
wrote: ‘Give a man a fish and you
feed him for a day. Teach him
how to fish and you feed him for
a lifetime.’
a What did he mean by this?
b How does this relate to
providing food aid to LEDCs
with food shortages?
Theme 3 Topic 22
ACCESS A PROBLEM
IN AFGHANISTAN
Afghanistan faces a deficit
of 2 million tonnes of
wheat flour and rice to
feed over 6 million people in the next
six months, claimed a Minister. ‘Drought
has led to failure of 90% of the crops and
high prices have affected imports. Our
biggest problem is transport – we need the
Desert locusts food convoys to reach the mountain areas
affect many quickly as heavy snow will block roads and
African make them inaccessible in winter. Some
countries. people may have to move to towns if they
They eat their want food.’
own weight
in vegetation
every day.
Starvation Grips East Africa
Rapidly rising food
Food Shortage prices and drought have
contributed to the worst
Threatens Millions hunger crisis seen in Ethiopia and Somalia
in Bangladesh this century. At least 14 million people are
at risk of malnutrition, aid agencies claim.
Ethiopian farmers blame the lack of rain.
With aid teams
still trying to ‘We haven’t had rain for 8 months now,’ said
get emergency a tribal chief. ‘We have to buy water to save
supplies into the areas our lives but now we have nothing.’
affected by Cyclone Sidr – a
massive storm that struck 10
days ago killing 3200 people
– officials estimate that up to
3 million people will be short Carpet of Jaws
of food in the next 6 months.
The storm destroyed 50–90% Devouring West Africa
of the region’s rice crop. Every As the swarm descended on
year thousands are killed in Nouakchott, it was so thick
floods and storms in this low- it blotted out the sun. The
lying region of the Ganges locusts settled and began to eat every bit of
delta. These also cause a greenery in sight. ‘They just strip every plant
lack of clean water, food and and leave it looking like a telephone wire,’
shelter. said a resident of the Mauritanian capital.
The worst plague for 15 years has affected
much of West Africa. As the Sahel moves
south the locusts seek greener pastures.
‘The country is short of spraying planes,’
said an FAO spokesperson.
POLITICAL UNREST CAUSING FOOD SHORTAGE
Since President Mugabe decided to seize land in Zimbabwe in 2003,
commercial farming has collapsed. Prices of basic foods have rocketed and
six million people – 49% of the population – are in need of food aid. With
internal conflict continuing, little food is being produced. Severe drought also plagues the
country, making access to food almost impossible.
117
CASE
STUDY 22 Famine in Darfur, Sudan

A Where is Darfur? B Darfur – a difficult area to work and live in

N 25°E EGYPT 35°E The northern Libyan desert is hot with
LIBYA Red
Sea almost constant dry winds. Rain may not fall
Wadi Halfa for years. 1.5 million people live here in
Port Sudan
20°N drought conditions. Locusts are a threat, too.
le
Ni In western and
CHAD Northern central Darfur 25°E EGYPT
Atbara N
Darfur there is a short
wet season where, LIBYA
ERITREA for a few months
Khartoum
of the year, the
S U D A N dusty brown
Western Al Fashir 20°N
environment
Darfur changes to a lush
Blue

Nyala
ite Nile

green. In normal 00

1
mm
Ni

Southern years pearl millet

le

Darfur can be harvested L i b y a n

Wh

by November and D e s e r t
10°N the dry stalks fed
CENTRAL ETHIOPIA to livestock during Northern
CHAD
AFRICAN the long dry Darfur
REPUBLIC season. The river Nile
200 flows in the east
m m
Juba so agriculture can
SUDAN 15°N be developed
0 300 km DEM. REP. OF KENYA there using
THE CONGO UGANDA Sahel
region irrigation even
with low amounts
Western of rainfall.
m
A region of drought
Darfur 400 m
Nyala is the capital
and conflict of southern Darfur.
It is a town full of
Nyala
mm
government Southern 600
Bordering the Red Sea, Sudan is the officials, with food
Darfur
largest country in Africa. It is a country in the market and
cafés. Yet, close by, 10°N
of contrasts – both physical and human. the needs of
Its landscape changes from desert in the 40 000 refugees in
CENTRAL
north to forests in the south and grassy tented camps are
AFRICAN
REPUBLICignored.
plains and swamps in the centre. The river 0 150 300 km
Nile provides water to the east but many
areas receive no rainfall. The country also
In a small area in the south, average annual
contains two different groups of people: rainfall can total 700 mm, so vegetation can
the Arabs in the north and Africans in the grow here all the year round.
Isohyets
south. Tension between these groups has
led to two civil wars since independence in
1956; the second of these began in 2003.
In 2009 periodic droughts and civil war meant that parts of Sudan required large
amounts of food aid. Most of these people are concentrated in Darfur, a region
in the west of Sudan. Since 2003 the region has seen one of the world’s largest Task 2
concentrations of human suffering.
Study Sources B.
a Write a heading ‘Why I would
Task 1 not want to live in northern
or western Darfur’. List five
Study Source A. reasons.
a Describe the location of Sudan. Refer to a continent, lines of latitude and b Compare your lists with those
longitude, the Red Sea and neighbouring countries. of your classmates. How many
b Suggest three reasons why it has been easier to develop the country east of, and different reasons have you
around, the capital Khartoum. suggested?

118 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 3 Topic 22

C Diary of a disaster
1956 Independence granted to Sudan
from Egypt and the UK. Leaders begin
to develop areas that could sustain rain-
fed agriculture along the Nile river valley.
Muslim leaders try to impose language,
religion, and sharia law on Christian and
other communities in the south and west.
1980s/1990s Civil war between the Arab
Muslims of the north and the black African
Christians and other faiths in the south
costs 2 million lives through fighting and
famine.
2003 Rebels in Darfur, a western region of
Sudan that is predominantly African, rise
up against the government, claiming that
they have been neglected while the rest of
Sudan and the capital Khartoum – mostly
Arab – have been favoured. The violence
on both sides has led to many atrocities.
Many villages have been burned
to the ground and around
200 000 people have died. More
than 2 million people (1 in 3
from Darfur) have been forced
to flee their homes because of
the violence. They are known
as internally displaced people
(IDPs) who live in vast and
crowded refugee camps – tented
Refugee camp, Darfur
villages on the edge of towns –
in Darfur and Chad. The camps
hold about 130 000 people with 2007 In an attempt to protect people the
200 000 refugees in Chad. Most have been United Nations and African Union have
there since 2003. There are no toilets, provided a joint UN–AU peace-keeping
medical facilities, food or water supplies. force of 26 000 soldiers but only one-third
Many have died of disease, water shortage, had arrived by October 2008.
heat and malnutrition in overcrowded
conditions. Up to 4.5 million depend on
international aid.

D Life is a tent and little else …

Just a short distance from Nyala, the
capital of south Darfur, thousands of men, women
and children have been abandoned – ignored by those who
are supposed to help them. There is no food, toilets, drainage
or medical facilities, and little water. These illegal camps at
Otis and Siref hold 40 000 people between them and are on
either side of the road to the airport where relief aid arrives.
But the government does not distribute the food or allow aid
agencies to operate there. It wants the displaced people to
go back to their villages. But the refugees will not go back –
they say the government military forces have destroyed
their villages and will destroy them too.
Hawa Abdraman
(20) who crept past
army forces after
they attacked her
village so she could Task 4
retrieve a bowl
with which to feed Study Source D.
her 1-year-old son a What basic services are missing in the camps? How will
Mahamat Youssour
this affect the displaced people living here?
b Why does the government not distribute international
aid?
c Why won’t the people return to the villages?
Task 3
Task 5
Study Source C.
a What part have religious differences played in causing The Darfur crisis continued through 2009. Find out from
civil conflict in Sudan since 1956? the media and/or the Internet if the situation is any
b What caused rebels in Darfur to rise up against the better now.
government in 2003?
c What is an IDP? How many people have become IDPs
since 2003? Sample case study question
d List other ways in which people have suffered due to For a named country or region where a food shortage
the war. has taken place, describe what caused the shortage.

119
TOPIC 23 Work and employment
1
Shepherd herding goats, Gujarat,
India
ENGINEERING TECHNICIAN
(REF: RWT 340)
4 with the manufacturing and processing of goods. It uses the
Reporting to the Engineering
Supervisor, your role will be
to manufacture and assemble
precision tools and assemblies
to quality standards, and ensure
the continuous improvement of
manufactured equipment.
From The Leicester Mercury, UK
A Types of employment
5
WORK ON OIL RIGS
No qualifications required. For a complete list
of jobs available, send 4 loose stamps and your 2
name and address to: Universal Jobs Oil Rigs
School transport, Miami, Florida, USA
Department, PO Box 55102, Eerstemyn 9466.
PLEASE DON’T SEND ANY CV’S!
Jobmail, Johannesburg, South Africa NAVAJO TIMES 6
News Reporter
Employment is classified into three sectors: The Navajo Times is currently seeking
a qualified, educated and experienced
Primary: the sector of a country’s economy that grows or
journalist to fill the position of
extracts raw materials. It includes fishing, agriculture,
temporary News Reporter.
forestry, and mining.
Secondary: the sector of a country’s economy that is concerned
From The Navajo Times, Arizona, USA
products of primary industry either directly or indirectly. For
example coal, iron ore and limestone are used directly to 3
make steel. They are used indirectly when steel is used in
manufacturing industries to make other goods such as cars.
Tertiary: the sector of a country’s economy that provides services.
People may pay directly for a private service, e.g. paying for a
taxi. The government, using money taken indirectly through
taxes, may provide public services such as schools and hospitals.

, Tunisia
We are all working … Weaving carpets, Sousse

In more economically developed countries (MEDCs) most people of

working age are in formal employment. In many less economically Task 1
developed countries (LEDCs) much work is informal employment.
Study Source A.
B Employment structures change over time a Describe the work shown on page 109 and in
each photo on this page numbered 1–3.
Primary Secondary Tertiary b Describe the work being offered by adverts
1990 2007 1990 2007 1990 2007 4–6.
USA 3 2 26 21 71 77
c Decide which of the photos and adverts show
primary, secondary and tertiary employment.
UK 2 2 29 18 69 80
Explain your choices.
Russia 14 11 42 29 44 60 d Give three examples of unpaid work in your
Tunisia 28 20 33 30 39 50 country. Why do people do this?
China** 72 43 15 25 12 32
Task 2
India* 54 28 16 29 30 43
South Africa* 13 9 26 24 61 68
Study Source B.
a Place the countries in rank order for 2007,
* Regarded as a newly industrialised country (NIC).
using employment structure as an indicator of
By 2050 China, USA, India, Japan, Brazil and Mexico are expected to economic development.
be the most economically developed countries in the world. b Decide which country has made most progress
As a country develops its economy, the proportion of its workforce in with economic development since 1990. Give
the different employment sectors changes. Using more machinery in reasons for your choice.
farming, for example, releases people from working the land so they
c Which three countries in the table are
can work in the other sectors. Using more machinery and IT in the
regarded as NICs? What evidence supports
secondary sector releases people to move into the services sector.
These changes can be shown on graphs or charts. this?

120 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 3 Topic 23

C Representing employment structures

Tunisia’s employment structure 1990–2007
Divided bar graph Triangular graph 0 100

10 90
1990
20 80
30 70
2007

Se
40 60

co
ry
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100%

nd
ma
50 50

ar y
0 0

Pri
Pie charts 1990 2007

%
60 40
70 1990
30
2007
75 25 75 25 80 20
Primary 90 10
Secondary
100 0
Tertiary 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
50 50 Tertiary %
Pie charts, divided bar graphs and triangular graphs are all different ways of representing employment structure.

D Formal and informal employment

Task 3
Source C shows how employment data for
Tunisia would look for the years 1990 and
2007 using all three graph techniques.
a Describe how Tunisia’s employment
structure has changed since 1990.
b Choose one other country from
Source B or find data for the country you
live in. Draw similar graphs and compare
the changes in employment structure
with Tunisia and two other countries in
Source B.

Task 4
Study Source D.
a Give two advantages and two
disadvantages of formal and informal
employment.
Which would you prefer? Why?
b Look back at Source A. Choose one job
that is formal and one that is informal.
Explain your choices.
c What issues are raised by the
A street band in Trinidad, Cuba. Formal or informal employment?
photograph shown on page 109? Discuss
these with your classmates.
Formal employment: a person who is formally employed receives a wage or salary
from their employer. They usually have a contract that gives them certain rights,
Task 5 e.g. paid holidays, maternity leave. They are also responsible for attending work
Collect at least five advertisements for every day during set hours. A formally employed person has taxes deducted from
different jobs from the media. In a group their pay before they receive it. In MEDCs most people have a formal job.
decide whether the jobs are for the Informal employment: a person who is informally employed does not receive a
regular wage. They work when they need to or when they feel like it. They often
primary, secondary or tertiary sectors of
avoid paying tax this way but, if they do not work, they get no benefits or sick pay.
the economy. These could be mounted on
In LEDCs most people have an informal job; often children work informally instead
a wall display. of attending school.

121
CASE
STUDY 23a Changing employment – South Africa

South Africa – a changing A South Africa – a brief history

country 1652 White Dutch 20°E 30°E
ZIMBABWE N
traders from the
South Africa is changing rapidly. These changes Tropic of Capricorn
BOTSWANA
Netherlands land on the
are affecting employment opportunities. White
south coast of what is NAMIBIA Pretoria Indian
minority rule, which began in the 17th century, now South Africa and Johannesburg SWAZILAND
Ocean
Soweto
was overthrown and black majority rule came establish a stopover Va
al
Kimberley 0 500 km
into being in 1994. Before then white people held point on the spice route 30°S
Orange Bloemfontein LESOTHO
r
all the positions of power and influence – they between the Netherlands

g
Atlantic be Height in metres
Ocean ens
Drak
were the politicians, factory managers, land- and the Far East. This Cape East London
More than 3000
2000–3000
owners and farmers. The black majority relied on became Cape Town. Cape of
Town Port 1500–2999
the white minority for employment, usually in 1806 The British seize Good Hope Elizabeth Less than 1500

low-paid jobs as farmhands, miners and labourers. this area. The Dutch settlers (known as Boers, or farmers) move inland.
The discovery of diamonds (1867) and gold (1886) around Johannesburg
Eventually civil riots and international encourages more white immigration and the native black population are
protests and boycotts led to the white minority forced to give up their lands and work in the mines for the white colonialists.
government relinquishing power, abandoning 1899–1902 The British and the Boers fight the Boer War which the British
apartheid, and allowing each person a vote. win. The British and Afrikaners, as the Boers became known, rule the black
Since the election of a black president in 1994 the majority under the Union of South Africa.
employment situation for some black people has 1948 The National Party (mostly Afrikaners) is voted into power and
institutes a policy of apartheid – the segregation of the population into
improved. However, many people have not yet
white, black, coloured* and Indian ‘races’.
seen progress.
1990 After much internal conflict, and pressure from other countries,
the white government agrees to end apartheid and to legalise the African
National Congress Party (ANC). For four years white and black leaders work
B Apartheid and employment together running the country.
1994 The first non-racial elections took place. This brings in black
Apartheid can be traced back to the use of black slave majority rule for the first time. Nelson Mandela is elected President.
labour by white settlers in the 1650s. However, it was [*The term ‘coloured’ is still used today in South Africa and is not deemed to
in the 1950s that an organised separation of ‘races’ be offensive there.]
took place. The National Party developed laws based
on white supremacy. Different ‘races’ could only live and
work in set areas, had to travel on separate buses and
stand in their own queues. Many black Africans were Task 1
moved to townships like
Soweto on the south-west
Study Source A.
fringe of Johannesburg. a Describe the location of Cape Town. Why
Pass laws were brought did the Dutch traders settle here?
in restricting movement. b How did the influx of white people
Townships only existed affect the employment of black people
as dormitory towns for between 1652 and 1948?
black Africans to work in c When and why was apartheid
white houses, factories
introduced? How long did this policy
and industry. Within the
township they could
stay in place? Why did the government
only operate shops, abandon apartheid in 1990?
butchers, food shops,
sell milk or vegetables Task 2
or hawk goods. No other
Study Source B.
businesses were allowed
although many informal a Describe the entrance to the Apartheid
illegal activities Museum. Why was it designed like this?
developed as people b How did the National Party restrict the
struggled to survive type of work black people could do?
in a place where basic
Entrance to the Aparthei c What was the purpose of townships like
services like running d Museum, Soweto? How was employment restricted
Johannesburg, South Afr
water were rare. ica
here?

122 Cambridge IGCSE Geography


C Employment changes
Workforce % 1980 1990 2000 2007 Ethnic groups
Primary 15 13 11 9 Black African
Secondary 28 26 24 24 White
Tertiary 57 61 65 68 Coloured*
• In 2007 unemployment was 24% with one-third Indian/Asian
aged 15–35.
• More women are unemployed than men.
• In 2007 white unemployment was 4.5%, African 31%.
[*See note on page 122.]
Black Economic Empowerment
A policy of Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) was
adopted in 1995. This provides for measures to prevent
discrimination against the black majority when applying
for work and employment. These rules should enable more
black people to gain jobs but, although this has helped
skilled workers and educated in-migrants, most adult black
Africans could not access school so have no qualifications
or transport to get these new jobs. With unemployment at
24 per cent, limited progress has been made since 1994.
Many white people have left the country, leaving behind a
skills shortage. The poorest people – both black and white
poor – feel let down by ANC promises.
Task 3
Study Source C.
a Draw a graph to show the changes in employment
structure between 1980 and 2007.
b Describe the unemployment situation in 2007.
c Suggest why BEE has had little effect on black Africans
living in townships like Soweto.
E What the tourist saw …
I visited Jo’burg for three days in 2008. We
stayed at the Montecasino complex in Fourways
which contained a hotel, restaurants and shops aimed
at tourists. Security was high with guards screening
entrances so it was difficult to get to see the ‘real’ Jo’burg
or its people. We were served by black waiters and
waitresses but it was white managers who asked us how
the meal was. The maids and cleaners were black but reception had
white and black people. All the taxi drivers attached to the hotel were
black too. Entertainers on stilts were also black. When we were driven
around Jo’burg every time we were stuck in traffic, which was often,
black youths would walk between the cars selling anything from phones,
flowers, and bags to world maps and bow and arrows! We were told not
to wind the windows down by the driver. I remember long lines of black
people waiting for buses to take them back to the townships at the end
of the day. You can only expect so much progress in 14 years but having
free access to schools and the vote should help the next generation
break into more ‘middle-class’ jobs and to integrate white, black and
coloured people both socially and at work.
Theme 3 Topic 23
Soweto
79%
9%
9%
3%
D New opportunities for some … but not for all
South Africa’s Widening Divide
Brian Mdluli is living the African dream. At 33, he is the chief
executive in the marketing world with a lifestyle to match – his
and her BMWs parked in the driveway, a swimming pool, and a
boat. Mr Mdluli is part of South Africa’s small but rapidly growing
black middle-class – the so-called ‘Black Diamonds’. They are
benefiting due to the policy of black economic empowerment
(BEE). The current leadership has delivered opportunities for
people like Mr Mdluli but many others have been left behind. The
old division between black and white has given way to a yawning
gap between rich and poor black people.
Mr Mdluli knows both sides of the story as he stays close to his
birthplace in Soweto. From his spacious home in Johannesburg’s
leafy suburbs it is a half-hour drive back to the narrow streets and
modest homes of Soweto. Here families still live in shacks. The
numbers living in severe poverty have doubled in the country in a
decade. In 1996 there were nearly 2 million living on less than $1
a day; by 2005 it was over 4 million.
Jacqueline Rosetta is one of those trapped in poverty. An articulate,
lone parent aged 40 she has been looking for a job for five years
and waiting for a house for twice that long. She lives in a one-
room tin shack in a rough area of Soweto where crime rates are
high. There is no heating, no running water, no fridge and no
cooker – just a hotplate. ‘The people we voted for in the ANC are
living in mansions and driving smart cars. The poor are getting
poorer and the rich richer.’
Task 4
Study Source D.
a Why is Brian Mdluli a ‘Black Diamond’?
b Why is a new ‘gap’ being created by BEE?
c Why does Jacqueline Rosetta feel let down by the
government?
Task 5
Study Source E.
a What evidence is there of a race ‘divide’?
b Why might the tourist's description be unreliable?
123
CASE
STUDY 23b Changing employment – Russia

A Russia – a large, cold country B Two different systems

Area: 17 075 400 km2 A r c t i c O c e a n
Main cities and population Communism Capitalism
Population: 145.3 million (recent figures) • All land and resources • Some land and
(recent figures) Moscow (capital) 10 382 000 are owned by the state resources are owned by
St Petersburg 4 669 000
Novosibirsk 1 426 000 representing the people. the state – the rest by
N Nizhny Novgorod 1 311 000 • People are educated for private organisations
Kara Yekaterinburg 1 293 000
Sea Laptev Sea
the benefit of the state and and individuals.
are allocated jobs in the • People are educated
Barents
East Siberian Sea best interests of the country, and can then seek jobs
Sea 70°N not by choice. in any activity or place
SIBERIA • Fixed wages are paid they choose.
FINLAND Vorkuta
by the state and housing • Wages vary with
Archangel R U S S I A and jobs are provided for no upper limit.
URAL
MOUNTAINS Yakutsk 60°N all. Unemployment is not Unemployment is
St Petersburg Magadan
allowed without a genuine allowed though
ESTONIA Nizhniy Bering Sea
LATVIA Novgorod Yekaterinburg Tomsk
Krasnoyarsk
Sea of reason, e.g. disability. discouraged.
Kazan Omsk
BELARUS
Moscow
Ufa Chelyabinsk Novosibirsk Lake Balkal
Okhotsk
• All industry and services • Some industry and
Samara Irkutsk
Khabarovsk
50°N are owned by the state as services are owned
UKRAINE
Volgograd KAZAKHSTAN
MONGOLIA public ownership. The state by the state; others
Aral Sea
Black Sea Caspian
0 1000 km
uses all profits to spend on by private ownership
Sea
TURKEY
UZBEKISTAN KYRGYZSTAN
TURKMENISTAN CHINA JAPAN services such as schools, through individuals
hospitals, and the armed and organisations who
forces. can keep profits for
• Individuals are not themselves.
From communism to capitalism allowed to ‘make money’ for • Elections are allowed
themselves. and any person can
Covering an area of 17 million km2, Russia is the world’s • Elections are allowed stand, representing
largest country – almost twice as big as either the USA or but only communist party different views for the
China. On the north and east coasts are the Arctic and candidates can stand. people to vote upon.
Pacific Oceans and it has land boundaries with 13 countries.
Until 1989 the economy of the USSR (Union of Soviet
Socialist Republics), which included Russia and many other C Employment starts to change …
countries, was based on communism. For much of the 20th
Workforce (%) 1990 2007
century it competed with the USA, whose economy was
based on capitalism, to be the world’s largest superpower. Primary 14 11

By 1989 it was clear that Soviet communism was not Secondary 42 29

working. Many republics chose to become independent and Tertiary 44 60
a new Russia, reduced in size and influence but still large in
Age group (%) 2007
area, was founded. In the past 20 years Russia has moved
towards a more capitalist economy. This has created new 0–14 14.6
Tourists crowd
employment opportunities although at present most change around a
15–64 71.2 street stall in M
oscow. Service
is within the two major cities of Moscow and St Petersburg. 65+ 14.2 employment ha
s increased
partly due to to
urists coming in
large numbers
since 1989.
Task 1 Task 2
Study Source A. Study Source B.
a Estimate the maximum a Give one advantage and one disadvantage Task 3
width and length of Russia in of living in:
kilometres. How does this size • a communist system Study Source C.
compare with the country • a capitalist system. a Draw a graph to show the
you live in? b How and why do employment opportunities changes in employment
b Why is the size of a country vary between the two systems? structure from 1990 to
not always a good indicator c Make a list of the points from Source B that 2007.
of how easy it is to live and match the country you live in. What would b Describe how this structure
work in, or as a guide to its you like to change about the way your has changed. What impact
resources? country is run? Why? have tourists had?

124 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 3 Topic 23

D Employment – legacies from the past

1 2 3

Using natural resources: lack of investment,
poor management and the flight of young
people to the cities have left the villages with old
machinery and a tired workforce trying to feed
the country.
Making goods: the Krasny Oktyabr (Red
October) chocolate-making factory was
established in Moscow beside the Moskva
river in 1889. Much of its chocolate is
bought by tourists.
Providing a service: the Metro underground in
Moscow was opened in 1935. It is the second
busiest in the world and provides a fast service
out of the city centre to the huge tower-block
estates where most workers live.

E Multinationals create new jobs

Task 4
Study Source D.
a Each of the photos 1–3 shows an example of
primary, secondary and tertiary employment.
Which shows which? Explain your choice.
b Write down at least two examples of each type of
employment in your home area.

Task 5
Study Source E.
a What is a multinational company?
b Do any multinational companies provide
employment in the country where you live? Name
them, and describe what they do and the types of
job they create.
c Are there any disadvantages in relying on work
from companies based in other countries? Explain
your answer.
McDonald’s is a multinational fast-food provider based
in the USA. This shop opened in Moscow in 1990.
Multinational companies (MNCs) are those with branches in more than
one country. Since 1989 Russia has allowed companies from overseas to
build factories and provide shops and services especially in Moscow and
St Petersburg. These provide new opportunities for employment as well as
more choice for consumers, but it is only the wealthier middle-class urban
people who can benefit from these new opportunities.

F Events bring more employment Task 6

Winners, Winners Everywhere on
European Football’s Biggest Night
The winners of the European Champions League
Final, Chelsea or Manchester United, will not only be
on the field in the Luzhniki stadium in Moscow. For
businesses, big and small, this is all about cashing
in on the biggest night of televised European sport.
With a global audience of 112 million, the six main
sponsors, including Heineken, Sony, and MasterCard,
have paid £20 million a year each for their adverts and
logos to be used during the Championship. Not all
businesses involved are large. Red Square will be full
of stalls with baseball caps, bags and other souvenirs
for supporters of both teams. They will also need food,
accommodation, transport and flights into and out of
Moscow. Security issues too will create an increase in
policing at airports and in the city itself.
May 2008
Many countries gain global prestige as well as work and
employment by holding major sporting events such as the
Olympic Games or the Rugby and Soccer World Cups. In 2008
Moscow was the venue for the European Champions Soccer
Final.
Study Source F.
a Working in a group, list the types of short-term employment
that were likely to be created by the European Champions
Final in Moscow, both within the city and outside of Russia.
b Name two multinational companies sponsoring this
competition. How can they benefit from this?
Sample case study question
For a named country or region you have studied, describe
how and why employment structure has changed or is
changing.

125
TOPIC 24 Manufacturing industry
A Decisions, decisions … B Secondary industry as a system
SECONDARY INDUSTRY AS A SYSTEM
Location Questions to ask
INPUTS PROCESSES OUTPUTS
factor
1 Processed goods such as
Site Is there cheap land (i) cement, cotton yarn, ghee, lime,
PHYSICAL

Capital sugar and wheat flour which may

requirement available of the correct size, be raw materials for other industries
level and well-drained? or sold directly to the public
(ii) soft drinks, packets of tea and
e.g. tinned fruit which are sold directly
Natural Is there a natural land or Enterprise to the public.
smelting
routes sea route, which provides
weaving 2 Manufactured goods which may
speedy and cheap be raw materials for other industries
transportation for raw Land
spinning such as
(i) bottles, cotton cloth, nuts and
materials and industrial dyeing bolts, steel sheets and wire which
goods? printing may be raw materials for other
industries or sold directly to the
knitting public
Access to What is the distance
HUMAN

Raw material stitching (ii) axles, electric motors, fan guards

market between the site and the and wheel hubs which are almost
market? tanning entirely the raw materials for other
industrial units.
moulding
What is the cheapest form Power 3 Manufactured goods such as
of transport available? drugs, fans, garments, motor cycles
and tractors which are final
products sold directly to the public.
Availability of Are sufficient raw materials
raw materials available at an affordable Labour 4 The products of the construction
price? industry such as factories, office
blocks, blocks of flats, hospitals,
schools.
Will the supply of raw
materials be reliable?
Waste Profit
Skilled labour Is the required number of
workers with necessary skills IF RECYCLED
PROFIT RE-INVESTED
available?
Power supply What sources of power are
available and at what cost?
Industrial Are there any industries in
linkage the area that we can benefit
from?
Task 1
Capital Is capital available for
developmental purposes? Study Source A.
Government Does the government offer a Make a copy of the table. Leave space in column two to add one
policies any incentives to develop a other question you could ask about each factor. Discuss these with
new industry? your classmates.
b Choose two physical factors and two human factors from the table.
Suggest how each could influence the location of a factory.
Secondary industry
Manufacturing involves making things. It is the Task 2
production of goods by industrial processes. Study Source B.
It is classified as secondary industry and is an
important economic sector in all countries.
a List one example for each input stated, e.g. capital = a bank loan.
Secondary industries take raw materials
b Suggest one manufacturing industry for each of the listed
processes, e.g. smelting = iron and steel industry.
produced by the primary sector and process
them into manufactured goods and products.
c Give one example of:
• an output that is a final product sold directly to the general
The Industrial Revolution began in the UK in public
the 18th century, and affected most of western • an output that becomes a raw material for another industry.
Europe and the USA. The development of d What happens to the outputs ‘Waste’ and ‘Profit’?
large manufacturing industries caused them
to become MEDCs. Since then many other
countries have developed a secondary industrial
sector and have moved towards becoming
MEDCs from LEDC status.

126 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 3 Topic 24

C Small-scale manufacturing industry –Tamegroute, Morocco

Mohammed’s story
“I have been here for over 10 years as a potter. I pay rent on the land but for that
I can use the shed and kilns. I use red clay from the bank of a nearby river but buy
some in if I get short. We use donkeys to bring clay and water here in plastic bottles
and use dung and local wood for fuel. To get the clay ready, three large holes are
dug in the ground and filled with water. The raw clay is mixed in to create a wet,
slushy material. We then shovel out the wet clay into a large puddle on the ground
and walk on it to flatten it and squeeze out surplus water. The clay is cut into large
chunks and stored in a cool place in plastic bags. I have a wheel where I throw
the clay into pots, plates and bowls; I use my feet to drive the
wheel. Most of my day is spent throwing pots using water and Throwing – pedal power is used to turn
fingers to create the shape I want. Once there are enough pots the wheel.
made, they are left to dry in the sun, then they are stacked in
the kilns which are sealed. Dung or firewood is lit to fire the
pottery. We are hoping to get gas bottles here soon. The fired
pottery is left for a day to cool. The unglazed pots are then
removed for decorating. There are three of us working here – one
to prepare the clay, one to throw it and another to glaze and sell Task 3
the pottery. Tourists buy a great deal but some villagers come
here too. Any profit goes back into the pottery after paying rent. Study Sources B and C.
There is no waste unless a pot breaks before it is fired; the clay a Read Mohammed’s story and then copy and
can then be re-used. One day we hope to buy the pottery from complete this table based on what he says about
the landlord.” his work.
Inputs Processes Outputs

D Large-scale manufacturing industry – Karachi,

b Suggest some social, economic and environmental
Pakistan consequences of making pottery in this area.

INPUTS PROCESSES OUTPUTS Task 4

Oxygen jet
Limestone
Iron ore Molten Steel ROLLING MILL Slabs Study Source D.
Coke pig iron ingots of steel
or scrap Slag a List the main raw material inputs from the
impurities
Molten
steel
FINISHING MILL diagram. List three other inputs – use Source A to
help you.
Hot air
(the blast) Impurities
oxidised
Steel
Steel Steel Steel Steel
b Explain the processes that turn these raw
Slag
sheets plates girders wires
materials into molten steel.
impurities
Pig iron For For For For c List three different outputs from the steel mill.
BLAST BASIC OXYGEN
cars ships
locos
bridges screws
beams buildings/ d How might the social, economic and
FURNACE FURNACE boilers concrete
environmental consequences of making steel
in Pakistan be similar and different to making
pottery in Morocco?
Manufacturing at different scales
Task 5
People or organisations can make products at different scales.
These can vary from small-scale craft industries (e.g. making Is there a factory near you or that you could study?
pottery) to huge large-scale industries (e.g. steel or car-making). If so:
All have: a Find out what it manufactures.
• social effects, by affecting the quality of life and standard of b Suggest why the factory was located there. Refer
living of employees and the community to factors from Source A.
• economic effects, by providing employment, developing trade c Draw an inputs–process–outputs diagram based
and creating wealth on Source B.
• environmental effects, by using raw materials, taking up land d What are the factory’s social, economic
and producing waste products. and environmental influences on the local
community? Decide if they are positive or
negative.

127
CASE
STUDY 24 Manufacturing steel – Pakistan

A slow start A The history of Pakistan Steel, 1947–85

After independence from India in
1947, it did not take long for Pakistan
to realise that in order to develop
the industrial sector of its economy,
it needed an iron and steelmaking
plant. Otherwise the country would be
paying huge import bills and relying
on other countries. After much debate
lasting many years, the first steel
factories for Pakistan Steel were built
in 1973. The project was so large it
took another 12 years before the plant
was completed and formally opened.
B Why choose Karachi?
1947 Partition and the creation of West Pakistan (Pakistan since 1971).
1955–60 Idea of an iron and steel plant put forward in the first five-year plan.
1968 Government decides the steel plant should be funded from public money. This
would allow control over the future development and integration across the
country. Karachi Steel Project created.
2 July 1968 Pakistan Steel Mills Corporation set up as a private limited company controlled
by the government with the objective of establishing and running steel mills at
Karachi and other places in Pakistan. Russian finance and expertise sought as
Pakistan does not have the capital or skilled labour to build the steel mills.
1971 Pakistan and the USSR (now Russia) sign an agreement for the construction of
a coastal-based integrated steel mill at Karachi.
1973–81 Construction of over 20 steel plants and associated infrastructure took place
at Pipri, about 40 km east of Karachi using Pakistani construction companies
managed by Russian experts.
15 Jan 1985 Steel mill completed and formally opened. Pakistan Steel remains the largest
industrial complex in Pakistan.

Pakistan – iron and steel Karachi

engineering industries
Industry
Pir CBD
Taxila Mangho North SUPER
Gujrat Karachi HIGHW Education
Wazirabad AY
Gujranwala Mostly housing
Faisalabad Lahore Qasba Karachi
Orangi University
Cantonment
AIRPORT
Nazimabad Engineering
University
Hyderabad Iron and steel Medical
University Malir
Karachi Engineering Layari
Saddar NATIONAL HIGHWAY
Arabian Sea Shipyard Karachi
Port Korangi
Clifton
Steel
Arabian Sea Mill
0 5 km
The site is spread over Port
Qasim
18 600 hectares: 10 000
for the works, 8070 for the
workers’ township, and Mangrove swamp Railway Site for
Mangrove swamp N township AD
200 for the water reservoir. N RO
Road Road Conveyor belt system MAI
Railway
MAIN LINE KARACHI – KOTRI
Conveyor belt system

Task 1 Task 2
Study Source A. Study Source B.
a Why did Pakistan need a State one advantage of Karachi’s
s
ial

Slag
an iron and steel plant location for building a steelworks. STEEL
er
at

MILL
m

of its own after 1947? b Describe the situation of the

w
Ra

Port
b Why did the steel mill in relation to Karachi. Qasim
government decide to Refer to distances and directions. BERTH
S
pay for building the c Describe the site of the steel mill.
steelworks? What advantages does this site reek Widened
oC channel
c What outside help was have for moving raw materials
ar
Gh

Pipri – site of 0 2 4 km
needed? Why? and products around? Pakistan Steel Mills

128 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 3 Topic 24
Iron ore,
manganese and Flat,
most of the coking coal can cheap Port
C Why choose Pipri? be imported through Port Qasim. unused land Qasim has a natural harbour
Limestone, needed as a flux, can be was available at that can deal with imports of materials and
brought by road from the nearby Makli Pipri near Gharo exports of steel to the countries neighbouring the
Factors influencing Reason Creek. Arabian Sea and east and west of the Indian Ocean.
Hills near Thatta. Large quantities of
location The 2.5 km long seawater channel is kept
water required for making steel can
PHYSICAL be brought from Lake Haleji, 50 km navigable for ships.
to the east (saltwater is not Many
Site suitable). steel-using
Natural routes industries were
The located in Karachi such as
HUMAN former USSR (now tool-making. It supplies rolled
Capital Russia) provided economic sheets, galvanised sheets, pig
assistance in the form of iron and coal tar to the rest of
Raw materials technical expertise, finance the country. Over half the steel
Energy and capital. is used in the Punjab at Taxila
where a heavy mechanical
Labour Pipri complex (HMC) was
was connected to the main established with Chinese
Markets
Karachi–Kotri railway. Metalled finance in 1979.
Transport roads also connected this area Plenty
to the main road system of skilled and Port Qasim and Karachi
unskilled cheap labour had the highest electricity-generating
was available locally capacity in the country. Pipri thermal power
station produced 21% and Koranga thermal
D Pakistan Steel – environmentally responsible? from Karachi.
power station produced 15% of the total.
Karachi also has a nuclear power
Pakistan Steel has always been environmentally responsible and this station.
is built into our business and process activities. Our original location
was deliberately chosen to be out of the way on marshy land near a
tidal creek that nobody else wanted. The steelworks may not be the E The Russians return …
prettiest place but only the workers see it! We also built the plant 40 km
downwind of Karachi so that any pollution – air and noise – would not
blow over areas where people live.
Pakistan Steel to be privatised
Pakistan Steel, the only steel company in the country, has
Pakistan Steel has invested in making the environment green and
been sold to a Russian-led consortium backed by Saudi
beautiful. In the past two years we have reforested the area around the
money. It was only 20 years ago that the steel company
factories and set new targets for waste and pollution reduction. Extensive was created with Russian technical expertise and financial
work has been carried out on water treatment, especially of freshwater help. The sale was controversial, with union opposition
supplies that feed lakes and reservoirs for the local community. We have and long debates in parliament. The main objection was
also created a landscaped cricket ground, lakes, bird sanctuaries and a that, at US $362 million, the 75% stake of the Pakistan
running track for employees. Given what was here before, nobody can government was sold too cheaply. Although the company
argue that we have not improved the environment. had not performed well between 1985 and 2003, since
then it has achieved record production levels, sales and
profits as steel prices soared. The firm also increased
capital equipment and cut the workforce by 35%,
Task 3 Task 4 making it less labour-intensive. Today it produces one-
quarter of Pakistan’s steel with the rest being imported.
Study Source C. Study Source D. The advantage of the company going into the private
On a copy of the a List environmental factors that influenced sector is that the sales bring in foreign currency to the
table, write in the the location of Pakistan Steel. private company which funds the steelworks instead of
‘Reason’ column b List four different ways that show the government money which can be spent on public services.
the matching company has tried to improve the Although job losses through restructuring and retraining
environment since it began producing steel will take place, more people can be channelled into areas
label.
here. of job shortages such as IT, banking and education.
June 2006
Task 5
Study Source E.
a What did the government decide to do with its 75 per cent stake Sample case study question
in Pakistan Steel in 2006? Give two reasons for this decision. Name an area you have studied where
b Who opposed the sale and why? manufacturing industry is carried out. Describe
c Suggest some risks of selling a state-owned activity to overseas the impacts of this industry on the natural
buyers. environment.

129
TOPIC 25 Hi-tech industry
A Products of hi-tech industry

Hi-tech – a growing industry B Location of hi-tech industry

Hi-tech industries involve making and using silicon chips, computers, Easy access Government Cheap land
semi-conductor devices and computer-controlled machinery. They use to airports incentives prices
micro-electronics to make computers, pharmaceuticals, communications
equipment and equipment for the aerospace industries. Hi-tech industries
have been growing rapidly. Although hi-tech industries are ‘footloose’ they Attractive Proximity to
do cluster together in some areas. One of the earliest concentrations of hi- landscaped other hi-tech
working industries
tech industry was in ‘Silicon Valley’, near San Francisco, in the USA, and environment Attractions
this is still one of the most important locations. In many other areas science for hi-tech
parks, with purpose-built factory units, have been set up to attract new industry
developments. Highly
qualified
Good road and skilled
links workforce

Task 1
Study Source A. Close to Attractive location to
research live – shopping, cultural
a Identify the products of hi-tech industry that are shown in the facilities and and entertainment
universities facilities
photographs.
b Explain why industries manufacturing products such as those shown in
the photographs are growing rapidly.

Task 2
Study Source B.
C An area of hi-tech industry
Nottinghamshire, UK Working in pairs, discuss the nine
attractions for hi-tech industries.
Select the five that you think are the
most important and explain why you
have chosen them.

Task 3
Study Source C.
a Describe the main features of the
buildings and environment shown in
the photograph.
b Do you think this is a good area for
hi-tech industry? Give reasons for your
answer.

130 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 3 Topic 25

D Silicon Valley
Silicon Valley,
California
Source D shows ‘Silicon Valley’ in the
USA where hi-tech industry has grown
along a 50 km stretch of California.
Silicon Valley lies along the south side
of San Francisco Bay, from Palo Alto
in the west to San Jose in the east.
Companies involved in the research,
development and manufacturing of
micro-electronics have been present
in the region since the last half of
the 20th century. Many software
companies, internet-related businesses
and companies in the fields of
biotechnology and aerospace are also
here. In this area average incomes are
amongst the highest in the USA – but
so are property prices. The roads are
often very busy and congested, with
fumes from exhaust emissions being a
major problem.

E Share of information technology (IT) employment in USA

10 Task 4
Study Source D.
8
% of IT employment in USA

Silicon Valley Choose a major hi-tech company that

is located in Silicon Valley.
6
Los Angeles a Use the internet to carry out
research about the company and
4 Washington DC write a short paragraph describing
Boston
the business in which it is involved.
2 Seattle b Describe the exact location of the
company.
0 c Explain the advantages and
1990 1994 1998 2002 2006 disadvantages of the location in
Year Silicon Valley for this company.

Task 5
Study Source E.
a Copy and complete the following sentences. Choose from the words below. b On an outline map of the USA mark and
Between 1990 and 2006 Silicon Valley has had the share of IT label Silicon Valley, Los Angeles, Boston,
employment in the USA. Its highest percentage share was in and since Washington DC and Seattle. Next to
then the importance of the IT industry in Silicon Valley has been slightly. each location draw a bar to represent
Areas of the USA where the percentage of IT employment in the USA has its percentage of IT employment in the
increased are and . USA in 2006.
Use a scale of 5 mm = 2%.
increasing Los Angeles largest 1997 declining smallest Washington DC Don’t forget to include a title and a key.
Seattle 2001 Boston 1991

131
CASE
STUDY 25 Hi-tech industry in Bangalore

The Silicon Valley of India

Bangalore, in the Indian state of Karnataka, is one of
India’s largest industrial cities. Many industrial products
are manufactured here, including aircraft, batteries, paper,
cement, watches and railway wagons. However, since the
1970s the IT (information technology) industry has become
important. In 1991 a Software Technology Park was created
and since then a number of multinational IT companies
have set up their offices in Bangalore. It is the most
important hardware and software centre of India and is
known as the ‘IT capital of India’ or ‘Silicon Valley of India’.
The reasons for the growth of the industry in Bangalore
are:
• pleasant climate conditions
• good transport facilities
• highly trained and qualified workers
• government policies
• establishment of science and technology parks.
A Location map of Bangalore
75°E 80°E N
INDIA
15°N
KARNATAKA
B Bangalore International Technology Park
• Area of the property: 28 hectares
• Located 18 km from city, 12 km from international airport
• 1.5 million m2 of office, production, commercial and retail space
• Residential block of 51 apartments
• Dedicated power plant, water supply and centrally controlled
and monitored air-conditioning
• Reliable access to voice and data communication
• Parking space with multi-parking levels for about 950 four-
wheelers and 400 two-wheelers
C
UBINETICS – coming to a phone near you ...
Ubinetics is a hi-tech company involved in wireless
telecommunications. They develop the advanced technology
used in mobile phones. Ubinetics sells its products to mobile
phone manufacturers such as Nokia, Ericsson and Motorola.
Ubinetics has units in Cambridgeshire and Swindon in the
UK, but their largest unit is in Bangalore. It is an important
unit as there are a large number of highly qualified people,
especially computer programmers, in the area. It currently
employs 150 people whose salaries are less than 25% of
those of similar British workers.

Bangalore

Indian
Built-up areas
D Constructing Bangalore’s hi-tech industry
Ocean 10°N
N

0 200 km

International
Tech Park Ltd

Bangalore

0 5 km Knowledge City
(proposed site)
Electronic City
Task 1 Task 2
Study Source A. Study Sources B and C.
Describe the location of: Describe the attractions
a Bangalore of Bangalore for hi-tech
b Bangalore International industries.
Technology Park.

132 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 3 Topic 25

E Eastern Bangalore

Airport 6 km

Business organisations Hospital

0 1 2 3 km
Cinemas ♠ Shopping centre
Educational institutions and universities Railway line with station
Hotels, restaurants and accommodation Open space

F Impacts of industrial development

Task 3
Study Sources D and E. Location of new
The buildings shown in Source D industry
are being constructed for
Accenture, a global company
involved in hi-tech industries.
The location of the construction Investment in
Development of
site is close to the International Creates jobs and
industry to supply infrastructure: roads,
Technology Park near Pattandur attracts people public utilities, health
inputs
Agrahara, which is shown in and education
Source E.
How might each of the following
three people benefit from the Increase of local
Growth of service
building of new hi-tech industries government funds
industries
in the area? Give reasons for through taxes
their views.
• A school leaver with no
qualifications
• A young university graduate
• The owner of a food store at Task 5
the local KIAOB shopping Study Source F.
complex
Even though Bangalore is important for hi-tech industry there are still many people
Task 4 living in poverty here. There are great inequalities between rich and poor.

Study Source E. Use the ideas shown in Source F to explain how poor people in Bangalore may
benefit from hi-tech industry.
a Name two industrial areas
shown on the map.
b Name three examples of hi-
tech industries shown on the
map.
Sample case study question
c Use map evidence to suggest For a country or area you have studied, explain the factors that have
why industries have been encouraged the growth of hi-tech industries.
developed in the area.

133
TOPIC 26 Tourism
Tourism – a rapidly A International tourism
growing industry International tourism arrivals (recent data)
ICELAND
FINLAND
UK
NORWAY
Tourism is the fastest-growing 500 000 international tourists
DENMARK
IRELAND
industry in the world. It is the GERMANY
NETHERLANDS
world’s largest employer with
over 250 million jobs and it earns CANADA HUNGARY
RUSSIA

CHINA
JAPAN
countries over US$ 600 billion USA
FRANCE AUSTRIA
UKRAINE

per year. It is the main source DOM. PUERTO RICO TURKEY

GUAM
(USA)
of income for 80 per cent of the REP. (USA) GREECE
VIETNAM TAIWAN
ITALY
world’s countries. World tourism MEXICO PORTUGAL SPAIN THAILAND PHILIPPINES

is increasing so much because of: BRAZIL

SAUDI
UAE
MALAYSIA
International tourism receipts MALTA
CYPRUS ARABIA
(US dollars, recent data)
• rising incomes More than $25 billion ARGENTINA
SINGAPORE

• improved transport $10 billion to $25 billion MOROCCO

EGYPT
INDONESIA FIJI ISLANDS

• escapism/adventure $5 billion to $9 billion

MAURITIUS AUSTRALIA
Less than $5 billion
• education SOUTH AFRICA
NEW ZEALAND

• advertising.

B International tourism
is growing ...
Task 1 Task 2
1600
1500 Middle East Study Source A. Study Source B.
1400 Europe a How many international tourists a By how much was the total number
1300 Asia and Pacific
visited Portugal? of international tourists expected to
International tourist arrivals (millions)

1200 Americas
b How much income was earned from increase between 2000 and 2020?
Africa
1100
international tourism by Egypt? b Identify the part of the world that:
1000
c Put the following countries in rank • had over 50 per cent of the world’s
900
order from the highest to the lowest international tourists in 2000
800
number of international tourist • is likely to increase its number of
700
arrivals. international tourists from 115
600
• China • France • Italy million in 2000 to over 400 million
500
• Spain • USA in 2020.
400
300
200
100
C How a tourist resort evolves
0
2000 2020
In 1980 this model was developed to show the evolution of a tourist resort.

Stage 1 Stage 4
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5 Stage 6
HIGH ?
A secret spot is discovered Tourism becomes a dominant feature
and visitors come in small of the local economy.
numbers. There are no Stage 5
Number of tourists

?
amenities. Tourism growth slows as the
Stage 2 resort becomes too built up and
More visitors arrive and local overcrowded, or polluted.
people set up amenities. Stage 6
Stage 3 • Decline may result as tourists
A well-defined tourism choose other destinations.
LOW
industry is developed with • Rejuvenation can take place,
the destination being sometimes by attracting a different
TIME
advertised. kind of tourist.

134 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 3 Topic 26
2 Mkhaya game reserve, Swaziland

D Different tourist destinations

3
USA
Coney Island, New York,
1

4
5
6
Pas de la Casa, Andorra

Turgutreis, Turkey

Dartmoor National Park,

UK

Paris, France
E The impact of tourism
Task 3
Study Source C.
Choose a tourist resort that you know – it may be one
where you have been for a vacation. Which stage of the
model do you think it is in? Give reasons for your answer.
Task 4
Study Source D.
a In pairs look at each photograph and make a list of the
different types of tourist destination they show.
b For each photograph make a list of the attractions of
that area. For each attraction identify whether it is a
natural (physical) or human (built) attraction.
Task 5
Study Source E.
Explain why the author of the article thinks that tourism is
having a greater impact than the tsunami in Thailand. Do
you agree with him? Give reasons for your views.
The tsunami was nothing compared to the impact of tourism
in Thailand. It is a much larger, long-term problem … I was
born in 1972 and when I was eight or nine it was still largely
virgin rainforest here on the island. By the late 1980s, though,
it was mostly developed. We have now lost so much of the
biodiversity and primary forest and the soil is destabilising in
many places. The construction of hotels upstream is creating
a lot of sediment in the water and this causes damage to
the coral reefs when it washes out to sea. It also affects the
mangroves on the east coast. A lot of our waste water – about
40 per cent – is still being pumped out to sea on the west
coast where all the resort areas are. Land is now so expensive
here due to tourism; the cost of living is even higher than
Bangkok – it has meant that many local people have been
forced to sell off their ancestral home and have now lost their
only real asset. There is even competition for schools here for
the first time. And there is a lot of overfishing here; this is for
export rather than for the tourists, but lobsters are now being
brought in from Burma to meet the tourists’ appetite for these
vulnerable creatures. The corals are also damaged by tourism.
Snorkellers actually cause more damage than divers because
they touch the coral more often …
Leo Hickman, The Final Call – In Search of the
True Cost of our Holidays, 2007

135
CASE
STUDY 26a Tourism in the Seychelles

A Where are the Seychelles?

C The Seychelles has a tropical climate
55° 30’E
Curieuse Island N
Indian Ocean 30° 30°
Anse Lazio
Praslin Island
Cousin
La Felicite 25° 25°
Grand Anse Temperature (°C)
Island
Vallee de Mai
Silhouette Cousine National Park 20° 20°
Island Marianne
La Digue
15° 15°
Beau Vallon Sainte Anne
Bay Island
Seychelles 10° 10°
Victoria
Cerf Island
Morne
Seychellois 5° 5°
National Cascade
Park
0° 0°
Mahe Island Indian Ocean
600 600
Rainfall (mm)
Anse Royale 4° 45’S
500 500
Takamaka
0 5 10 km 400 400

300 300

200 200

100 100

B Tourist attractions on Mahe Island 0

J F M A M J J A S O N D
0

The Seychelles relies on tourists

The Seychelles is made up of 115 islands in the Indian
Ocean, 1500 km east of mainland Africa, north-east of the
island of Madagascar.
The traditional economy was the growing of coconut palms
and tea on plantations and the cultivation of spices such as
cinnamon and vanilla on small farms. There are also craft
industries, and some fishing, especially for tuna, takes place
around the coast.
Since independence in 1976 the government has
encouraged foreign investment in order to build hotels and
other tourist amenities. Now the tourist industry provides
the islands with 70 per cent of their income and it employs
about 30 per cent of the labour force.

Task 1 Task 2
Study Sources A Study Source C.
and B. a Which months do you think will be
Describe the the most popular for tourism in the
different natural Seychelles? Give a reason for your
attractions of the answer.
Seychelles. b Explain the disadvantages of
tourist activity being concentrated
into a few months of the year.

136 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 3 Topic 26

D Weddings in Paradise

Luxury Wedding Package

Island Resort Special
– an exclusive wedding package to make that most special day unique.
Your perfect experience can be tailored to our range of services.
Location
The choice is yours. You can be married anywhere on the
resort – but the most popular place is the beach.
EXCLUSIVE!
What’s included (for the bride and groom)
• Registrar services and costs
• Natural tropical decorations at the chosen location
• Wedding cake
• A bottle of champagne on arrival, and one bottle of champagne during the
ceremony
• Romantic cocktail with snacks on board a private boat at sunset
• Romantic candlelit dinner at the resort – meet the chef to choose the theme
of your dinner (e.g. seafood, sushi, fish or game)
• Breakfast next day in your villa
Price: From €800 per couple. Minimum 4 nights stay

E F Where does the money go?

Water Shortages May Affect
Tourism in Seychelles Foreign developers
Payments for goods
and hotel owners
imported for tourists
The reality of water shortages in take out their profits
Seychelles became all too apparent
this week. In a chic restaurant in town
some tourists were heard complaining
about the filthy toilet without a drop
Foreign workers send Local business people
of water next to the restaurant. The money to their own invest their tourism
poor owner was trying to explain to countries earnings abroad
the tourists that around this time of the
year there is a drought in Seychelles
and everywhere they go they will
encounter the same problem. Travel costs taken out Governments and
by foreign airlines, local investors repay
The government took out a loan of US$ cruise ship loans and interest to
25 million not so long ago to invest in companies, etc. international banks
a desalination plant but there are still
water restrictions and water shortages.
We lose 75% of our water because of
old and leaking water pipes.
One wonders if the money could have Task 3 Task 4 Task 5
been better spent building reservoirs
everywhere around our islands similar Study Source D. Study Source E. Study Source F. The Minister
to the one being built at upper Anse Make a list of In what ways does of Tourism of the Seychelles
La Mouche, especially since there is an all the jobs that the tourist industry wants to limit tourist numbers
abundance of water during the rainy
you think can be contribute to to 200 000 per year by 2010
season which ends up in the sea. Better
created for people water shortages in to ensure that the industry
still, why was the money not used to is sustainable. In groups,
purchase and install new water pipes? in the Seychelles LEDCs such as the
by attracting Seychelles? discuss other ways by which
One also questions the wisdom of the government could make
taking such a large foreign exchange international tourists
to get married there. sure that the tourist industry is
loan to invest in a desalination plant.
sustainable.
August 2006

137
CASE
STUDY 26b Tourism in Dubai

From a desert to a top tourist

destination
Dubai is one of the seven emirates that make up A Where is Dubai?
the United Arab Emirates (UAE) on the Arabian
Peninsula. It is located on the southern shore of the N 52°E IRAN 56°E
uz
Arabian Gulf. Dubai city is a busy urban area but, orm
t ra it of H
S
outside the city itself, it is a sparsely populated desert Ra’s al
26°N
OMAN
area. Persian Gulf Khaymah

Ajman
Dubai has a sub-tropical, arid climate. Rainfall is QATAR Sharjah Al Fujayrah
Doha Das
infrequent and irregular, falling only on about five Dubai
days per year. The mean daily temperature maximum Abu al Abu
Dalma Abyad Dhabi
is 30°C in January rising to over 40°C in July. Al Ayn
UNITED
Dubai’s growing tourist industry now makes Ghuwayfat
Ar Ruways Tarif ARAB
EMIRATES OMAN
up more than 30 per cent of Dubai’s GDP. Hotels
Tropic of Cancer
and apartments recorded 6.5 million guests in 2006,
generating revenues of more than US$ 3 billion. Aradah Hamim
SAUDI ARABIA Rub' Al Liwa Oasis
In a short period of time tourism has transformed Khali Desert
0 50 100 km
an area of desert into one of the world’s top tourist
destinations of the 21st century.

Task 1
Study Source A and an atlas.
a Describe the location of Dubai.
b Explain why Dubai is perfectly positioned to attract tourists from all parts of the world.

B Dubai – a growing destination for tourists

138 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 3 Topic 26

C What the brochure says ...

Wild Wadi Waterpark is a water theme park that covers Ski Dubai is the first indoor ski
an area of 5 hectares and comprises 24 adrenaline- resort in the Middle East and
pumping state-of-the-art rides and slides. offers an amazing snow setting
This water park was designed like an Arabian wadi to enjoy skiing, snowboarding
(oasis) with characters from Arabian folklore. Once you and tobogganing or just playing
enter the Wild Wadi water theme park, you will be given in the snow. Young or old, there
access to all the water rides, as well as the use of rubber is something for everyone, from
rings, lifejackets and body boards. The water park has 90 the beginner to the snow sport
lifeguards on duty, keeping you safe while you are having fun. Wild Wadi’s rides enthusiast.
suit people of all ages, making it a favourite water sports area in Dubai. Ski Dubai is a unique mountain-
themed attraction that offers
Dubai Desert Safari is the most exciting and most popular tour in you the opportunity to enjoy real
Dubai. You will experience a thrilling drive in the sand dunes and snow in Dubai all year round,
enjoy a great dinner and live belly dance in a desert camp outside bringing an Alpine experience to
Dubai. Desert Safari in Dubai begins with a drive in a 4 by 4 vehicle the middle of Dubai’s desert. This
driven by an expert driver. Once in the desert, enjoy the ride on a monumental indoor snowdome
camel and go wadi-bashing or sand-skiing. Take a trip to the local has a capacity of 1500 guests and
Bedouin village to look at the traditional desert life. is one of the largest in the world.

D Ship of the Dubai desert

E Dubai skyline

Task 2
Study Sources B–F.
The growth of Dubai
F Comparing satellite images of Dubai
into one of the top
tourist destinations
in the world has been
rapid and spectacular.
Dubai Marine
Beach Resort a In groups, prepare
a presentation
Burj al
Arab Hotel about the
attractions for
The Palm
tourists in Dubai.
Jumeira Resort b Suggest the
impacts on people
and the natural
environment.
1970 2009 Further
information
and images can
be obtained by
Sample case study question carrying out
Explain why the tourist industry has developed at a named location which you have research on the
studied. internet.

139
TOPIC 27 Energy supply and demand
A Energy resources – what’s being used?

Natural gas provides 23% of the

Oil provides 37% of the world’s
Coal prov ides 25% of the worl d’s worl d’s energy.
energy.
energy. Nuclear power provides 6% of the
Non-renewable resources Renewable resources world’s energy.

The most important of these are oil, coal and natural gas. These
are also fossil fuels as they are derived from the remains of plants
and animals that have been buried and fossilised over thousands
of years. They are non-renewable resources as there is a limited
amount, so they are not sustainable. Nuclear power is also non-
renewable. It uses plutonium or uranium – both fixed resources.
These can be used continuously and will not run out unless
people interfere with nature – they are sustainable. They include
geothermal supplies, wind, HEP, solar energy, bio-fuels, wave and
tidal energy. Removing trees for fuelwood can be renewable if
reforestation restores the forests; if this does not happen they
become non-renewable sources.

Using fossil fuels … B World fossil fuel energy producers, 2007

People’s use of energy resources has
Top 6 oil Million Top 6 coal Million Top 6 gas Million m3
changed over time. Up to the 18th
producers tonnes producers tonnes producers
century wood-burning provided most of
the world’s energy. With the Industrial Russia 487 China 2 549 Russia 650 993
Revolution affecting western Europe and Saudi Arabia 483 USA 981 USA 546 140
the USA in the 19th century, coal became USA 310 India 452 Canada 183 395
the most used energy source. The 20th
Iran 218 Australia 323 Iran 106 693
century saw the rise of transport and
industry, which required large amounts China 188 South Africa 244 Norway 90 839
of fuel, usually oil. In the 21st century oil Mexico 173 Russia 241 Algeria 89 970
is the most sought-after source. Because
only a few countries have oil supplies, and
so dictate who gets it at what price, many
countries are searching for oil reserves of Task 1 Task 2
their own or looking at alternative ways
Study Source A. Study Source B.
of meeting their energy demand.
a Name three non-renewable a Represent this data on an outline
C World energy use, 2007 sources of energy. Why are world map. Add a title and key.
they non-renewable? b Describe the global distribution of
Energy resource % global use
b Name three renewable fossil fuel energy production.
sources of energy. Why are c List countries that are in the top six for
Oil 37.0 they renewable? all four types of energy production.
Coal 25.0 c Suggest why many countries d Suggest why environmentalists are
Natural gas 23.0 are developing renewable concerned about China’s energy
Nuclear 6.0
energy resources. production.
Fuelwood 4.0 Task 3
HEP 3.0
Study Source C.
Solar 0.5
a Draw a graph to represent this data.
Wind 0.3
b What percentage of the world’s energy use was accounted for by non-
Geothermal 0.2 renewable resources in 2007?
Waves/Tides 0.1 c Which two renewable energy resources are used the most?
Others 0.9 d Find out how the types of energy used in your country compare with the
world pattern. Explain any similarities and any differences.

140 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 3 Topic 27

More renewables needed … D One alternative: geothermal energy

Renewable energy resources provide less than
10 per cent of the energy used in the world.
Responsible governments have been pursuing
policies to increase the use of renewable
energy resources for a number of reasons.
• High carbon emissions from non-renewable
sources are thought to be causing global
warming.
• Oil prices are rising and countries with little
Australia Looks for Power from Hot Rocks
A small bleak township in Australia’s outback is sitting on a source of energy that
could power the nation for thousands of years. Deep beneath the tiny community
of Innamincka lie the world’s hottest rocks which could provide geothermal energy.
‘Hot rocks’ are created in granite that is heated naturally by decay of its elements.
Water will be pumped down 4 km to rocks
that are 300 °C. The hot water recovered can Electricity
cables to
be used for heating or steam can generate Steam national grid

oil are dependent on the few that have it. electricity. The energy providers expect to
Power
produce 10 000 megawatts – the equivalent of station
• Renewable resources are cost-effective and
up to 15 coal-fired power stations – from this
have low carbon emissions. area. While there are few carbon emissions
European Union (EU) leaders agreed in March and the power plant has little impact on Cool Geothermal Cool
recharge reservoir recharge
2007 that 20 per cent of the Union’s energy the environment, there is one problem. The water water

should come from renewable fuels by 2020. national electricity grid is 450 km away! Hot upwelling water

May 2008 Hot rock heat source

E Another alternative – biogas

Brown energy 3 Slurry pumped into 5 Gas channelled to 6 Final product
covered lagoon, the size of facility, where hydrogen is 99%
1 Cow five football pitches sulphide and methane
produces carbon dioxide
manure Filter are removed
removes Lagoon lined with plastic Cover is weighted at
solid waste to protect groundwater edges with concrete

4 Gas collects
beneath
2 Manure flushed into expanding
large, octagonal pit cover

Cattle Have Power Too!
It’s not so much green energy as brown power:
a dairy farm in Fresno, California has found
a new way to generate electricity for houses.
It uses a vat of liquid cow dung, 10 metres
deep and as large as five football pitches. As
cow dung decomposes it produces methane, a
greenhouse gas more damaging than carbon
dioxide. Scientists say that, if treated, it can
produce renewable natural gas. This could be
used instead of coal to power electricity plants.
One single cow’s dung can produce about 100
watts of power. California’s government has
ordered energy companies to make renewable
energy at least 20 per cent of their electricity
supplies by 2010.
March 2008

F Several alternatives – wind, solar and hydro-power

Task 4 Task 5
Choose Source D Study Source F. Renewable Energy – N
Bay of Biscay
0 50 km

An Environmentalist’s Dream
FRANCE
or E. For the source a List the different Bilbao

you choose: types of renewable

Pamplona
NAVARRE
It sounds like an environmentalist’s dream: a rural
• name the place energy resource area that generates its electricity from nothing
and type of being used in the more polluting than sun, wind and hay. But that is
S PA I N

renewable energy Navarre region of exactly what the Spanish region of Navarre hopes
resource in the Spain. to achieve within a few years. The region gets almost
article 70% of its electricity from renewable resources; by Madrid
b ‘I think the model 2010 this should rise to 75%. Navarre is a sparsely
• explain how energy we have here in populated region of fewer than 600 000 people but is connected to the
can be created Navarre is perfectly Spanish national grid. It can draw on gas, coal and nuclear power through
from this resource transferable to other the grid when the wind does not blow or the sun shine. There are 1100 wind
• suggest one countries.’. Jose Javier turbines in the region. More than 55% of the region’s electricity comes from
advantage and wind power. Navarre has also built several solar farms which turn sunlight
Armendariz, Industry into electricity. It also has a biomass plant that generates power from straw
one disadvantage Minister and mini hydro-electric plants that generate electricity using local river flow.
of using this To what extent might Spain is a world leader in renewables – it produces more than 21% of its
renewable energy this be true for the electricity from these resources and plans to reach 30% by 2010.
resource. country you live in?
June 2007

141
CASE
STUDY 27a Fuelwood in D.R. Congo

A fuelwood crisis
At least 2.6 million people in LEDCs – 40 per cent of the world’s population – rely
on fuelwood to cook and heat their homes. While much of this is fallen branches
and dead wood, demand exceeds supply in many countries so people cut down
trees to survive. The consequences of continued deforestation are major. Many
environmental groups and governments are looking for ways to slow down
deforestation, reduce fuelwood demand and provide alternative sources of
energy in such countries. Unfortunately many have little choice. If fossil fuels
are available they cannot afford to mine them, or they lack the technology.
Nuclear power is too expensive. HEP is only possible if there are large amounts of
precipitation and suitable geology. Fuelwood is the only choice for many people
in LEDCs such as the Democratic Republic of Congo (D.R. Congo).

A Where is fuelwood used?

% of total fuelwood used

North South
Asia and Pacific Africa America America Europe

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

B Will demand go down?

Task 1
Projections of fuelwood consumption in developing regions, 2000–30
Study Source A.
2000 2010 2020 2030
a How dependent are LEDCs on fuelwood for
South-east Asia 762 697 620 546 cooking and heating?
Africa 440 485 526 545 b What percentage of the world’s fuelwood is used
in:
South America 100 107 115 122
• Asia and the Pacific
World 1302 1289 1261 1213 • Africa?
Figures in million cubic metres of wood c Suggest reasons why the type of energy used
varies globally.

Task 2
Study Source B.
a Draw a multiple line
graph to represent this
data.
b Describe how the overall
Task 3
C Environmental issues
Study Source C.
a Describe how the Traditional farming system in D.R. Congo
The nutrient cycle is
system works when The system in balance Cattle dung added Crop stalks fed complete: nutrients
Trees used as to soil as manure to the cattle are removed at the
it is in balance. firewood for cooking same rate as they are
b What other sources replaced.

fuelwood consumption of fuel are used

is expected to change
between 2000 and
2030. Suggest reasons c How do these uses
for this change.
c Which developing areas
once the fuelwood Topsoil is fertilised by dung. Fertile topsoil
has gone? Nutrients are replaced and
organic matter binds the soil.
Firewood crisis: the system breaks down Crop stalks
Nutrients are removed
and not replaced.
affect the soil and Shortage of firewood, Cattle dung dried, burned for fuel The nutrient cycle is
nutrient cycle? trees removed then used for fuel
Maybe only enough
food to cook once a day
broken.

are expected to increase d How are people

fuelwood consumption?
Suggest reasons for this.
affected when Topsoil can be eroded
fuelwood supplies As trees die, soil is
not held together
Topsoil is not fertilised
by dung. Fewer nutrients
by wind or water:
DESERTIFICATION
are used up? by roots. and less organic matter.

142 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 3 Topic 27

D Africa’s fuelwood crisis

Fuel and fighting means deforestation
Fuelwood consumption as a percentage of
D.R. Congo has suffered decades of economic mismanagement and 80 per total energy use
cent of the people live in poverty. Commercial logging by foreign companies
0 1000 2000 km N
had already removed much forest before a civil war began in 1998, when
they left. However, deforestation continues as many villagers have been
made landless and, along with refugees, have been forced into the forests to
survive. Seventy per cent of the population rely on subsistence farming and Tropic of Cancer
on collecting fuelwood and charcoal from the forest. Clearance for agriculture
and hunting bush meat has also contributed to forest loss. The country has
many rare species of wildlife, most living in the 18 protected rainforest areas,
one of which is the Virunga National Park close to the Ugandan border where
the endangered mountain gorilla lives. Unfortunately the government cannot Equator
monitor the forest as the rebels holding it are supported by Uganda. D. R. CONGO

90% or more
Task 4 80–89% Tropic of Capricorn
70–79%
Study Source D and an atlas. Less than 70%
a Use an atlas to name the countries that rely on fuelwood for 90 per cent or
more of their total energy use.
b Describe and explain the distribution of countries where 70 per cent or
more of their total energy use depends on fuelwood.
c What percentage of D.R. Congo’s energy use depends on fuelwood?
d Why does the location of D.R. Congo make it difficult to change from
fuelwood to other types of energy use?

E The supply chain for fuelwood

Villagers' domestic use Gifts A family needs about 3 kg of firewood – a

few sticks – per day to provide cooking and
heat. As there is less wood now, villagers have
Sales to other villagers Domestic use
to walk up to 7 km to find it. Around 70 per
Harvesting and cent of wood is generally transported by cart
transporting by Sales to any passer-by and 30 per cent on people’s heads – usually
villagers women’s. The wood is tied in bundles of round
branches or split logs with branches. The
Sales to wood
transporters smallest bundles weigh 6 kg and the largest
19 kg. What is left over is sold locally or taken
to towns like Kinshasa. There it is used for
Sales to wholesalers Sales to retailers
heating, cooking and in small enterprises,
e.g. brick kilns, bakeries and food processing.
Sales to consumers (some soya Buying fuelwood can use up 30 per cent of
vendors, households and family income. An alternative fuel is dung but
restaurants) that deprives the fields of fertiliser, reducing
crop yields.

Task 5 Task 6
Study Source E. a How has the civil war caused the rainforest
a How is fuelwood transported by villagers? and its wildlife to be under threat?
b List three different groups of people who buy fuelwood from the villagers. b Discuss why it is difficult to balance the
c Apart from heating and cooking, how else can fuelwood be of use? fuelwood needs of people with conservation
in D.R. Congo.

143
CASE
STUDY 27b Oil in Saudi Arabia

A The top ten oil producing countries, 2007

Top ten producers Top ten exporters
Producers M. tonnes % World Canada Kuwait Iran Russia Exporters M. tonnes
Russia 487 12.4 Saudi Arabia 358
Saudi Arabia 483 12.3 4.0% 3.5% 5.5% Russia 248
USA 310 7.9 12.4% Iran 130
Iran 218 5.5 Nigeria 119
China 188 4.8 Norway 109
Mexico 173 4.4 UAEmirates 106
Canada 157 4.0 Mexico 99
Venezuela 138 3.5 Canada 93
Kuwait 136 3.5 USA Venezuela 89
UAEmirates 131 3.3 China Kuwait 88
Rest of world 1516 38.4 7.9% Rest of world 764
WORLD 3937 100 Mexico WORLD 2203
4.8%
Figures in million tonnes Tropic of Cancer 4.4% Top ten importers
Importers M. tonnes
Equator
Saudi Arabia USA 587
Venezuela United Japan 203
Arab Emirates Rest of world China 145
3.5% 12.3% N.Korea 120
Key Tropic of Capricorn 3.5% India 111
Germany 110
Proportional Italy 94
circle diameter 38.4% France 82
= (million tonnes Spain 61
produced) 0 2000 4000 km UK 59
Rest of world 713
WORLD 2285

Oil – a prized possession

Task 1
Before the late 19th century there was little demand for oil. The first
oil well was dug in 1859 in Pennsylvania in the USA; since then oil has Study Source A.
become the most desired energy resource of the 21st century, mostly due a Describe the distribution of the top ten
to developments in industry and transport that need oil or oil products. oil producers.
Since 1973 oil prices have risen rapidly as the oil-producing countries, b Which countries export more than
many of which were LEDCs, realised the value of the product to MEDCs. 50 per cent of their production? Suggest
Some individuals, and countries such as Kuwait and Saudi Arabia have why.
become very rich by exporting oil. These countries do not need to develop c Which countries in the top ten producers
their economy further. also need to import oil? Suggest why.

B The Middle East – a global oil power Task 2

a On an outline map of the Middle East
The Suez Canal
is in Egypt. N
TURKEY
add the following from Source B:
Iraq-Turkey Caspian
It was built in
1869. It allows
pipeline Sea • the names of all countries and
sea transport sea areas
between the
Red Sea and SYRIA • oilfields
Mediterranean Mediterranean
Sea without
Sea Iraq-Syria
pipeline IRAQ
IRAN • named oil pipelines
having to go
around Africa.
The
Suez Iraq Strategic
pipeline
• the Suez Canal.
It is now too
small for
Canal

Trans-Arabian
b For all the Middle East countries named
supertankers pipeline
in Source A, add divided bar graphs to
which travel
along the east
EGYPT
Iraq pipeline
through Saudi Arabia
Persian
Gulf
your outline to show how much oil they
African coast
to go to Khurais Dubai produce and how much they export.
Europe and
the Americas East-West
Riyadh Ghawar
U.A.E. Riyadh (4.7
c From Source A calculate the percentage
instead. Small pipeline million) is the of oil produced that is exported by each
oil tankers do capital city of
still use the
SAUDI ARABIA
Saudi Arabia of:
Canal. – a country of
SUDAN Red
Sea
OMAN
27.6 million • Saudi Arabia • UAE
people. • Kuwait • Iran.
Oilfield
YEMEN Arabian
d ‘All four of these countries (see c) export
Oil pipeline
Sea more than 59 per cent of oil produced.’
Operating 0 200 400 km
‘None of these countries imports oil.’
Under construction Suggest reasons for these facts.

144 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 3 Topic 27

C Saudi Aramco – a responsible company?

Saudi Arabia – supplying oil
to the world Saudi Arabia’s oil production and refining
are dominated by the state-owned company
In 2007 the countries of the Persian Gulf Saudi Aramco. It is the world’s largest oil
(Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia company in terms of oil produced and
and the United Arab Emirates) produced about known reserves that are under its control.
30 per cent of the world’s oil. Saudi Arabia is the Consequently it has a major responsibility
for showing environmental awareness in
world’s most important oil producer. It contains
its operations.
over 20 per cent of known oil reserves and has
a central strategic location near to international
shipping lanes to distribute oil around the world. Saudi Aramco’s Environmental Policies
It controls international oil prices simply by 1 Preventing water pollution
balancing international oil demand with supply. • All tanker movements are handled by trained harbour pilots with powerful
tugboats to safeguard terminal facilities.
• Extensive measures are taken to avoid oil spills. Aramco has never had one
D Transporting the oil is risky? but regular drills take place so staff are ready.
• Control centres with emergency equipment, dedicated airplanes and
High Price of Oil surveillance are ready to provide instant responses to spillages.
Leads to Piracy on • Strict loading procedures are followed.
the High Seas • Water quality is assessed through sampling.
2 Preventing land pollution
Somali pirates hijacked • On-shore landfills are used for disposing of solid waste.
a Saudi Arabian-owned • Industrial waste is separated depending on its hazard risk.
supertanker off the east • Medical waste is sterilized before disposal.
coast of Africa at around • A waste minimisation programme reduces emissions and lowers costs.
07.15 on 10 November 3 Preventing air pollution
2008. The tanker, Sirius Star, was carrying crude oil worth • Air monitoring stations measure sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide and
at least $100 million when pirates scaled the 10-metre side other parameters.
of the ship. There have been at least 60 incidents in 2008
in the Gulf of Aden between Yemen and Somalia. About
11% of the world’s oil carried at sea travels through the E An expensive solution?
Gulf. It is thought the rising crude oil price is responsible
for the pirates’ action as they can ransom the tanker back Possible oil tanker routes N
for a higher price from its owners. At worst they could EUROPE
threaten to create a disastrous oil spillage or accidentally To The
Europe Persian
run aground in coastal waters far too shallow for the Gulf
supertanker. Ransoms paid for the return of ships average Short route Suez
from the Gulf Saudi
about $1 million. via Suez Canal Arabia
AFRICA
November 2008 To the Somalia
Americas Eyl
Route around
Cape of Good
Hope adds
10 000 km to Indian
Atlantic Ocean
Task 3 Ocean
Suez voyage

Study Source C.
a How large is Saudi Aramco?
b Give one example of how the company tries to
prevent each of the following:
• water pollution • land pollution • air pollution.
Task 4
Study Sources D and E.
a Suggest how rising oil prices are linked to the
hijacking of supertankers by Somali pirates.
b What problems might this create for:
• the environment • the owners of supertankers?
c Discuss how you would resolve the problem of Somali
pirates hijacking oil supertankers for a ransom.
Longer Cape
route avoiding
0 2000 km Cape of pirates from
Good Hope Somalia
With over 60 hijacks a
year taking place, we have decided
to take the longer, wider route away from
Africa and the Somali coast to deliver oil to
Europe and the Americas. This route around
the Cape of Good Hope will increase fuel
costs and delay delivery by at least three
weeks as well as increase any risk of a
spillage at sea but it will ensure supplies do
arrive. Unfortunately this will raise the price
of oil. We cannot continue to pay ransoms
to these pirates as insurance companies are
raising the premiums we pay because of the
increased risk of losing a load.

145
CASE
STUDY 27c Renewable energy in Iceland

Iceland – a model for the B Volcanic zones and geothermal areas

world?
Renewable energy, while supported by many N
nations at international conferences, still
plays only a small part in the global energy
mix. However, Iceland has reached the stage
Krafla
where 70 per cent of its energy needs are met
by its own sustainable energy resources. The
remaining 30 per cent consists of imported
fossil fuels for motor vehicles and ships. It is
the only western country that produces all its
electricity from emission-free and sustainable
natural resources in the form of geothermal
power and HEP. Reykjavik
Nesjavellir
Reykjanes Hellisheidi Bedrock
A Iceland sits on a ‘hotspot’! Svartsengi
< 0.8 million years

Iceland, a country of just 300 000 people, is 0.8–3.3 million years

located on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. This is a High temperature rocks 3.3–15 million years
0 50 100 km
constructive plate boundary between the North Low temperature rocks Ice/snowfield
American and Eurasian plates. These are moving
apart at about 2 cm a year, creating volcanic Low temperature activity – located away from the main volcanic zone close to the
activity and rising heat in the gap. Precipitation surface at about 1 km depth. Rock temperature varies from 50° to 150°C. Water
here is also high with over 800 mm per year. from precipitation is heated by the rock to create hot, boiling springs at the surface.
Consequently Iceland has a wealth of geothermal High temperature activity – located within the active volcanic zones at a depth
sources and water for HEP. Three-quarters of below 1 km where temperatures are at least 200°C. Here groundwater exists in deep
its population live in the south-west (with 60 reservoirs so hot water is not seen at the surface but steam is.
per cent in the capital Reykjavik) where most
geothermal sources are found.
North American Mid-Atlantic
Plate Ridge
Task 1
Study Source A.
a With the help of an atlas and the diagram, describe
the location of Iceland. Refer to lines of latitude and
longitude, the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and diverging plates.
b Explain why Iceland can create energy from geothermal
and water sources but is not able to create energy
using fossil fuels of its own, or solar power.
c List in order (by percentage) the different uses of
geothermal energy.
Magma
chamber
Eurasian
Plate d What is the major use of geothermal energy? Suggest
why it is used to melt snow.
Using geothermal energy
Greenhouses 2.6% Task 2
Swimming pools 3.7% Study Source B.
Industry 4.7% a Describe the location of Reykjavik. How does the city
Snow melting 5.4% get most of its energy?
Fish farming 10.4% b Where are most of the high-temperature geothermal
sites?
Electricity
generation 15.9% c How does this compare with the distribution of low-
Heating 57.4%
temperature geothermal sites?

146 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 3 Topic 27

C Where are Iceland’s HEP stations?

Hydro-electric power (HEP)
Landsvirkjun N
HEP is the source of 60 per cent of Iceland’s power stations
electricity, with geothermal sources Hydro
producing 40 per cent. Landsvirkjun is the Geothermal Laxa 28 MW
company responsible for producing HEP Fossil fuel Krafla 60 MW
in Iceland. It was founded in 1965 and is Bjarnarflag 3 MW
Main road
now run as a state-owned national energy Blanda 150 MW
provider. Six HEP stations have been
constructed since 1965. Today the company Fljotsdalur 690 MW
not only produces electricity for Iceland but
has a surplus that is exported to earn foreign
currency. The reservoirs and HEP stations Sultartangi Hrauneyjafoss
Straumsvik 120 MW 210 MW
are built on glacial rivers which are largely 35 MW Vatnsfell 90 MW
Sigalda 150 MW Site of the
fed by snowmelt. Some of the snowmelt is Sogstoovar Burfell Karahnjukar
90 MW 270 MW Project
activated by using geothermal energy.
0 50 100 km

D The Karahnjukar project Hálslón reservoir created Vatnajokull glacier

behind the two dams
Second dam
N

River Jokulsa a Dal

Main dam River Jokulsa a Bru

The largest HEP station was completed in 2009 in the north-east of Iceland at Fijotsdalur away The greenhouse effect of producing
from the populated south-west. The Karahnjukar project is the largest construction project 1 kg of aluminium
ever built in the country. It involves damming two glacial rivers that flow from the Vatnajökull 16 Providing
energy
glacier then creating the Hálslón reservoir covering 57 km2 behind the dams. The project created
controversy because it is in one of Europe’s largest wilderness areas with 2000 reindeer grazing Producing
Carbon dioxide (kg)

12 aluminium
here. The diversion of water plus submergence of land would also remove habitats for birds such
as the pink-footed goose and harbour seals which breed on the river deltas. The government built
8
it for Alcoa (Aluminium Company of America) which wanted to move here because of pollution
problems created by its US plant. Iceland offered cheap electricity and a clean environment. It will
4
provide 750 jobs plus foreign currency for Iceland, which has little industry.

0 Coal Oil Natural Hydro-

Task 4
Study Source C.
a What is the range of capacities (in megawatts) of
Landsvirkjun’s HEP stations? Describe and explain their
distribution. Explain why many are close to ice caps.
b Why are reservoirs needed as part of HEP stations?
Sample case study question
For a named country you have studied, describe the
main types of energy resources used.
gas power
Task 5 Estimated discharge of CO2 in kg through using
varying energy sources for energy production,
calculated per kg of processed aluminium
Study Source D.
a Draw an outline labelled sketch of the photograph.
b Give two advantages and two disadvantages of the
Karahnjukar project for Iceland.
c Compare the amount of carbon dioxide produced in
making 1 kg of aluminium using coal, oil or natural gas,
and using HEP. Why is Iceland an attractive place for
Alcoa to move to from the USA?
d Why is it important to reduce the amount of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere?

147
TOPIC 28 Generating electricity
How is electricity generated?
In many countries people expect electricity to be
available whenever they plug in an appliance,
turn on their air-conditioning system, or open
a refrigerator. In order to produce electricity a
wide range of sources are used. These include
non-renewable fossil fuels (e.g. coal, natural gas,
oil), uranium, and renewable energy sources (e.g.
water, geothermal, solar, wind).
• In a thermal power station, fuels such as oil,
coal or natural gas are burned to heat water.
This turns into steam, which goes through a
turbine, which spins and turns, generating
electricity.
• In a nuclear power station, nuclear reactions
using uranium heat water, which turns into
steam to spin the turbine.
• In a geothermal power station water is pumped
down into hot volcanic rocks. Steam comes out
and spins the turbine.
• When electricity is generated by wind, the
wind pushes against the turbine blades, causing
the rotor to spin.
• In a hydro-electric power station the turbines
are turned by fast-flowing water.
A Different uses of electricity
148 Cambridge IGCSE Geography
B Electricity generation by fuel worldwide
Projection/
12 000 estimated Coal
Billion kilowatt-hours
Natural gas
9000
6000 Renewables
3000 Nuclear
Oil
0
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030
Year
C Indian summer!
India Swelters as More Power Cuts Loom
DELHI – As Indians swelter in the first big power cuts of summer, they
know that it is only going to get worse in the hot months ahead.
Already India’s capital has called on residents to run just one air-
conditioner as temperatures soar. The appeal comes as residents endure
cuts lasting up to 10 hours in parts of Delhi. Over the last decade, power
generation has increased by 5 but demand has risen by around 12 per
cent. Businesses have worked around the shortfall by building their own
generating plants. Tempers, meanwhile, are already fraying over the latest
outages. In Uttar Pradesh, people went on the rampage on Friday over
power cuts and at least 18 were arrested as protesters stormed electricity
stations and government offices. Adding to the nation’s woes is the fact that
as many as 47 new power plants are behind schedule.
May 2006
Task 1
Study Source A.
Give four examples of ways in which electricity is used.
Task 2
Study Source B.
a How much electricity was generated in total by thermal
power stations in 2010?
b By how much did the amount of electricity generated by
coal increase between 1970 and 2010?
c Identify three changes that are likely to occur in the
generation of electricity by 2030.
Task 3
Study Source C.
a Make a list of five different problems that the people in
Delhi are likely to face as a result of power cuts.
b Explain why there are power blackouts in many cities in
LEDCs.
 Theme 3 Topic 28

D A coal-fired thermal power station

Locating thermal power
stations
Thermal power stations are generally located close
to their source of fuel. For example, coal-fired
power stations may be located on or near coalfields
as coal is bulky, heavy and expensive to transport.
Many have their own railway lines linked to mines
in order to transport the coal. Power stations that
are fired by oil or natural gas are located close
to oil refineries or oil and gas pipelines. In some
countries fossil fuels are imported so power stations
are built close to major ports. The areas of flat land
required for building thermal power stations may
be found close to rivers, where the large quantities
of water needed for cooling can be extracted from
Eggborough, UK
the river and waste water returned to it.

E Thermal power stations – advantages and disadvantages

Advantages
Large amounts of electricity can be produced in one place.
Transporting oil and gas to power stations is easy and cheap.
Gas-fired power stations are very efficient and can generate
electricity at low cost.
A thermal power station can be built almost anywhere, so
long as you can get large quantities of fuel to it.
They are less expensive to build than nuclear power stations.
They do not produce dangerous waste.
Disadvantages
Burning any fossil fuel produces carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide, which
contribute to the greenhouse effect and acid rain.
Mining, and the use of large areas of land for power stations, destroys
natural vegetation and scars the landscape.
Pollution of rivers may occur as a result of using large amounts of water for
cooling.
Oil and gas stocks are running low. Their ‘ownership’ often leads to
argument by the leading countries of the world.
Fossil fuels are non-renewable and increasing in cost.
Transporting coal by lorry and train from the mine to the power station
causes atmospheric pollution.

F
More coal-fired power stations in China
In the last six years the Chinese coal industry, with
reserves put at more than 1 trillion tonnes, has doubled
production to more than 1.2 billion tonnes a year. The
country is now building 550 coal-fired power stations –
opening at the equivalent of two a week. Between 2000
and 2005, electricity generation rose 150%.
Task 4
Study Sources D and E.
Draw a fully labelled sketch to show how a coal-fired
power station may cause problems for local people
and the natural environment.
Task 5
Study Sources D–F.
Working in groups, use the sources on these pages and carry out
research to prepare a report on electricity generation in China.
In your report you should:
• give the reasons why so many new coal-fired power stations
have been built
• explain why many people in China and in other parts of the
world are concerned about the increase in thermal power
stations
• consider the advantages and disadvantages for China of
using renewable energy sources (e.g. wind, solar and hydro-
electric power) instead of building so many coal-fired power
stations.

149
CASE
STUDY 28 Electricity generation in France

How is electricity generated

in France? A Generating electricity in France
In 2006 France generated 574.5 billion kWh of UNITED KINGDOM Gravelines
electricity and used 482 billion kWh (6700 kWh per N
BELGIUM
person), leaving a surplus for export. English Channel
GERMANY
Penly
France has 59 nuclear reactors operated by Electricité Chooz
de France (EdF), which supply over 430 billion Flamanville
Paluel
Cattenom
kWh per year of electricity – 78 per cent of the total
generated there. Nogent

The present situation is due to the French

FRANCE Fessenheim
government deciding in 1974, just after the first St-Laurent
SWITZERLAND
Chinon Dampierre
oil crisis, to expand the country’s nuclear power
Belleville
capacity. This decision was taken because France had
few energy resources and nuclear energy, with the Bay of Civaux Bugey
Biscay
fuel cost being a relatively small part of the overall St-Alban
ITALY
cost, made good sense in reducing imports and Le Blayais
achieving energy security. Cruas
Generating Golfech
The cost of electricity in France is low when stations Tricastin
compared with that in many other European Nuclear plant
Transmission lines by
countries. It also has an extremely low level of voltage category (kV) P yre Mediterranean Sea
nees
carbon dioxide emissions from electricity generation, Under 220
SPAIN
as over 90 per cent of its electricity is generated in 220–299
0 100 200 km
nuclear or hydro-electric power stations. 300–499

B Nuclear power in France

France Presses Ahead
with Nuclear Power
1 May 2006 After the energy crisis
of the 1970s, France invested heavily
in nuclear facilities, and today the
country is much less dependent on
foreign oil.
On the coast of Normandy overlooking
the English Channel, is the nuclear
power plant at Flamanville. Its two
reactors generate enough electricity
for the entire regions of Normandy
and Brittany. France’s nuclear plants
meet almost 80 per cent of its total
electricity needs – and allow it to
export power to Britain, Germany and
Italy.
‘France chose nuclear because we
have no oil, gas or coal resources, and
recent events have only reinforced
the wisdom of our choice,’ says
Laurent Striker, senior vice-president
at Electricité de France, the world’s
largest power company.
French environmentalists say the
economic benefits of nuclear energy
are far outweighed by its dangers
and they say nuclear facilities are
potential targets for terrorists.
Greenpeace activists recently
surrounded and chained themselves to
a truck transporting plutonium from
the La Hague nuclear recycling facility
to a burial site, as it stopped in the
middle of a French town.
But the French government is
determined to press on towards its
goal of using nuclear power to achieve
energy independence for France.
French President Jacques Chirac
recently announced plans for yet
another generation of nuclear power
stations, which would come on line by
2020. Areva, the government-owned
builder of nuclear power stations,
and the French government are also
selling French nuclear know-how to
other countries, especially China.
Task 1
Study Source A and an atlas.
a Describe the distribution of power
stations in France.
b Name a nuclear power station in France
that is located:
• near to the Mediterranean coast
• close to the border with Belgium
• 160 km to the north of the Pyrenees.
c Explain why there are many hydro-
electric power stations in south-east
France.
Task 2
Study Source B.
a Explain why France produces most of its
electricity from nuclear power stations.
b Carry out your own research to find out
why some people protest against the
use of nuclear power. Write a paragraph
which a protestor against nuclear power
might use to convince other people
about its dangers.

150 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 3 Topic 28

D La Rance tidal power station

La Rance tidal power
station
La Rance tidal power station, opened in
1967, was the world’s first tidal power
station. It is located south of Dinard and
Saint Malo, on the estuary of the river
Rance, in Brittany. In spite of the high
cost of the project, the plant’s costs have
now been recovered, and electricity
production costs are lower than for
nuclear power generation. There have
been some environmental impacts. The
barrage has caused silting of the estuary
and affected the ecosystem. Sand-eels
and plaice have disappeared, though
sea bass and cuttlefish have returned to
the river. The tidal power plant is now a
tourist attraction which draws 200 000
visitors per year.
To create the power station a barrage was built across the estuary 750 metres long,
from Brebis Point in the west to Briantais Point in the east. The tidal area of water
C Where is La Rance? behind the dam measures 22.5 km2. The tidal range (the difference between high
N and low tides) averages 8 metres and reaches up to 13.5 metres. The plant consists of
24 large turbines which generate electricity whether the tide is going in or out. The
St Malo power station generates enough energy to power 4 per cent of the homes in Brittany
Dinard FRANCE – equivalent to the consumption of a town the size of Rennes. A canal lock in the west
end of the dam allows boats to pass through. A main road crosses the dam and allows
Barrage vehicles to travel between Dinard and Saint-Malo. There is a bridge which may be
de la Rance raised to allow larger vessels to pass through.

Pleurtuit E Tidal power – how does it work?

La R

Tréméreuc
nca

Langrolay- Sluice gates

e

sur-Rance
High water mark
Pleslin Plouér-
sur-Rance

0 1 2 km Pleudihen Barrage
Basin

Task 3
Study Sources C, D and E. Sea Low water mark
a Describe the location of La Rance Turbine
tidal power station.
b Explain how electricity is generated
at La Rance. Estuary floor
c When the power station was built
in the 1960s it caused conflict in
the area. Give three arguments
which would have been used for Sample case study question
building the power station and For a named power station you have studied, describe and explain its
three against it. location.

151
TOPIC 29 Water
A Different uses of water

Water is
important for
plants and
animals in
ecosystems.
nzania
Ntalikwa village, Ta

Sichuan Province, Ch Water is important for drinking and

ina
staying clean and healthy.

Water
power is Water is important for waste disposal.
important
to generate
energy.

Lake Powell and Glen Canyon Dam, USA

No water … no life
Water is our most basic need. People die of thirst before
hunger. Without water people can only live for a few Near Tozear, Tunisia
days. Plants and animals need water too. If they cannot
survive, then food webs change. Without plants and
animals there would be no oxygen to breathe. Life on Task 1
earth would disappear.
Study Source A.
a For each photo suggest how the water is, or will be, used.
B Use of water in the UK – an MEDC b List other uses of water not shown in the photographs.
Where the water goes Amount consumed Task 2
(litres)
Study Source B.
Flushing toilets / waste disposal 40
a Draw a graph to illustrate this data.
Washing and showers 36 b How would the water use change in an LEDC?
Washing machines / dishwashers 32 c The average daily consumption per person in Ethiopia is
Dripping taps / leakage 14 only 4 litres. Suggest some problems this might cause.
Drinking /cooking 6 Task 3
Gardening / outside use 4
Look back through your day so far.
Car washing 2
a Write a diary showing when and how you used water.
Average daily consumption per person = 134 litres b Compare your diary with uses shown in Source B. List
This nearly equals 400 cans of cola! similarities and differences.

152 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 3 Topic 29

C World distribution of rainfall

Water supply varies
The distribution of global rainfall varies. Arctic C
ircle
Countries that receive heavy rainfall
may have a water surplus but suffer
from floods. Countries that receive low
amounts of rainfall may have a water
deficit and suffer from drought. They
Tropic of Cancer
may have to rely on a river flowing
from an area of heavy rainfall through
their dry country, for example the Nile
Equator
as it flows through Egypt.
It is very difficult for people to
influence their natural water supplies.
However, now there is the technology Tropic of Capricorn
to redistribute water surpluses to areas Annual rainfall in mm
of water deficit – though this depends Over 1500
on having the money and expertise to 1000–1500
do it. Large dams can store water in 500–999
reservoirs and this can be transferred by 250–499 0 2000 4000 km
lorry, pipeline or rivers to areas where Under 250
demand is high. Large dams, however,
are often controversial schemes.

D Issues in transferring water Task 4

Study Source C.
Spain Accused of Diverting Water Supplies from Rivers a Describe the distribution
Drought in Spain has forced some farmers to use sewage water to keep their
crops alive of areas with more than
in the worst drought in 60 years. The governm ent has transferred clean water by pipeline 1500 mm of rainfall per year.
of its largest rivers, the Tagus, to the Segura in Murcia to help farmers there. This Refer to continents in your
from one
Mancha which now receives less.
has upset other provinces in Spain, such as Castilla La answer.
ing water from the river Douro which means b Use an atlas to help you
Portugal is also accusing Spain of transferr
signed in 1998.
they receive less. This action breaks an agreement between the countries name two countries that may
June 2005 experience a water surplus.
Explain your choices.
c Name two countries that may
Burmese Dam Will Displace Thousands experience a water deficit.
Thousands of villagers could be displaced and a fragile ecosystem be destroye Why did you choose these?
d by the
Ta Sang hydro-electric power (HEP) project being built on the Salween river
claims the World Wildlife Fund (WWF). ‘It is the only free-flowing river
in Burma, Task 5
linking the
Himalayan glaciers to the Andaman Sea,’ a spokesman said. A Burmese Choose one water transfer issue
official said the
dam was in a remote area and few people would need relocating. The country
needs water from Source D. For the issue you
and electricity to meet growing demand.
have chosen:
April 2007
a Use an atlas to describe its
location.
s
Water shortages likely to trigger war b Explain how and why the
, the first
water sources could lead to water wars government is dealing with
A struggle by nations to secure clean y true in Asia whe re high
rday. This was especiall this water issue.
Asia-Pacific Water Summit heard yeste pose sign ificant thre ats. If global
population growth, pollution and poor
water managem ent
ent Bank
c Provide some arguments
lopm
could trigger more wars. The Asia Deve against the government’s
warming continues, water shortages billio n per year to
nt in Asian water projects to $2
(ADB) promised to double investme ict. action.
e co-o pera tion between countries instead of confl d Why might water shortages
increase supply and encourag
trigger ‘water wars’ between
December 2007
neighbouring countries?

153
CASE
STUDY 29 The Lesotho Highlands Water Project
N ZIMBABWE

BOTSWANA MOZAMBIQUE
Tropic of Capricorn

A major water-
NAMIBIA

A Lesotho – a country within South Africa Johannesburg

Pretoria

Soweto
SWAZILAND
Maputo

transfer project A mountainous and land- N Kimberley

ZIMBABWE
locked country, the kingdom Atlantic
Bloemfontein LESOTHO Durban
Indian
The Lesotho Highlands Water Ocean
Ora
nge Ocean
of Lesotho is completely SOUTH AFRICA
BOTSWANA MOZAMBIQUE
Project (LHWP) is the largest surrounded by South Africa. Tropic of Capricorn East London

civil engineering project Most of the highlands are to Cape Town

NAMIBIA Port Elizabeth 0 150 300 km
Pretoria
in Africa. It is the world’s the east where villages can Johannesburg
SWAZILAND
Maputo
Rivers
second largest water-transfer only be reached on horseback, International borders
Soweto

project after the Three on foot or by a light plane. Large cities

Kimberley
Gorges Dam in China. When These highlands receive heavy Atlantic
Bloemfontein LESOTHO Durban
Indian
Ora
completed (estimate 2027), rainfall, so the valleys are Ocean nge Ocean
SOUTH AFRICA
it will divert about 40 per ideal for building dams and East London
cent of the Senqu/Orange reservoirs. The LHWP, aided Cape Town
by funds from several sources Port Elizabeth 0 150 300 km
river water through five
such as the World Bank, began
large-scale dams. After taking Rivers
in 1988. When completed, Lesotho will International
have a larger water supply than it needs. Surplus water can be
borders
water for its own use, much sold to South Africa. The income can beLarge used to develop its infrastructure and its economy.
cities
will be sold to South Africa
where demand is greater
than supply.
B Climate graph for the highlands
of Lesotho
Task 1 25°
Temperature (°C)
25°

Study Source A. 20° 20°

Temperature °C
a Describe the location of Lesotho. Use distances and directions in your 15° 15°
answer.
b Give one advantage and one disadvantage of the relief of Lesotho 10° 10°
for development. Explain your choices.
5° 5°

0° 0°

C The water transfer scheme –5° –5°

150 150
Precipitation (mm)

N To South Rainfall (mm)

Africa
100 100
su
ut
i ba m

50 50
Ma d

0 0
Katse J F M A M J J A S O N D
completed
1997 Average rainfall 1020 mm
Mohale
completed The average annual temperature range is between
2003 Mashai 3°C and 15°C, but temperatures can reach 35°C
Sen

completed
in January. Snow falls from May to September in
qunya

2008

the highlands.
ng

e
al Tsoelike
ne

(2017)
h

Malatsi
k
Ma

(2020) Dam name

Ntoahae ( ) Planned opening date

Task 2
(2020) Water-transfer tunnel
e qu
Orang Sen River

To South
Reservoir Study Source B.
Country boundary
Africa 0 25 50 km
2500–3000 m elevation
a In what ways is the climate suitable for
building dams and reservoirs?
b Give two disadvantages of this climate
for the LHWP.

154 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 3 Topic 29

Task 3
Study Source C.
a Which three dams will be completed by
2009? When should others be finished?
b Give two different ways by which water
will be transferred from the reservoirs.
c Describe the location of the Katse dam.

D The Katse Dam

E Different views!
The case for... We are a poor country. We only grow a little corn and Task 4
wheat. Farming is subsistence and heavy rainfall in the
mountains causes soil erosion. But we do have water a On a sketch of Source D, label
and good sites for reservoirs, so why not sell our water the following:
... and against!
to South Africa? We can also use the dams to generate • the Katse dam
hydro-electric power (HEP) and large reservoirs will • steep valley sides
attract tourists. We will develop transport routes and • the reservoir
Over 30 000 of us were
there will be better jobs than subsistence farming. We
moved. Our farms are now • the river outflow
are being paid US$20 million a year for 50 years. A poor
under water. Some villagers
country can do a lot for its people with this money. • an area of overland flow
were relocated onto steeper • an area of evaporation.
Minister of Natural Resources, Lesotho
slopes where nothing can b Suggest two reasons why this
grow and
site was chosen for the reservoir.
it gets cold in winter. Our culture and way of life will be
Villager who used to farm in changed for ever by tourism.
Explain your reasons.
the valley now covered by Village community leader c Suggest two reasons why this
the Katse reservoir was not the ideal site for a new
reservoir.
As reservoirs have filled, the extra
Lesotho will now be dependent on South pressure has caused earth tremors. Task 5
Africa for future income. If South Africa wants This has damaged villages close to
more water than we can supply, we could the lake shorelines. Study Source E.
have a water war here. Australian geologist and water a Read the different views. Make a
Opposition politician in Lesotho parliament engineer table with two columns: one for
reasons in favour of the LHWP
and one for reasons against it.
b Briefly summarise your own
F Factfile on Lesotho views on whether the LHWP
scheme should continue to be
Lesotho UK
built. Do others agree with you?
Population (millions) 1.8 60.1
Life expectancy (M/F) 34/34 77/81 Task 6
Average annual income (US$) 730 33 630 Study Source F. Lesotho is a
Size of classes in primary schools 44 17 land-locked LEDC. Suggest how it
could use the water income to help
Infant mortality rate (number dying per 1000 born) 61 5
improve the quality of life for its
Lesotho employment structure: Primary 40% Secondary 28% Tertiary 32% own people.

Sample case study question

Choose a country where a water transfer scheme or a large dam has been (or is being) created.
Explain the advantages and disadvantages the scheme has brought, or will bring, to the country.

155
TOPIC 30 Damaging the environment
A A sandstone quarry in Dorset, UK
The natural environment
This includes the Earth’s:
• physical landscape • atmosphere
• rivers, seas and lakes • natural vegetation
• soils • wildlife.

Task 1
Study Source A.
Explain how this quarry might affect each part of the
natural environment.

B A river in Shanghai, China

Human impact
Human beings affect the natural environment by using
the Earth for:
• farming • transport
• fishing • throwing away rubbish
• building places to live • tourism.
• mining and quarrying
• industry

Task 2
Study Source B.
Explain how any of the different human activities listed
might affect the natural environment of this river.

Problems caused... C A sugar-beet processing factory in Newark, UK

Human activity causes problems such as:
• the loss of • air and water
vegetation pollution
• loss of habitats • global warming
• threats to wildlife • acid rain.
• soil erosion

Task 3
Study Source C.
The factory shown in the photograph
is processing sugar beet which has
been grown on nearby farms. Explain
how the growing of the sugar beet and
processing it into sugar might affect the
natural environment in the ways listed.

156 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 3 Topic 30

D Industrial and mining pollution in Albania E Air pollution in Albania

MONTENEGRO SERBIA N

Fusche-Arrez
Shkoder
Rubik
Adriatic According to experts Albania is but mostly petrol with lead and a

MAC
Sea Furshe-Kruje
facing disaster due to growing huge quantity of sulphur, banned
Sharra

ED
Durres pollution caused by poisonous in the European Union countries,’
Tirana

ON
IA gases. Ruka said.
Elbasan ‘We are concerned about growing Until recently the worst air
Hazardous
ALBANIA numbers of people suffering pollution was in Elbasan,
industrial site from cancer, cardiovascular the centre of heavy industry,
Mining site Fier and pneumonia diseases due to where pollution from dust and
Waste disposal Vlore Ballash various poisonous gases’, said sulphur gas was 15 times above
Palos
site Environment Minister Ethem acceptable levels.
Mining industry
Ruka. Here there has been an increase
hotspots Tirana, Albania’s capital city, is in the number of babies born
GREECE one of the most polluted cities with deformities. There have
Serious water
pollution 0 50 100 km in the world. Experts said that also been reported cases of
deaths due to illnesses caused deformed animals being born:
by pollution have increased by four-legged roosters and two-
20% in Tirana in the past two headed calves and rabbits. The
years. soil is so contaminated that in
‘90% of the vehicles are too old, some places planting food crops
70% use diesel and 30% petrol, is banned.

F Elbasan – a heavily polluted industrial centre

Task 4
Study Source D.
Albania is one of the
most polluted countries in
Europe. Write a paragraph,
including named examples,
to describe the location
of areas where mining
and industry are causing
pollution in Albania.

Task 5
Study Sources E and F.
a Draw a labelled sketch
to show how the natural
environment has been
affected by people in
the area shown in the
photograph.
b Explain how and why
people in Albania are
being affected by air
pollution.

157
CASE
STUDY 30a Soil erosion in Nepal

A Nepal – physically challenging

International boundary
N
CHINA National capital
H Town
I M TIBET
i

Jumia
nal

A >3000 m (Mountain)
L A
ar

K
YA 1000–3000 m (Hill)
Annapurna
<1000 m (Tarai plains)
NEPAL Pokhara isul

i
r
Nuwakot T Kodari Everest
Butawal Daman Kathmandu (8848 m) Steep terraced land in Nepal is vulnerable
INDIA Patan
Lumbini Sunauli Hetauda Sun K to landslides and soil erosion.
os
Birganj i
Janakpur
0 100 200 km Kakarbhitta
Biratnagar
Heading for disaster?
The mountain region The hill region The Tarai plains
In the last 25 years there has been growing
This region above 3000 These forested regions at global concern about the effects of removing
The flat, fertile plains
metres contains the central 1000–3000 metres are of Tarai receive river
forests for fuelwood. Around 18 per cent of
part of the Himalayan densely populated and have flow fed by monsoon
Nepal is forested but deforestation is taking
mountains. It is sparsely been shaped into massive rains and melting
place at an alarming rate – 25 per cent of
glaciers. Deforestation
populated due to its cold terraces for cultivation.
climate and steep slopes. Here tree removal for its forest was removed between 1990 and
is common here due to
Herding and trading are fuelwood and farming on 2005. This continues at a rate of 3 per cent
illegal logging and road-
the main activities. steep slopes is causing building.
a year. Nepal is famous for its mountains,
landslides and soil erosion. but removing trees on steep slopes leads
to soil erosion and land degradation. The
effect of heavy monsoon rains,
B Climate data for Kathmandu and the fact that the country’s
population has grown (from 12.8
J F M A M J J A S O N D to 28.9 million between 1997
Temperature (°C) 10 12 16 20 23 24 25 24 23 20 15 11 and 2007) means that more land
has been cleared to grow food
Precipitation (mm) 15 41 23 58 122 246 373 345 155 38 8 3
crops. All may contribute to an
Average annual precipitation = 1427 mm Temperatures average (mean) for each month. environmental disaster.

C Causes of land degradation Task 1

Causes Primary effects
Study Source A.
Deforestation for Loss of flora and fauna
fuelwood for local
people and tourists
Loss of soil organic
matter
a Describe how the relief of the land
Soil erosion changes as you travel from south-west
Increase in run-off and
of sheet, rill and gully
erosion
to north-east across Nepal. Refer to the
three named regions.
Overgrazing and
poor farming
Damage of ground
vegetation
b How does the relief cause problems for
practices Compaction of soil and
increase in run-off
people?
Erosion of topsoil c Nepal is land-locked and cannot easily
Excessive use of Destruction of various
import fossil fuels. What do people use
chemical fertiliser,
pesticides/
organisms like bacteria,
fungi for cooking and heating?
insecticide Toxic material in water Secondary effects Environmental Impact
problem

Construction works Landslides

Occurrence of
flooding in rivers LAND
Poor
socio-economic
Task 2
(roads, dams) status of people
Soil erosion Loss of soil fertility DEGRADATION
Loss of biodiversity Imbalance of
natural ecosystem
Study Source B.
a Nepal has a monsoon climate. How
Geological Landslides/rockslides
condition/fragile Erosion due to
Underlying causes does this cause soil erosion?
land structure avalanches in the high
Himalayas
Poverty, population pressure, illiteracy,
forest fires, government policy
b How might population change 1977–
2007 have contributed to soil erosion?

158 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 3 Topic 30

D Forest removal – for local people and tourists!

Villagers in Tadiya have
Tadiya N International boundary
easy access to the forest and
4% 1%
District boundary
wood is the main source of
8%
Road fuel. Many families now have
to go further into the forest

S I WA L I K
87% Railway
Forest area to collect fuel and fodder as
East-
West Tadiya Land deforested nearby areas are deforested.
Tera
Ramdaiya i h i gh
way Local market town Women here spend one-

HILL
8% third of their day collecting
S
firewood for fuel. One reason
35% 57% Ramdaiya 1 day return trip to forest for the removal of wood
is to sell it at the nearby

Ka
ma
Janakpur
market of Janakpur, the main

la
Goth Koilpur Goth Koilpur 2 day return trip to forest
town in Dhanusha district.
4%
13% Demand has increased as
40% rural dwellers migrate into
43%
INDIA the urban area.
Dhanusha district: facts
Tourist revenue is important to Nepal; over 70 000
1 Population density 370 persons/km2
Wood
2 30% population landless trekkers arrive each year, creating many jobs. Many
Dung
3 Population growth approx 3% p.a. expect cooked food, heating and hot water for showers.
Crop residue
0 5 10 km 4 91% population in subsistence agriculture It is estimated that using fuelwood for tourists has
Other increased deforestation and soil erosion by 10 per
cent. The temporary wealth obtained from tourist
Sources of fuel in three villages in the Dhanusha district of Nepal
payments must be set against the long-term damage
to the environment, as it is often spent on new hotels
encouraging more tourism.
Task 3
Study Source C.
a List the five main causes of land degradation.
Which are related to human activity?
b Explain how each cause contributes to soil erosion.

Task 4
Study Source D. E Some solutions …
a Describe the differences in fuel use between the
three villages. Community development
b Suggest how these energy uses might affect: Educate farmers to contour plough instead of ploughing up and down
• the natural environment the slopes, to prevent rapid run-off, loss of soil and the development
of gullies.
• the lives of the people.
c Why is tourism important to Nepal? How does it Alternative energy sources
contribute to soil erosion? Only 10% of Nepal is connected to the national electricity grid.
Invest in micro-HEP schemes using fast-flowing streams to generate
Task 5 electricity. Increase use of yak dung for fires and as a building material.

In 1987 the Annapurna Conservation Area Project Environmental education

(ACAP) was set up to attempt to conserve the Restrict tourist visits and demand a larger fee for use of facilities
involving heating and cooking. Enforce a minimum impact guide for
environment in Nepal. Source E shows some solutions
all trekking groups. Develop environmental education in schools.
that have been tried in the last 20 years.
Fuelwood conservation
You are a member of the village council for the
Provide grants to replant trees where any deforestation has taken place
village of Tadiya. Study Source E and other sources or is going to take place. Fund forest guards and fence off protected
on these two pages. There is a growing problem of areas. Develop solar and HEP alternatives.
soil erosion in your local area. Write a report that:
Organic fertilisers
• explains why there is a problem Reduce use of inorganic chemicals, pesticides and insecticides.
• suggests some solutions that could help reduce Increase use of animal manure, green manure and compost to help soil
the problem. recover and to reduce toxic chemicals in the soil and in the food chain.

159
CASE
STUDY 30b Global warming – the Maldives

A Where are the Maldives?

Maldives 72°E 74°E South Ari Atoll Mahibadhoo 3°45’ N
Ihavandiffulu Atoll
Tiladummati Atoll

Makunudu Atoll
Miladummadulu Atoll
6°N
North Mandhoo
Malosmadulu Atoll
Fadiffolu Atoll
South
Malosmadulu Atoll Kardiva Channel 3°40’ N
Horsburgh Atoll
Male Atoll Angaga Lily Beach

Ari Atoll South Male Atoll 4°N Vilamandhoo

Rangall Mirihi Ranvell
Felidu Atoll Twin Island
North Nilandu Atoll Dhangethi
Mulaku Atoll Machchafushi
South Nilandu Atoll
3°35’ N
Kolumadulu Atoll Vakarufalhl Kudarah
Veimandu Channel
Haddummati Atoll 2°N
Indian
Ocean
One and a Half Degree Channel

Suvadiva Atoll
Ari Beach 3°30’ N
Equatorial Channel 0°N
Sun Island 0 2 4 6 8 10 km
0 300 km Holiday Island
Addu Atoll
72°45E 72°50E 72°55E 73°00E

Paradise (soon to be) Lost

The Maldives is made up of 1200 tiny islands. This area is
known to most of the world as a paradise tourist destination
– but it is at risk. The highest point on any of its islands
is only 2.4 metres above sea level, and 80 per cent of its
islands are no more than 1 metre above sea level. This
makes them especially threatened by rising sea levels caused
by global warming. Unless the world reduces its carbon
dioxide emissions, the little island paradise may soon be lost.
The Maldives is doing everything it can to avoid that.
Male, the capital, is surrounded by a 3 metre-high wall,
which took 14 years to build, at a cost of US$63 million.
The government has identified five ‘safe’ islands which
will be designed to resist the rising sea. If necessary, the
government has even proposed artificially raising the height
of some islands to keep them above water. Near the capital
city a land reclamation project is making a new island,
which could eventually be home for 50 000 people – most of
the nation’s population.

Task 1 Task 2
Study Source A. Source B shows the eastern end of
a Describe the Holiday Island on South Ari Atoll.
location of the a Give a latitude and longitude
Maldives. reference for the area shown.
b What is the b Explain why the area shown in the
distance from photograph is attractive to tourists.
Ihavandiffulu c Tourists visiting Holiday Island will
Atoll, in the fly in to the international airport
north of the on Male Atoll. How far will they
Maldives, to have to travel to the resort? What
Addu Atoll in method of travel do you think they
the south? are likely to use?
d Explain why rising sea levels are
likely to threaten the Maldives.
B A holiday island – South Ari Atoll

160 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 3 Topic 30

C The greenhouse effect

Change in global temperatures, 1850–2100
7
SUN Short-wave 6
Land

Temperature change (°C)

radiation
from the Sun 5
Global
4
3
Long-wave 2 Sea
n
tio

ia radiation from
ad the Earth 1
l arr
o
gs 0
min
Inco
S P H
–1

O 1900 1950
Year
2000 2050 2100

M E
Carbon dioxide

R
T

Coal Petrol/diesel Oil

CFC gases

E
Hamburger
A

Fridges Aerosols cartons

Nitrous Methane

Fertiliser Cattle Paddyfields

D Population and global warming E Producing carbon dioxide – two nations compared
MEDCs LEDCs The average British citizen
% 60
produces 26 kg of carbon
Percentage of
world population
dioxide in a day made up from:
50 Percentage contribution
to global warming • electricity 7.4 kg
• fuel production 1.6 kg
• manufacturing 3.8 kg
40
• transport 7.4 kg
• offices 1.0 kg
30 • heating 3.8 kg
• agriculture 1.0 kg

20 The average Nigerian citizen

produces 0.7 kg of carbon
dioxide in a day made up from:
10
• electricity 0.08 kg
• fuel production 0.08 kg
0
• manufacturing 0.16 kg
No

Eu

Ru

Ja

Au

So

So

Af

• transport 0.31 kg
id
p

ri
ro

ut

ut
s

s
r

an

ca
sia

tra
th

dl
p

he

e
e
Am

la

&

• heating 0.07 kg
rn

Ea
sia

Ce
As
er

s
t
nt
ica

ia

ra
lA
m
er
ica

Area of the world

Task 4
Study Sources D and E.
Task 3 a Compare the percentage share of the world
population and contribution to global warming
Study Source C. between North America and Southern Asia.
a Describe how global temperatures are expected b Give reasons why the contributions of MEDCs (e.g.
to change during this century. the UK) to global warming are different from that of
b Explain the causes of these temperature changes. LEDCs (e.g. Nigeria).

161
CASE
STUDY 30c Deforestation in Amazonia, Brazil

A Tropical rainforest destruction

Tropic of Cancer

Equator

Amazon
rainforest

Tropic of Capricorn

Deforested area
Remaining rainforest
0 1000 2000 km

What is deforestation? B Industrial development near the mouth of the Amazon

Throughout the tropics, rainforests are being N
Atlantic Ocean
cut down. This is known as ‘deforestation’.
Many people are worried about the destruction azon
Am Belém
of tropical rainforests. Beautiful areas of (aluminium São Luis
(deep-water
natural vegetation and wildlife are being lost. smelter)
port)
Deforestation is also causing the extinction of ay
m highw Tucuruí Dam
a-Belè
many species and affects the global climate. If Brasili (hydro-electric power)

es
ENT c
PM rna
deforestation continues at the current rate, the E LO I D O R p ig iron fulink
V R l
D E CO R 25 long rai
world’s rainforests will be gone within 100 years. a
Marabá Açaílandia
(saw mills) (charcoal)
Why does deforestation Serra dos
Carajás Serra
happen? Pelada
(gold) azon h
ighwa
y
Trans-Am
Commercial logging – the cutting of trees for
uaia

s
ntin

sale for timber or pulp – is the most common

Arag

Large bauxite deposits

Toca

0 100 200 km
reason for deforestation. Commercial logging
uses heavy machinery, such as bulldozers, road
graders, and log skidders, to remove cut trees
and build roads.
Task 1
Large areas of rainforest are also cleared for
Study Sources A and B and an atlas.
agricultural use such as grazing animals and
planting crops. Poor subsistence farmers chop a Identify:
down a small area and burn the tree trunks, • the continent with the largest area of remaining rainforest
a process called ‘slash and burn’. Commercial • a country in Africa where there are large areas of deforestation.
agriculture occurs on a much larger scale, for b Estimate the percentage of the world’s rainforest that has already
growing crops and grazing animals. Large cattle been deforested.
pastures often replace rainforests to raise beef c Draw a spider diagram showing some causes of deforestation in
for the world market, and food crops are grown Amazonia.
on plantations.
There are other ways in which deforestation
happens, e.g. building settlements and
industries, the construction of dams and mining
for natural resources.

162 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 3 Topic 30

C Deforestation rates in Amazonia

35 Task 3
Area deforested (thousand km2/year)

30
Study Source D.
Describe the impacts
25
of deforestation on the
20 natural environment. Use
the Internet to find out
15 more information to add.
10

0
88

89

90

91

92

93

94

95

96

97

98

99

00

01
02

03
04

05
06

07
08
19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

20

20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20
Year

D How deforestation affects the natural environment

Forested area Deforested area – human modification

Evapotranspiration from Ranching

trees adds moisture to the air mainly for poor-quality
meat for hamburgers Plantation
and frankfurters crops
Forested slopes,
nature in balance
Shifting cultivators live
in harmony with nature, Habitat for wildlife Mining
only limited (birds, animals and insects)
deforestation in
Amazon Basin for fuel Highways
Timber
extraction
Fragile soils
shielded from
heavy rain by trees

Clean river
usable for
drinking
Movement of rainwater
through soil regulates Muddy water
river flow undrinkable

Heavy rainfall percolates

Roots control flow of rapidly downwards
water and stabilise the soil

Task 2 2002 decreased 400 000 1995 increased 800 000 Sample case study
20 000 2004 30 000 fluctuated 200 000 2007 question
Study Source C.
Name an area you have studied
Copy the following sentences. Fill in the missing words or figures from the list where the environment is at risk
above. from water pollution. Describe
In Amazonia in 1988 over km2 were deforested. Between 1988 and 2007 the human activities causing the
the amount of deforestation . The amount between 1997 and risk and explain how they have
2004 then between 2004 and 2007. The largest area, 29 000 km2, was affected the people and natural
lost in and the smallest amount, 10 000 km2, was lost in . In total environment of your chosen
between 1988 and 2007 km2 have been deforested. area.

163
TOPIC 31 Conservation and management
Ecosystems and human activity
An ecosystem is an environment where plants and
animals grow and live together. The sun is the most
important influence for life in ecosystems. Without the
sun photosynthesis could not take place. Plants could not
produce food and oxygen. Nothing could survive.
There are several different types of ecosystem on land, in
freshwater and in the oceans. Within those ecosystems
over 3 million different plants and animals have been
identified. Yet every day more wild habitats and wild
creatures disappear due to human activity. Such a decline
in the number of species will impoverish life on Earth
with consequences for people too. As species disappear the
natural balance of nature will change unless people increase
their involvement in conservation, sustainability and
management of ecosystems and resources.

A Life begins with the sun

Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide

Photosynthesis Oxygen
Photosynthesis Oxygen

Energy Energy Energy Energy Energy

store
Energy flow
Energy store
Energy flow
Energy store
Energy
store flow store flow store
Grasses Arctic hare Arctic fox
Grasses Arctic hare Arctic fox

Death Death Death

Death Death Death

Decomposers Photosynthesis can be shown by this formula:

Decomposers Carbon dioxidecan
Photosynthesis + water + theby
be shown sun's
this energy
formula:
Rock minerals plant+food
Carbon dioxide + oxygen
water + the sun's energy
Rock minerals plant food + oxygen

Parts of an ecosystem
Parts of an ecosystem
esis Carbon dio
Photosynth xide
Task 1 Task 2 Photos yn th esis Carbon dio
xide
Nutrients and gases
Study Source A. Study Source B. Nutrients and gases Water
Water
a On your copy of the diagram a Why are mountain gorillas under Food pro
du
Food pro cers: plants Consum
write the correct captions in threat in Rwanda? ducers: ers
plants Consum : herbivores
ers: herb
the blank boxes. Four have b How does the Gorilla ivores
: ca rn ivores Decom
been done for you. Organization prevent villagers Consum e rs
re s D ecomp
posers
rs: carnivo
b Explain what happens when using the gorilla’s habitat? Consume osers
Energy from the sun
photosynthesis takes place. c How does the Great Gorilla Run Energy from the sun
Rock min
c What type of food producer is match up to the idea of ‘Think era Oxyg
en
Rock min ls en
shown? Globally – Act Locally’? erals Oxy g
d Suggest what might happen in
this tundra ecosystem if:
• arctic foxes increased
because there were fewer Task 3
polar bears to eat them Study Source C.
• grasses increased because
a Why are the government and Mr Lagware worried about soil fertility?
of higher temperatures
b How is the government managing the challenge of developing a sustainable
• oil pollution destroyed most
approach by villagers?
of the decomposers.
c Choose three ways being used in Burkina Faso to provide a sustainable future in
this country for the next generation. Explain how each will work.

164 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 3 Topic 31

B Conservation in action
The Gorilla Organization – Thinking Globally
The threats
Imagine that you’re one of the poorest people on Earth. Now imagine your
only chance to survive is by mining, farming and hunting in the rainforest
next to your home. It’s a no-brainer – right! Trouble is this land is home to
some of the most endangered species in the world. Every time you enter the
forest you are damaging the habitat of gorillas. And you’re not alone –you
live in one of the most densely populated areas of Africa.
How we help
The Gorilla Organization (based in London, UK) works with African NGOs
(non-governmental organisations) to help people get what they need outside Act Locally
the forest. Everything the gorilla needs is in the forest so we work with Each year the Great
Think Globally local communities to make sure the forest stays as it is. For example, in a Gorilla Run takes place
Gorillas are only found Rwandan village: in London, UK. In
in Central Africa but • we teach villagers how to grow crops so they do not need to take food from September 2009 there
The Gorilla Organization the forest were as many runners
in the UK and other • we show villagers how to make a stove that uses 80% less fuelwood than as there are mountain
environmental groups are old stoves gorillas – 720 – each
concerned that they could • we provide a new water cistern so they can raising a minimum of
become extinct without just turn on a tap instead of spending half £500 (US$1000) in
careful conservation and a day collecting water from the forest. sponsor money for the
management. gorillas.

Conservation, C Sustainability and management in action

sustainability and
N
MALI

management BURKINA FASO PROTECTS ITS FRAGILE SOILS

NIGER

ASO
A F Goue
by Jean-Marie Sawadogo, Ouagadougou RK
IN
Ouagadougou
Conservation involves protecting

BU
Like other farmers in the village of Goue, 30 km from
natural resources as well as the Ouagadougou, Mr Pierre Lagware is worried about the BENIN
biodiversity of plant and animals fertility of his land which has been declining each year from
and their habitats. Today there overexploitation and poor farming practices. Here methods IVORY COAST
GHANA
TOGO

are many global conservation
movements such as Greenpeace
and the WWF.
Sustainability involves fulfilling
the requirements of the present
generation without reducing the
ability of future generations to do
the same. To be sustainable the
Earth’s resources must be used at
a rate that allows for
replenishment.
Management involves putting
into action policies to conserve
resources for the future.
Conferences take place at
international level to agree on
environmental policies but this
is difficult as each country has
its own agenda for economic
development. Politicians are often
interested in the short-term future
of their own country rather than
the long-term future of the planet.
to combat soil erosion and restore fertility are not well known 0 100 200 km
but, with agriculture employing 86% of the population, the
government is just as concerned. It is in debt to the World
Bank for loans and needs to produce more to improve its trade balance.
Local communities have been made responsible for managing their farmlands, pastures and
forests to ensure environmental protection and sustainability. Several strategies are taking
place.
• Overcultivation and overgrazing have reduced soil nutrients, so
increased phosphate and organic fertilisers are being applied to
overcome the deficiency.
• Many farmers are unaware that their soil fertility can be improved.
Farmers now apply organic compost with mineral fertilisers to
improve soil-water retention.
• Farmers are encouraged to grow fodder crops to avoid overgrazing.
• In the north farmers have been taught to build bunds with stones,
earth and vegetation to allow water run-off and prevent topsoil
erosion.
• Higher-yielding seeds for rice and grain and small-scale irrigation
projects are being developed.
• The villagers are now involved in replanting seedlings, regulating
tree cutting and increasing the use of domestic stoves. The Long
Live The Farmer Association shows farmers how to cut fuelwood
selectively while conserving vegetation that provides soil nutrients.

165
CASE
STUDY 31a The Arctic

The Arctic – A A difficult climate in the tundra

a challenging Climate data for Verkhoyansk, Russia (66°N 129°E)
environment J F M A M J J A S O N D
The Arctic environment is Temperature (°C) –50 –45 –32 –15 0 12 14 9 2 –15 –38 –48
defined by the Arctic Circle Precipitation (mm) 5 5 3 5 8 23 28 25 13 8 8 5
at 66½°N; anywhere north
Average annual precipitation = 539 mm Temperatures are average (mean) for each month.
of here is part of the Arctic
region which extends to
the North Pole. Unlike its B The Arctic – land and sea
counterpart, the Antarctic
continent, the Arctic region
Ice shelf New shipping lane
opens across the

0°
Ice cap

RWA10°

10°
Y
has a good deal of exposed
20°

20°
top of the world
Polar pack ice

N
EUROPE
°

NO
30

°
SWEDE
land belonging to countries

30
Arctic Circle ICELAND Drifting ice
FIN
°
40

°
before the floating

40
L

Norwegian
AN

Sea ‘Waters in the Arctic Ocean

D

°
°

Arctic ice cap is reached. 50

50

linking the Barents Sea with

Bordering countries, such °
60 Barents 60
°
the Bering Strait and the Pacific
Sea
GREENLAND
as Russia, Canada and the Novaya
Spitzbergen
ay Ocean are now passable by

B
70°
Zemlya 70°

ffin
USA (Alaska), own land modern cargo ships,’ said a

Ba
West Franz Baffin
within the Arctic region 80°
Siberian
Kara
Josef Island 80° spokesman for the Scott Polar
Plain Land
that can be exploited for Sea
Ellesmere Institute in Cambridge, England.
Island
resources. More recently ASIA A 10% retreat of ice due to global
90°
90°
NORTH POLE
Severnaya Peary 1909
oil and gas resources 100° Zemlya
Parry
Islands
warming has made this voyage
100°

beneath the sea bed of the

Central Victoria possible. The route will soon

A
Siberian Laptev Island

NAD
Plateau Sea become a commercial shipping
Arctic Ocean and North New Siberian
110
° 80° 110
°
Islands NORTH lane, halving current costs using
CA

Pole have been attracting 0°

12
Arctic Oc
n
e a Beaufort
Sea
AMERICA 12
0° longer routes. Oil exploration
Verkhoyansk
RU

interest from these Range East Siberian

and mining in Alaska and Siberia
SS

Sea Wrangel Mackenzie

Brooks 13
13
IA

Island
countries. This is a threat to Mts 0°
0°
Range
70°
will be a lot easier for the USA
sustaining the tundra and
14

14

A and Russia. Japan may even be

0°

Kolyma
US
0°

Range
15

marine ecosystems in this

15

able to export cars to Europe by

0°

0°
160

160

Bering
region. this route!
170°
°

170°

°
180°

Sea
0 500 1000 1500 2000 km

Battle for the final frontier

A mad scramble is under way for Arctic riches: fish, diamonds, oil and gas. America
Task 2
and Russia are quarrelling over rights to the Beaufort Sea while Norway and Russia Study Source B.
argue over the Barents Sea. Underlying these disputes is the certain knowledge a List the countries that own
that oil and gas lie beneath the ice, as well as control over shipping routes across land north of the Arctic Circle.
the ‘top of the world’. The physical difficulties are great and the costs gigantic but, b Suggest how melting ice has
whatever the price, countries that need oil are pushing north. If Shell, BP and affected shipping routes in
ExxonMobil are to stay in business, the Arctic is the only frontier left. This will this region.
create major challenges for conservation, sustainability and management. c Use an atlas and Source B to
describe a shipping route from
Japan through the Bering Sea,
Task 1 past the north coast of Russia
Study Source A. to Norway and the UK.
a Draw a climate graph for Verkhoyansk.
b Describe the patterns shown by your graph. How can you tell it is in the northern
hemisphere?
c To what extent would you agree that the Arctic region is ‘a challenging
environment to live and work in’? Support your view with evidence.

166 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 3 Topic 31

C An Arctic food web

The Inuit villagers of northern
Alaska, USA, benefit from the oil
companies’ contribution to the
local economy but the caribou and
their tribal way of life are more
important and are sustainable. The
Inuit culture is dying and now only
one-third of the people speak the
native language; the rest speak
English. They also rely on seals
and whales for food and to sell.
Once oil is being mined, carbon
emissions will increase global
warming. What ice is left will melt
and the ecosystem will
be destroyed for ever.
A spokesperson
for WWF, the
environmental
group opposed to
extracting more oil
from Arctic regions
We are already extracting
oil along the coast of Alaska
Arctic foxes Polar bears Gulls
but it is drying up. In north
Alaska there are 16 billion
barrels – that’s 30 years’ worth
Ringed seals Walrus Murres Eider ducks
of imports from Saudi Arabia.
Oil now accounts for 85% of
the Alaskan economy, and has
Belugas Cod Bearded seals
provided jobs, schools and
houses. They would not be here
without the mining. Almost
Bowhead whales Krill Copepods Clams
20% of the world’s oil reserves
are under the Arctic Ocean –
there is no way that
Phytoplankton Ice algae
oil can stay in the ground.
Polar bears are the top carnivores in the Arctic food
web. They fear nothing. They live in dens on the ice
and in the sea hunting seals from floating sea-ice
platforms. As the ice thins and melts with global
warming, the polar bear is affected in two ways. A representative
There is less ice to live on and hunt from, and algae of Arctic Power, a
cannot grow below the ice as it has disappeared. BP-funded group
This affects krill which feed on the algae. Without that wants to
krill many animals in the food web will struggle for mine more oil in
food and migrate away or die. At the top of the web Alaska and the
polar bears will lose both their habitat and food. Arctic Ocean

D Threats from Russia

Task 3
RUSSIA
Study Source C.
RUSSIA STAKES Disputed zone
a Draw a simple food chain involving polar bears. ITS CLAIM ON claimed by Russia
USA
b Suggest how polar bears and their prey might be affected by: NORTH POLE IN Alaska
• thinning ice and warmer seas
UNDERWATER Lomonosov
NORTH
• more fishing and whaling ships Ridge
POLE
• oil mining beneath the sea SEARCH FOR OIL CANADA

• tankers transporting oil. Russia is making a

c Give two reasons for and two reasons against allowing more grab for the vast energy GREENLAND
NORWAY
oil mining in northern Alaska and the Arctic Ocean. riches of the Arctic
with an underwater 0 500 km

Task 4 mission to plant its flag

Read Source D.
a What was the first manned journey to the North Pole’s sea
bed for?
b Why are four countries angry with Russia’s actions? Justify
their views.
Task 5
Produce one of the following, using IT if you can do so.
• An A4 illustrated leaflet that tries to persuade people to
support environmentalists in conserving the Arctic region
and its wildlife.
• An A4 illustrated leaflet that tries to persuade people that
governments and oil companies are right to exploit the
Arctic region.
beneath the North Pole. A team of explorers plans to
descend 4300 metres to the sea bed in a miniature
submarine to stake Russia’s claim to an area the size
of Western Europe. The expedition aims to prove
that the Lomonosov Ridge is an extension of Russian
territory. The trip is costing US$20 million and is the
first manned journey to the sea bed of the North Pole.
What’s at stake is the right to over 10 billion tonnes
of oil and gas. No country owns the Arctic Ocean or
the North Pole but four nations oppose the claim –
Canada, the USA, Norway and Denmark (Greenland).
Under international law each country can control an
area within 320 km of its coastline but these limits are
disputed by Russia.
July 2007

167
CASE
STUDY 31b The Antarctic

Antarctica – the White A Antarctica – who wants a piece?

Continent Manned bases in the Antarctic Peninsula
1 Chile Ice shelf
Brazil
Antarctica is a frozen continent south of the 2

0°
Ice cap

10°

10°
3 Chile

20°

20°
Russia
Antarctic Circle (66½°S). It is larger than Europe, 4
5 Argentina
Atlantic Ocean Polar pack ice

°
30

°
30
Poland
and higher. The ice cap covering the land rises 6
Chile
Antarctic Circle Drifting ice

°
7

40
SANAE

°
40
Argentina Orcadas (Arg.) Maitri
to over 4 km above sea level, nearly as high as 8
9 Argentina ° South Orkney Is. Neumayer
(Germany)
(South
Africa) (India) °
Syowa 50
50

Mont Blanc, Europe’s highest mountain. The 10

11
China
USA South Shetland
2 1016
Novolazarevskaya (Japan)
Island (Russia) Molodezhnaya 0°
continent used to be covered by a huge ice sheet; 12 Ukraine 14 6
0°
8
1 54 7 9
16 6
13 UK Weddell Halley Queen Maud (Russia)
3
Graham (UK) Land Enderby
Sea
today there is less ice and more land is being 14
15
Uruguay
Argentina 70°
11
12 Land
General Belgrano II
Land
Mawson 0°
Berkner Kemp (Australia) 7
exposed due to higher temperatures. However, 16 Korea
Alexander
13 15
Palmer Island
(Arg.) Land
Land Prydz Bay
it remains a challenging environment. Once it 80° Island
Zhongshan Davis
80°
(China)
was only visited by explorers such as Amundsen, Bellingshausen SOUTH POLE
Amundsen 1911
(Australia)
Sea Ellsworth Mirny
the first man to reach the South Pole in 1911. A
90°

Indian O
90°
Amundsen-Scott (USA)
Land (Russia)
hundred years later tourists take Antarctic cruises 100°
Amundsen
Queen Mary
100°
Mary Byrd Land
and many countries have bases there. As the Sea Land Ross

ce
Ice Shelf Casey

an
continent becomes more accessible, more pressure 110
80° (Australia) 110

Pa
°
McMurdo (USA) °
Roosevelt
is being created to allow ownership and mineral Scott (NZ)

cif
Island Wilkes
Land

ic
12
0° 12
Ross 0°
exploitation. Like the Arctic region, these threaten Oates

O
Sea

ce
Land
the sustainability of fragile ecosystems on land Dumont 130

an
13
0°
70° d'Urville °
(France)
and in the sea.
14

14
0°

0°
15

15
0°

0°
160

160
170°
°

170°

°
180°
0 500 1000 1500 2000 km

Note: Under the Antarctic Treaty of 1959 all territorial claims are held in abeyance in the interest of international co-operation for scientific purposes.

B Not an easy place to live and work …

Antarctica is the driest, windiest and
Climate data for McMurdo, Ross Sea, Antarctica most remote continent on Earth.
J F M A M J J A S O N D Total precipitation is only 30–70 mm
per year. Winds can reach 248 km
Temperature (°C) –4 –15 –20 –29 –30 –30 –32 –37 –20 –20 –3 –4
per hour. It is so cold that air sinks to
Precipitation (mm) almost no precipitation recorded the surface giving permanent high
pressure systems called anticyclones.
These are called the polar highs.

C … but good for a holiday!

ANTARCTICA Task 1 Task 2
Expedition Cruising Study Sources A and B and Study Sources B
The ultimate cruise an atlas. and C.
experience a List the countries that a When do the
From December 2010 to have managed bases in cruise ships visit
February 2011, we are offering Antarctica. Suggest why Antarctica? Why?
exciting cruise expeditions most are located in a b Over 15 000
to the White Continent. similar area. tourists visit the
Enjoy Zodiac trips to the b How can you tell that White Continent
shore with expert naturalists
Antarctica is in the each year.
among towering icebergs.
Today this unique
southern hemisphere? Suggest why.
experience is c How would you describe c In what ways
accessible to all ages. the climate of Antarctica might increasing
Come and see the compared with where tourism change
penguins and sea-lions! you live? Antarctica?

168 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Theme 3 Topic 31

D The Antarctic food web

Baleen whale Smaller toothed whales Sperm whales
Krill feed on algae which live beneath the
surface ice. They keep the Antarctic food
web going. If the ice continues to melt,
sea level will rise but more land will be Other seals Leopard seal Elephant
exposed. The krill will lose their source of seal
Penguins
food. Along with the loss of their usual
habitats and higher temperatures on land
and sea, the effect on other wildlife in the Other birds Fish Squids
marine ecosystem could be devastating.

Krill

Task 3
Study Source D. Carnivorous Other herbivorous
zooplankton Phytoplankton zooplankton
a Check the food chain
for a baleen whale. How
important is krill to the
baleen whale?
b Describe how two other E Antarctica – safe for now?
animals would be affected
if krill was removed from
this marine ecosystem.
The Power Games that Threaten World’s Last Pristine Wilderness
Task 4 by James Bone, Eduardo Frei Montavo Base, Antarctica
Antarctica, once the torment of explorers such Au Gold
Study Source E. as Scott and Shackleton, is slowly being settled
Ag Silver
Ni Nickel
CHILE ARGENTINA
ARGENTINE
Cr Chromium CLAIM
a Give three reasons why by mankind. Global warming, shrinking ice and Cu Copper
Zn Zinc
BRITISH
CLAIM
soaring oil prices have forced countries to Pb Lead Ni
countries want to own part Mn Manganese
Cr
compete for the world’s final frontier. Mb Molybdenum
of Antarctica. Fe Iron
U Uranium Au
The Frei base sits on King George Island off CHILEAN Ag
b What prevents countries
Ti Titanium
CLAIM
Cu NORWEGIAN
the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula, a territory CLAIM
from exploiting these claimed by Britain and Argentina as well as Cu
Ti Fe
resources at present? Chile. Once a remote whaling station, the South Fe
Pole
c Give examples of ways in island is now known as the unofficial ‘capital of Coal

A
Oil

IC
U
which countries are trying the Antarctic’. The first surprise on landing in

CT
R Fe
Zn TA
AN
to justify their ownership. a Chilean C130 transport airplane is that my Pb
Mb
Blackberry works. I check my email and call my
d List the mineral resources NEW ZEALAND Mb Mn
CLAIM Mb
wife in New York to tell her I am surrounded by AUSTRALIAN
that lie beneath the turquoise-tinted icebergs. As well as a mobile
CLAIM

Antarctic ice cap. Which phone signal Frei base has a bank, post office, FRENCH
resources are in the hospital, supermarket, bar, chapel, a school and CLAIM

area claimed by Britain, an FM radio station called Sovereignty.

Argentina and Chile?
e Why might conflict occur in
Antarctica before 2048?
Task 5
‘Antarctica is a remote,
isolated continent.’ To what
extent do you think this is now
true? Use evidence from the
sources to justify your views.
Flying over Antarctica we see colonies of sea-lions and penguins among corrugated shelters that
are the international bases. However, despite all the overlapping territory claims, there is no conflict
between countries yet. All the countries with bases are signed up to the 1959 Antarctic Treaty,
which prevents exploitation and territorial claims. The 1991 Madrid Protocol to the Antarctic Treaty
declares the icy continent ‘a natural reserve devoted to peace and science’ and outlaws mining or
oil-drilling for 50 years. Despite this each country carries out administrative duties as if it owned
that part of their claim. The British Antarctic Territory issues its own postage stamps, visitors’
passports get stamped, and Chile and Argentina fly out pregnant mothers to have Antarctic-born
children. However, polar scientists fear conflict is inevitable as global warming and deglaciation
make it tempting to exploit the exposed land for oil and gas. 2009 was the deadline for lodging
claims to the sea bed around Antarctica. In 2049 the unanimous ban on exploitation of Antarctica’s
resources will expire. November 2007

Sample case study question

For a named area of natural environment that is threatened by human activity,
describe how it is being conserved and managed.

169
GLOBAL
ISSUE 3 Reduce, reuse, recycle
A Recycling across the world
Brothers and sisters aged
9 or less scavenge plastic
items on a beach in Manila
Bay in the Philippines.
They can sell the scrap for
recycling, earning about
100 pesos (US$2) a day to
buy food for the family. In
most LEDCs recycling takes
place as part of the informal
economy as a desperate way
Recycling in an LEDC – to earn some money.
the Philippines
Most houses are provided with
green bins (garden waste) and
black bins (non-recyclable waste)
for collection by the council each
week. Boxes for newspapers
and for glass and cans are also
provided. Each town has a
council tip where people can take
other items for recycling, e.g.
computers, plastic bottles, wood
and furniture. These services are
funded by householders who have
Recycling in an MEDC – to pay council tax.
England

A waste of resources B What makes up the waste?

Many goods that we buy, from drinking bottles to Household waste in England (UK) Garden waste
newspapers, are disposable: we throw them into 0% Paper and board
a bin as soon as we have finished with them. But Kitchen waste

much of this waste is not useless: glass, plastic, General household sweepings
Glass
metal and paper are valuable materials that can be
Wood/Furniture
recycled. Recycling saves energy. Making new paper Scrap metal/white goods
75% 25%
from old uses only 50 per cent of the energy used Dense plastic
in making new paper, so conserving trees and their Soil

ecosystems. Using less plastic reduces demand for oil Plastic film
Textiles
resources, making them last longer. Recycling also Metal cans/foil
solves the problem of what to do with the waste. 50%
Disposable nappies

Task 1 C Meet Sustainable Dave …

Study Source A.
a Who does the recycling in
A rubbish life for LA • drinking filter tap water instead of
bottled water

LEDCs like the Philippines?
Discuss your views on this
with your classmates.
b How is recycling carried out
in an MEDC like the UK?
c Why is it important to
increase the amount of
recycling in the world?
Task 2
Study Source B.
a Which three types of waste
make up over 50 per cent
of the household waste in
England?
b How do the different types
of waste and their amounts
compare to waste in your
home?
marathon recycler
Dave Chameides has spent almost an entire
year living a life full of utter garbage. The Los
Angeles cameraman has lived in his Hollywood
home without throwing away a single piece
of trash. Instead the 39-year-old – nicknamed
‘Sustainable Dave’ – recycles his garbage or
stores it in his basement. Instead of the usual
725 kg of trash the average American family
produces each year, Dave, his wife and two
daughters have amassed only 15 kg. This has
been done by:
Task 3
Study Source C.
a What is Dave Chameides’ nickname? Why?
b What difference has recycling made to the amount of waste his family
now produce compared with the average American family?
• buying rice and pulses loose by the kilo
in bulk and putting them in containers
instead of cardboard packaging
• buying fresh fruit and vegetables loose
from a weekly farmers’ market instead
of using paper bags or plastic wrapping
• using worms to mince up organic
waste such as banana skins and
eggshells to create a compost
• fitting his Californian home with solar
panels
• using cooking oil to fuel his car
• wrapping presents in comics or other
existing paper sources.

170 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Part B Geographical Skills
Preparing for Paper 2

Paper 2 tests the interpretation and analysis of geographical information. Candidates need to be able to demonstrate skills of using
topographical and other types of maps, diagrams, tables of data, written text and photographs. As one question will be based on a
large-scale (1:25 000 or 1:50 000) topographical map of a tropical area, this part of the textbook provides six examples of these maps,
from Peru, Zimbabwe, Kenya, Jamaica, Indonesia and Reunion Island. For each country an extract of a map is provided with guidance
on the main map skills required for Paper 2, along with examples of map skills questions to practise. Further tasks develop these
map skills. Additional relevant data on issues relating to the areas shown by the maps is also provided, along with tasks that enable
candidates to practise skills in the interpretation and analysis of geographical information.
From June 2010 there will be three different versions of Paper 2, numbered 21, 22 or 23. The Paper the centre receives will depend on
which of the three international time zone groups it is allocated to. A recent past paper and mark scheme for Paper 2 is available for
reference at www.cie.org.uk

171
 MAP
WORK 1 Monsefu, Peru
Peru – a country of varied relief
Peru, in western South America, covers almost 1.3
million km2. The country borders Ecuador and Colombia to
the north, Brazil to the east, Bolivia to the south-east and
Chile to the south. The Andes mountains run parallel to the
Pacific Ocean, dividing the country into three regions:
• The Costa (coast), in the west, is a narrow plain.
• The Sierra (highlands) is in the Andes mountains.
It includes the Altiplano plateau as well as the highest
peak of the country – Huascarán at 6768 m.
• The selva is a wide expanse of flat terrain covered by the
Amazon rainforest in the east.
The 1:50 000 map extract below shows the area around
Monsefu and Puerto Eten, in the northern part of the Costa
region.

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
41 41

40 40

39 39

38 38

37 37
ROADS
All weather:
Hard surface,
two or more lanes wide
Loose or light surface
36 one lane wide 36
Fair or dry weather:
Cart track
Footpath, trail
Power transmission line
Telegraph line, Telephone line
35 Cemetery; Church; School; Lighthouse 35
Stream
400
Contours
Dunes; Sand
Land subject to flooding; Dense woods
Cultivated land; Rice
34 34
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 kilometres

Scale 1:50 000 (2 cm = 1 km)

172 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Map work 1

A
Task 1
45 46 47 48 49
19 19
Study the 1:50 000 map extract of Monsefu.
a Name the small settlements in the following
squares: 2338 2635 2638
Quarry
Forest b What is at the following 6-figure references?
18 18 248352 195396 202383

SKILLS Working out distance and area

17
ad
Ro
16
B
A
15
45 46 47 48 49
SKILLS Giving 4-figure and 6-figure references
1:25 000 and 1:50 000 maps have a grid of numbered squares
on them. To see how a 4-figure grid reference is given, look at
the grid in Source A and follow these instructions to give the
reference for the red shaded square.
• 47 is the line left of the square.
• 16 is the line below the square.
Put these two numbers together and you have a 4-figure grid
reference: 4716.
The 4-figure grid reference of the green shaded square is 4817
because the line on the left is line 48 and the line at the bottom
is 17.
6-figure grid references are used to identify a location within
a square. To see how a 6-figure reference is given, follow this
example using Source A.
• For the church symbol 467 is the easting. 46 is the grid line to
the left and 7 is the number of tenths along towards the next
grid line.
• 173 is the northing. 17 is the grid line below and 3 is the
number of tenths up towards the next grid line.
• The 6-figure reference is 467173.
• The 6-figure reference of the road junction is 475182. This
point is halfway (five-tenths) between eastings 47 and 48
and two-tenths of the way between northings 18 and 19.
17 The scale of the Monsefu map is 1:50 000. This means that
every centimetre on the map represents 50 000 centimetres
(0.5 kilometres) in reality. Therefore the map has a scale of
2 cm = 1 km. This scale is shown by the line below the map.
16 To work out a distance, place a piece of paper with a straight
edge between the two points you are measuring. Mark off
these points, then transfer the piece of paper to the line
below the map. Make sure that the first point marked on the
paper is level with zero, then read off the distance between
15 the two points. If you do this on the grid in Source A to
measure line A–B you should get 2.5 km as your answer.
Each grid square on the map measures 2 cm x 2 cm and
therefore it represents 1 square kilometre of land. To work out
an area, count the total number of grid squares, or estimate
areas that are smaller than a grid square, giving your answer
in square kilometres. In Source A, the forest occupies a total
of three grid squares so it is 3 km2. The quarry takes up about
half a grid square so this is an area of 0.5 km2.
Task 2
Study the 1:50 000 map extract.
a What is the distance :
• along the telephone line from Puerto Eten to
where it crosses the road north-east of Monsefu
• along the road from Monsefu to Santa Rosa?
b Estimate the area:
• of sand dunes between Santa Rosa and La
Bocana del Rio
• of land subject to flooding at La Bocana del Rio.
Task 3
Study the 1:50 000 map extract. Find the following
settlements:
• Eten (in and around grid square 2536)
• Monsefu (in and around grid square 2539)
• Puerto Eten (in grid square 2534)
• Santa Rosa (in grid square 1939).
The built-up area in each settlement is shown in pink.
Estimate the area of land covered by each settlement
and then write the names of the four settlements in a
list, from the largest one to the smallest.

173
 Map work 1

Monsefu – some physical features

A Part of the 1:50 000 map
22 23 24 25 26 27 Task 1
39 39
Study the 1:50 000 map extract
F and Source A. Identify the
following features:
• settlement A
38 38
• road number B1 to B2
G E • line C1 to C2
• coastal landform D
• river E
37 37 • land use at F
B1
• landform G.

Task 2
36 36 Study Source B.
C2
D a Identify two similarities and
two differences between the
weather at Monsefu at 13.00
35 35 on 18 February and 07.00 on
B2 C1 20 February 2009.
b Describe how the weather
A changed between 01.00 and
19.00 on 19 February.
34 34
22 23 24 25 26 27

B Weather at Monsefu, 18–21 February 2009

Wednesday 18th Thursday 19th Friday 20th Saturday 21st
07 13 19 01 07 13 19 01 07 13 19 01 07 13 19

45

40

35
Temperature (°C)

30

25

20
Wind direction
15 3 Wind speed
(in metres
per second)
10
2 5 5 2 1 5 6 2 3 10 9 3 3 7 5

174 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Map work 1

C Climate graphs for Lima and Cajamarca

Lima Cajamarca
Task 3
(elevation 11 metres) (elevation 2621 metres)
30°
Temperature (°C)
30° 30°
Temperature (°C)
30° Study Sources C and D.
25° 25° 25° 25° a What is the average maximum temperature in
Max
20°
Max
20° 20° 20° Lima in April?
b Which month in Cajamarca has the highest
15° 15° 15° 15°
Min
rainfall?
10° 10° 10° 10° c What is the average range of temperature in
5° 5° 5° 5° Lima in January?
Min
0° 0° 0° 0°
d What is the average annual rainfall in Lima?
150 150 150 150 e Suggest reasons why there is more rainfall in
Rainfall (mm) Rainfall (mm)
Cajamarca than in Lima.
100 100 100 100
f Suggest reasons why January temperatures are
50 50 50 50 higher in Lima than in Cajamarca.
0 0 0 0
J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D

D Regions of Peru
N
Selva
COLOMBIA
Gently sloping plains and ECUADOR
valleys
Rainforest
Amazon
Poor transport network
Tribal cultures
Oil and natural gas
recently discovered

BRAZIL
Sierra
Monsefu Cajamarca
Mountains and plateaus
Traditional agriculture
Sheep, goats, llamas and
alpacas grazed
T H

PERU
Mining of minerals
Pacific
E

Earthquakes and Ocean

volcanoes
Lima
A

Costa
N

0 200 400 km E
D

Flat plain S
Major cities Lake BOLIVIA
Costa (coast) Titicaca
Cotton, sugarcane and rice
grown on irrigated land Sierra (highlands)
Oil exploitation Selva (rainforest)
Fishing industry Area shown by 1:50 000 map extract

Task 4 Task 5
Study Sources C and D. In recent years the tourist industry
a Compare the relief of the three regions in Peru. has become important in parts of
b Suggest reasons why over 40 per cent of the population of Peru live in Peru. In groups, carry out research
the Costa region. and prepare a presentation that
c Give two advantages and two difficulties of living in the Sierra region. identifies, locates and describes
d Oil and natural gas have recently been discovered in the Selva region. the attractions of Peru as a tourist
Explain why it is difficult to exploit these resources. destination.

175
 Map work 1

Sand dunes on the coast of Peru

A Coastal sand dunes The 1:50 000 map on page 172
shows an area of sand dunes
between Santa Rosa and La
Bocana del Rio. Coastal sand
dunes form where constructive
waves encourage the deposition
of sand on a beach, and where
<Insert 176.1 photo> prevailing onshore winds blow
this sand inland. An obstacle,
such as a plant or a pebble, traps
the sand and as the particles get
trapped they start to accumulate to
create a mound of sand. The wind
then erodes particles from the
windward side and deposits them
on the leeward side. Gradually this
action causes the dune to move
inland. As it does so it accumulates
more and more sand.

Task 1 Task 2
Study Source A. Study the 1:50 000 map on page 172 and Source B.
Draw a sketch of the sand dunes shown in the photograph. Explain how the sand dunes between Santa Rosa and La
Label four different features of the dunes on your sketch. Bocana del Rio were formed.

B Coastal sand dune formation

(1) (2) (3)
Onshore wind Onshore wind Onshore wind

Sand eroded from

windward side of dune
and deposited on leeward
side as dunes move inland
Dried sand
Dried sand continues to be Marram
Pebbles and blown inland Obstacles blown inland grass
small plants covered Old position
by sand of dunes

sea sea sea

Constructive
waves deposit
sand and
pebbles

176 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Map work 1

C How sand dunes are used D Tourists using sand dunes

TOURISM CONSERVATION

USES OF
SAND DUNES

EDUCATION OFF-ROAD DRIVING

E Schools use sand dunes

F A conflict matrix

NG
I
IV
AD N
Task 3

F- ATIO

DR
ON

V
SM

I
R
AT

RO
SE
RI
UC

N
U

There are conflicts arising over the use of the sand dunes between CO

OF
TO

ED

? ? ?
Santa Rosa and La Bocana del Rio. They are being used for many TOURISM

different purposes and the dunes and ecosystems are being EDUCATION ?
Conflict
damaged. CONSERVATION ?
? Possible conflict
Study Sources C to G. OFF-ROAD DRIVING ? No conflict

The table shows information about four possible schemes being

considered to manage the dunes.
In groups, choose the scheme that you think will be most useful to
manage the dunes. Explain your reasons for choosing this scheme. G Dune management
You should do this by describing the advantages of the scheme
you have chosen and the disadvantages of the schemes you have
rejected.

Scheme 1
Ban all human activities on the
dunes, and use 24-hour security
patrols and CCTV.
Scheme 3
Provide a free information centre
and guides for students and
visitors.
Scheme 2
Fence off areas of the dunes so that
different activities can take place
in each.
Scheme 4
Allow unlimited use and charge
an entrance fee to all users of the
dunes.

177
 MAP
WORK 2 Harare, Zimbabwe
Harare – Zimbabwe’s largest city
The 1:50 000 map below shows part of the rural–urban The city has important manufacturing industries (e.g. steel,
fringe on the western edge of the city of Harare, the textiles and chemicals) and it is a trade centre for crops
capital of Zimbabwe. Harare has an estimated population produced on surrounding farmland (e.g. tobacco, maize,
of 1 600 000. It is Zimbabwe’s largest city and its cotton, and citrus fruits).
administrative, commercial and communications centre.

80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88
25 25

24 24

23 23

22 22

21 21

20 20

19 19

18 18

17 17
80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 kilometres

Scale 1:50 000 (2 cm = 1 km)

178 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Map work 2

SKILLS Giving a compass bearing

A bearing is a numerical measurement of direction between two
points. Bearings use all 360° of a compass to indicate direction.
The bearings on a compass are numbered clockwise with north
as 0°, east 90°, south 180°, and west 270°. So a bearing of
135° would be south-east and a bearing of 315° would be
north-west. A protractor can be used to measure the bearing.
NORTH
NORTH (0°)
Bearing of Y NORTH WEST NORTH EAST
0 10
2
from X is 60° (315°) (45°)
180 170 1 0 3
60 0
15
0 1 40
40
Y
50 0 12
13

60 110 10

60°
0
70

WEST EAST
80 90 100 11

(270°) (90°)
0 90 80 7 0 12

X
0
60 13
0
50 0

4
14 0 3
0 0 SOUTH WEST SOUTH EAST
15
0 20 10 0
160 (225°) (135°)
170 180
SOUTH
(180°)

Key for 1:50 000 map

Road, Wide tarred
Road, Narrow tarred

Road, Gravel or earth, Bridge

Railway, with embankment, Cutting, Tunnel

Built-up area, Buildings

Church
Dip tank

River, Watercourse
Dam
1 000
Contours at 20 metre vertical interval, with Cliff feature
900
Cultivation
Medium bush

Sparse bush

Orchard or plantation

Task 2
Task 1
Study the 1:50 000 map extract.
Study the 1:50 000 map extract. Find where the railway
a Give evidence from the map which shows that
line crosses the road at 832228. Imagine that a train is
Highfield (in and around grid square 8621) is a densely
travelling along this railway to the eastern edge of the map.
populated area.
a Use the scale of the map to work out the distance of b Suggest reasons why the land around the Mukuvisi
this journey. river (in and around grid square 8618) does not have
b Work out the compass direction in which the train will many people living on it.
be travelling.
c What is the compass bearing from where the railway Task 3
crosses the road to the eastern edge of the map?
d Imagine you are sitting on this train, looking out of the Study the 1:50 000 map extract. Much of the land in grid
window on your right-hand side (i.e. to the south of the square 8423 is used for manufacturing industries.
railway line). a Use map evidence to suggest the advantages of the
Write a paragraph to describe what you would see from site for manufacturing industries.
the window on this part of your journey. You will need b Suggest benefits and problems of this manufacturing
to use the map key. industry for local people and the natural environment.

179
 Map work 2

Urban farming in Harare

A Land use in Harare

CBD N

Industrial areas
High-density residential
Low-density residential
Open spaces
City boundary
Road
Airport

City of Harare

<Insert 180.1 map>

0 2 4 6 8 10 km

Whilst farming is often thought of as a rural activity, many

poor families who live in cities in LEDCs would not have Task 1
food to eat without growing crops in their backyards, on
roadside verges or allotments, and any other areas of open Study Source A.
space. Harare has a warm, wet climate and there are large a What is the distance and direction from the airport to
open spaces in and around the city. River floods in the long, the CBD?
wet season prevent building on low land, but provide water b Estimate the percentage of land within the boundary of
for irrigation for farmers. Tomatoes, green vegetables and Harare that is open space.
maize are the main crops. Urban farmers, mainly women, c Suggest reasons why large areas of land are likely to be
grow the crops to eat, or to sell at market to earn money to used for farming within the city boundary to the south-
buy meat and pay for their children’s education. In some west of the CBD of Harare.
parts of the city more than two-thirds of households carry
out some farming, either around their homes or on public
land such as roadside verges.

180 Cambridge IGCSE Geography


B What do the farmers grow?
Farmer 1 (809229)
Task 2
Study the 1:50 000 map extract on page 178 and
Source B.
a Use the 6-figure reference to name the suburb and
describe the characteristics of the area where each of
the urban farmers grows crops.
b Suggest a different difficulty faced by each of farmers
1, 2 and 3 when growing their crops.
C Benefits and problems of urban farming in LEDCs
BENEFITS
• Food is produced
for poor families
• Surplus food sold
on local markets
for income to
reduce poverty
• Use made of land
that may otherwise be
wasted
• Plants grown help reduce
atmospheric pollution
• Producing food locally saves
transport and storage costs
• Waste water and organic
solid waste can be used on
the farms
Map work 2
D The growth of urban farming
Harare’s middle-class residents take up
urban farming to counter food shortages
January 2007
U rban farming, widely
practised by the poor and
lower-income groups in the
In the past, police have
uprooted crops being grown on
vacant land in the city, but they
Zimbabwean capital, Harare, now seem to be turning a blind
is becoming popular among eye as the capital goes green.
the city’s wealthy people. In
Farmer 2 (853185) Suppliers of agricultural inputs
rich suburbs like Avondale
in Harare said that most of
and Mabelreign, maize and
their clients were now urban
vegetable plots are being
farmers. ‘We have noticed that
cultivated to counter expected
now most of the people buying
Farmer 3 (873189) food shortages brought on
maize seed and fertiliser
by an economic crisis that
are urban farmers, because
has seen the inflation rate
they are buying in smaller
remaining well above 1000 per
quantities, an indication that
cent, the highest in the world.
they will only apply it on
With unemployment estimated smaller pieces of land,’ said an
at above 80 per cent and employee at one supplier.
basic foodstuffs becoming
Although the Harare
unaffordable, even for those
who have jobs, vacant land is
Municipality has officially
being turned into agricultural
banned urban farming, it
appears to be ignoring it.
land. Tatenda Muzenda, a
However, Harare municipality
domestic helper in Cotswold
spokesman Percy Toriro said:
Hills, a middle-class suburb,
‘We will not allow people to
said: ‘I was so desperate to
plant maize anywhere they
grow maize that I went and
want. Residents should find
planted some maize seeds on
the only available open field
out from their local district
offices if there is any piece of
that I could identify, and that
PROBLEMS land where they can practise
was next to the local police
• Chemicals used may urban farming. We want to
station.’
pollute local drinking ensure that the environment is
water supplies well looked after.’
• Farmers will be at
risk from mosquitoes
when farming near
rivers Task 3
• Conflict occurs over
the use of land and Study the 1:50 000 map extract on page 178 and
farmers can lose their Sources C and D.
land at any time
Imagine you are an adviser to the Harare Municipality.
• Crops grown close to roads
and railways could be Consider the arguments for and against allowing urban
contaminated by fumes land to be used for farming and decide whether urban
• The use of land for farming agriculture should be allowed to continue in suburbs such
competes with other urban as Glen Norah and Glen View. Prepare a report to justify
land uses, especially public your decision.
open spaces
• Use of water for crops reduces
scarce supplies and increases
cost
181
 Map work 2

Quality of life
A Children collect stagnant water for use in Glen View, Harare

B Access to clean water in Africa

Task 1
Study Source A and the 1:50 000 map on page 178.
a Give a 4-figure reference for the grid square in which the
photograph could have been taken.
Tropic of Cancer
b Suggest what the quality of life will be like for the children
shown in the photograph.

Task 2
Equator
Study Source B and an atlas.
a Put the following countries in rank order according to the
% of population with percentage of their population that has access to clean water.
access to clean water
Tropic of Capricorn Rank from high to low.
More than 95
• Algeria • Egypt • Mali • Zimbabwe
83–95 b Name three countries where between 83 and 95 per cent
World average have access to clean water.
65–82 0 1000 2000 km c Describe the distribution of those countries where less than 65
Less than 65 per cent of the population have access to clean water.
Data not available
d Suggest reasons why the access of the population to clean
water varies from country to country.

182 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Map work 2

C Quality of life indicators for selected LEDCs D GDP and energy use
12 000
Country GDP per Energy use Number Adult
SOUTH AFRICA
person per person of doctors literacy
10 000 MEXICO
(US$) (kg oil (per (percent-

GDP per person (US$)

equivalent) 100 000 ages)
8000
people)
ALGERIA
Algeria 6603 1036 85 70 6000
Bangladesh 1870 158 23 41
4000 EGYPT
Egypt 4211 708 212 56 INDIA
Ethiopia 756 299 3 42 2000 BANGLADESH ZIMBABWE
ETHIOPIA
India 3139 519 51 61 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Mexico 9803 1563 171 85
Energy use per person (kg oil equivalent)
South Africa 11 192 1093 69 81
Zimbabwe 2100 752 6 90

Source: The World, 11th edition, published 2008 (Amnesty Task 4

International)
Task 3
Study Source C.
a ‘People in Zimbabwe have a lower quality of life than
people in Egypt.’ Give two pieces of evidence from the
table to support this statement.
b Which country in the table do you think has the highest
quality of life? Give reasons for your answer.
Study Sources C and D.
a To what extent is there a relationship between GDP
per person and the use of energy? Use examples of
countries and give figures in your answer.
b Draw a scatter graph showing the relationship between
GDP per person and adult literacy.
c Explain why there is a positive relationship between
GDP per person and adult literacy.
d Suggest reasons why Zimbabwe does not fit into the
pattern shown by the scatter graph.

E Assessing quality of life 1 G A bi-polar chart for quality of life

Clean +3 +2 +1 0 –1 –2 –3 Dirty
Healthy +3 +2 +1 0 –1 –2 –3 Unhealthy
Quiet +3 +2 +1 0 –1 –2 –3 Noisy
Safe +3 +2 +1 0 –1 –2 –3 Dangerous
Empty +3 +2 +1 0 –1 –2 –3 Crowded
Permanent +3 +2 +1 0 –1 –2 –3 Temporary

Task 5
Study Sources E, F and G. Source G is a chart which can be
used to assess the quality of life in an urban area.
F Assessing quality of life 2 a The photographs in Sources E and F show areas where
people live in the same city. Use Source G to compare
the quality of life in the two areas. To do this you will
need to give each of the areas a score between +3 and
–3 on each line. When you have done this you can work
out an overall score for each area.
b Use a suitable method to graph your figures.
c Which area would you want to live in: the one shown in
Source E or Source F? Give reasons for your answer.

183
 MAP
WORK 3 Ewaso Kedong, Kenya

23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
89 89

88 88

87 87

86 86

85 85

84 84

83 83

82 82

X
81 81

80 80
23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 kilometres

Scale 1:50 000 (2 cm = 1 km)

184 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Road
A12 Number
All weather road: Bound surface
Culvert Bridge
Dry weather road Map work 3
Main track (motorable)

Other track and footpath

Key to 1:50 000 map Spot height (in metres) . 2256 Representing height
2000
Populated area, Houses Contours (V.I. 20m) Depression
1980
1960 To represent height on a map, spot heights
Road
A12 Number
and contours are used.
All weather road: Bound surface Watercourse, Waterfall, Rapids, Dam
Culvert Bridge Spot heights are dots placed anywhere on the
Dry weather road Water tank
map with a number next to them. This tells us
Main track (motorable) Scrub the exact height of that spot in metres above
Police post PP
sea level. Sometimes spot heights show the
Other track and footpath
highest part of a hill, but they can show any
Spot height (in metres) . 2256 School Sch height, anywhere on the map.
2000
1980
Contours (V.I. 20m) Depression 1960 Telephone T Contours are brown lines on a map that join
Watercourse, Waterfall, Rapids, Dam together places of equal height. These can be
used to work out what the relief of the land is
Conflict over water in Kenya
Water tank
like (its height and shape).
Scrub
Kenya is a country in East Africa which, in many regions,
Police post PP
relies on agriculture. Most of the land in the valley of the
Ewaso
School Kedong river is used for Sch grazing cattle, but like
Task 1
many other parts of the country there is not enough water
Telephone T
available. Study the 1:50 000 map extract and Source A.
Water shortages have resulted in conflict in various parts Give a 4-figure reference for a grid square for each of the
of the country as people fight over this scarce commodity. following.
The amount of water in the Ewaso Kedong river has a Steep slopes between 1700 and 1800 metres above
been reduced because of drought. The Maasai, who live sea level
downstream, claim that farmers upstream are using the b A plateau above 1800 metres high
river water for irrigation, thereby reducing the supply for c A gentle slope between 1640 and 1660 metres above
themselves and their animals. sea level

A A landscape in Kenya

A plateau is a large area of flat land on

the top of a hill. This is represented by
widely spaced contours at a height that
is greater than the surrounding land.

Steep slopes are

represented by contours
that are close together.
Gently sloping land is
represented by contours
that are widely spaced.

185
 Map work 3

Describing the physical landscape A Contour patterns and slopes

Convex slope
SKILLS Describing relief and drainage Landform
contours

55
0
50
When you are describing the relief of an area you should begin by

0
45
0
40
0
35
0
30 0
referring to the main relief features, e.g. glaciated upland, coastal

25 0

0
20 50
1 0
1050
plain or escarpment etc. Name any such feature and describe it if
possible, e.g. ‘This map area forms part of a coastal plain with gentle
slopes.’
Then refer to relief features within the area, e.g. valleys, spurs,
ridges, plateaus, stating where they are (possibly by the use of grid
references), and describe them. It is useful to describe slopes on
the map, e.g. flat, gently sloping, steep, and to add some references Concave slope
to height. You can get this information from contour lines or spot
heights, e.g. ‘The river, which flows around interlocking spurs through

5500
5 50
0
4 0
40 0
35 0
30
grid square 3498, has steep valley sides which lie between 240 and

25
0
20
0
15
0
475 metres and its source is on the ridge at 337976 at 512 metres

10
0
50
above sea level. The ridge has steep north-facing slopes, although
those that face south are gentler.’
When you are describing the drainage of an area you should note
the following:
• Name the main rivers and state the direction(s) of flow.
• Density of surface drainage. This can be judged by the number
Uniform slope
of rivers and streams shown and how close together they are, e.g.
‘There are many rivers in the east of the map but very few in the

55 0
0
50 0
west.’

45 0
40 0
35 0
30 0
25 0
20 0
• Width of rivers, e.g. ‘The wide river that flows through grid square 15
10
0
50

9811 is joined by many narrow tributaries.’

• Long profile of rivers: this can be judged by how close together
the contours are where a river crosses, e.g. ‘The river has a steep
and irregular long profile and there is a waterfall at grid reference
348512.’
• The course of the rivers, e.g. are they meandering or straight?
Perfectly straight drainage is usually artificial, and used for Convex and concave slope
drainage or irrigation.
65
0
60

When you have described the relief and drainage it should be

0
55 00
5 50
0
4 00
4 0
3500
3 50
2 00
2

possible to summarise your comments on a sketch map to show the

15
10

0
0
50

main aspects of the physical landscape. Label significant features in

each region, e.g. plateau, ridge, valley, and add information about
the drainage by marking on the main rivers and their valleys.

Task 1
Study the map extract of the Ewaso Kedong valley on
page 184.
Also use Sources A and B which show how to use contour Task 2
patterns to identify types of slope and relief features.
a Describe the relief and drainage of the area shown on the Study the map extract again.
map. Give evidence from the map to identify three ways
b Draw a labelled sketch map to show the relief and drainage in which the area is used by people. For each piece
of the area. of evidence you should give a grid reference.

186 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Map work 3

B Contour patterns and landforms

Hill (an area of upland) Ridge (a long narrow upland, with steep sides)

450
400
400
350
300 350
300
250
250

Spur (a projection of land from an upland) Plateau (a flat-topped hill)

500
300 450
400
250 350
200
150

Saddle or col (a low point between two hills) Valley (a sloping depression with steep sides)

350
150 300
200 250
200
350 350
300 300
250 250 stream
200

150

187
 Map work 3

Gradients and cross-sections

A Gradients

SKILLS How to calculate a gradient B A 1 in 5 gradient

The gradient of a slope measures the steepness of the slope. The
steepness of a slope is important to walkers and cyclists. Roads are
X
sometimes constructed along slopes with steep gradients, although
height (2 metres)
Change in

Gradie
railways are usually built on more gentle slopes. nt of sl
ope from
X to Y
is 1 in 5
On many maps roads are marked with one arrow if the gradient is or 20%
Y
between 1 in 7 and 1 in 5, and with two arrows if it is steeper than Horizontal distance (10 metres)
1 in 5. A gradient of 1 in 5 can also be expressed as a 20% gradient.
This means that for every 5 metres of horizontal distance there is a
change in height of 1 metre. This is shown in Source B.
To work out the average gradient of a slope on a map: Task 1
• Measure the horizontal distance along the slope in metres. This is
a Why can roads be constructed on steeper
known as the horizontal equivalent.
gradients than railway lines?
• Find the difference in height between the two end points of the b Which gradient is steeper?
slope (this can be worked out in metres by looking at contours or • 1 in 3 or 1 in 10
spot heights). This is known as the vertical interval. • 10% or 20%
• Divide the vertical interval by the horizontal equivalent.
Task 2
So if the difference in height between the top and bottom of a slope
is 10 metres and the distance along the slope is 100 metres: Study the map extract of the Ewaso Kedong valley on
page 184.
Gradient = Vertical interval = 10 or 1 in 10 or 10%
Horizontal equivalent 100 Calculate the average gradient along the Dry
Weather Road between 256824 and 288847.

188 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Map work 3

SKILLS How to draw a C Drawing a cross-section

cross-section
A cross-section is a diagram showing Stage 1
variations in height and slope along a line
drawn on a map. To draw a cross-section:
• Place a piece of paper with a straight

(40)
edge along the cross-section line on X
your map. Mark the beginning and

D
50

ROA
ending of the line with the letters X

100
150
and Y.

200
250
50

300
• Along the straight edge of your paper

300
mark the point where each contour 100

250
crosses it, labelling the height of each 150 250
300
contour. You will need to estimate the

200

ER
200

RIV

)
heights at the end of the line. Also

(210
200
mark the points where features such as Y
250
rivers, roads and railway lines cross the
200
line of the cross-section (see Source C
200
Stage 1). 200

• Draw a frame for your cross-section 150

on graph paper. The base of the frame
should be the same length as your
cross-section line. Use a vertical scale
that shows the height in metres.
• Put the straight edge of your piece Stage 2
of paper along the base of the frame
and mark a small cross at the correct 400
height, using the vertical scale, where
each contour line is marked on the 300
Height (in metres)

straight edge (see Source C Stage 2).

• Join the dots with a smooth line and 200
shade the land. Draw arrows and label
the position of rivers, roads, railway
100
lines and any other features (see
Source C Stage 3).
0
300

X Y
50

100
150
200
250

300

250

200

200
Task 3
Study the map extract of the Ewaso
Stage 3
Kedong valley on page 184.
a Draw a cross-section along the 400
line from X to Y.
b On the cross-section you have
RIVER

300
Height (in metres)

drawn, mark the positions of a

main track, a cattle trough and a
quarry. 200
ROAD

100

0
X Y

189
 MAP
WORK 4 Montego Bay, Jamaica
20 21 22 23
Montego Bay 65 65

Montego Bay is an important

tourist resort on the north-west
coast of the island of Jamaica.
It has a population of about
120 000 people and close by is
Jamaica’s largest airport, the Sir
Donald Sangster International
Airport. Flights to and from 64 64
Montego Bay provide access for
increasing numbers of tourists
from countries such as the
USA, the UK, Germany and
Canada.

63 63

62 62
20 21 22 23

0 1 2 3 kilometres

Scale 1:25 000 (4 cm = 1 km)

190 Cambridge IGCSE Geography


SKILLS Describing site and situation
Site is a description of the actual land on which a feature is built.
This includes the relief of the land (its height above sea level, its
slope and its aspect) and the size of the area of land.
A Montego Bay airport
Task 3
a In the box below, there are eleven statements about
Montego Bay Airport. You will find three correct
statements about the site of the airport and three about its
situation.
• It is on low land, less than 50 feet above sea level.
• It is 4 km north of the resort of Montego Bay.
• It is in the Montego Hills.
• It is within 1 km of the coast.
• It is on a gentle, south facing slope.
• It is built on flat land.
• It is about 1.5 km2 in size.
• It is the largest airport on Jamaica.
• It is called the Sir Donald Sangster International
Airport.
• It is between Kent Avenue, Sunset Avenue and
Queens Drive.
• It is 2 km east of Flankers.
Map work 4
Situation is a description of where the feature is built in relation
to other features around it. This includes natural features such
as rivers or the coast, and built features such as settlements.
Distance and direction from these features should be used to
describe the situation accurately.
Task 1
Study the map opposite.
a In which grid square is the airport
terminal building? You will need to
give a 4-figure reference.
b Use the scale to work out the length
of the runway. Give your answer in
kilometres and metres.
c Look at the symbol used to show
the vegetation between the runway
and the coast. Use the key to
identify this vegetation.
d Find the symbol at 211644. Use the
key to identify this building. Why
do all airports need this type of
building?
Task 2
Look at the photograph of the airport
in Source A. In which direction do you
think the camera was pointing? Give
reasons for your answer.
Draw a table like the one below and fill in the columns with
the correct statements:
Site of Montego Bay Situation of Montego Bay
Airport Airport
b Think about why the airport was built there. Use map
evidence to explain why the site and situation of Montego
Bay Airport are good ones.
c Choose two other features shown on the map. For each
feature:
• give a grid reference
• describe its site and situation.
191
 Map work 4

Using Montego Bay Airport

A Destinations served by direct flights from Montego Bay
B Passenger arrivals to
Montego Bay Airport
Others
78 541
Other
European
80 711

UK
175 363

Canada
153 569 USA
1 190 721

TOTAL
1 678 905

N
Task 2
a Using Source B, work
out the percentage of
the passenger arrivals
at Montego Bay Airport
Task 1 from the USA.
b Suggest reasons why
Using Source A and an atlas, identify the following places more passengers arrive
to which there are direct flights from Montego Bay. at Montego Bay from the
• One city in the UK. USA than from any other
• Two cities in Germany. part of the world.
• Two cities in Canada.
• Two cities in the west of the USA.
• Two cities in the centre of the USA.
• Three cities near or on the east coast of the USA.
SKILLS How to describe a trend
Look for any overall changes shown by the graph between
C Annual passenger arrivals at Montego the first and last dates. For example, you may be able to use
Bay Airport, 1992–2006 descriptive words like ‘increased’, ‘decreased’ or ‘stayed the same’.
1 600 000
Possibly the first and last years will have similar figures, but in
between they might have gone up or down.
1 500 000

1 400 000
Write about the rate of change – was it large or small? Did it
1 300 000
differ during the time period shown? Perhaps there was a time
1 200 000
when it increased or decreased very rapidly.
1 100 000 Always use figures from the graph to support your comments,
Number of passengers

1 000 000 and remember to give the units, e.g. millions.

990 000

Task 3
980 000

970 000

960 000 Use Source C to describe the trends in passenger arrivals

950 000 at Montego Bay Airport.
940 000
Make sure you use descriptive words and figures in your
930 000
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2004 2005 2006 answer.
Year

192 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Map work 4

D Benefits and problems of an airport for local people

Benefits Problems
• Jobs are created in building and • Farmland and historic buildings may be
operating the airport. lost for runways and new houses.
• Local businesses grow (the multiplier • Natural countryside and wildlife
effect). habitats may be destroyed.
• People will be attracted to the area and • There will be more demand for water
extra houses will be built. from the terminal and from new houses.
• More services will be opened, such as • More flights will create more noise and
shops, schools and hospitals. atmospheric pollution.
• New railway lines and roads will be • Homes and listed buildings may be
built. destroyed.
• More flight destinations may be • Jobs may be seasonal.
available from the airport.

Task 4
Study the map on page 190.
For each of the three individuals and one couple shown here, decide
what they will feel about the continued growth in the number of
flights using Montego Bay Airport. Give reasons for their views.

Owner of construction firm

Plantation in Montego Bay at 212621
worker living
in Flankers at
225645

Owner of hotel
on Kent Avenue
at 223649
Retired couple living in
Canterbury at 213627

193
 Map work 4

Tourism in Jamaica
A Money earned from tourism as a percentage of exports
Key Task 1
Flor

N
Using Source A, list the

Total tourism receipts

1000
ida

islands named below in

(US$ millions)
400
Tourism
rank order based on:
THE BAHAMAS 100
receipts as
% of total
a their total tourism
exports receipts
0 b the money they earn
from tourism as a
percentage of total
British
Virgin Islands exports.
Cayman Islands
In each list, you should
JAMAICA HAITI DOMINICAN ST KITTS BARBUDA
REPUBLIC & NEVIS ANTIGUA arrange the countries from
Montserrat the highest to the lowest
DOMINICA amount.
ST LUCIA • Jamaica
EA
CARIBBEAN S ST VINCENT BARBADOS • Dominican Republic
GRENADA • Barbados • Bahamas
TRINIDAD
• Cayman Islands
& TOBAGO • Trinidad and Tobago
• Grenada • Haiti

B Temperature and rainfall in Montego Bay C Average number of tourists visiting Montego
Bay, per month
rainfall (mm)
Total
J u n 250 Jul
January 61 800 July 46 800
200
February 53 300 August 59 800
Au
ay
M

150
g

March 63 100 September 36 100

100
April 51 000 October 32 100
Apr

Sep

50
Key May 41 100 November 39 200
temperature June 44 100 December 43 400
Mar

27
Oc t

28
29
Task 2
v
Fe

No
b

30
Me )
an Ja 31 Dec re (° C a Using Sources B and C, explain how the climate of
rainfall max n
im um temperatu Montego Bay influences the number of tourists.
b Suggest what factors, other than the local climate, may
help explain the variation in visitor numbers throughout
the year.

194 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Map work 4

D Doctor’s Cave Beach

Montego Bay Marine Park

In 1992, Jamaica’s first National Park, the Montego Bay on the coral reefs, are forbidden. Watersports are regulated
Marine Park, was established. It is 15.3 km2 in area. It and park patrols keep a careful watch over the area.
begins at the high-tide mark on land, and extends to
Source D shows Doctor’s Cave Beach. You will find this at
the 100-metre depth at sea. It stretches from Sangster
grid reference 205632 on the map on page 190.
International Airport to Rum Bottle Bay, 9 km west of
Montego Bay. It includes mangrove forests and islands,
white sand beaches, river estuaries, seagrass beds and E Aerial photograph of Montego Bay Marine Park
corals. However, years of overfishing, of mangrove
destruction, and of sewage disposal had almost destroyed
the rich underwater life in the area. Now fishing, shell
collecting, and all activities that can have a negative impact

3
Task 3 2

a Using Source D, explain why Doctor’s Cave Beach is

attractive to tourists.
b The Montego Bay Marine Park was established
to protect the coastal area around Montego Bay.
Explain three different ways in which tourists in and 6 5
around Doctor’s Cave Beach may damage the natural 4
environment.

Task 4
Using the map on page 190, match the features labelled 1
1 to 6 on Source E with the following:
• Montego Bay Airport • Coral reef
• Marine National Park boundary • Main area of hotels
• Main town of Montego Bay • Doctor’s Cave Beach

195
 MAP
WORK 5 Negara, Indonesia
38’00 38’30 39’00 39’30 40’00
20’30 20’30

21’00 21’00

21’30 21’30

22’00 22’00

22’30 22’30
38’00 38’30 39’00 39’30 40’00

0 1 2 3 4 kilometres

Scale 1:25 000 (4 cm = 1 km)

Built-up area Telephone lines

Building Main road
Mosque Local road
Temple Track
Church Irrigated rice fields
Market Plantation
School Garden

196 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Map work 5

Indonesia – a country of islands A Part of the 1:25 000 map

The country of Indonesia, in south-east Asia, covers an
area of 2 million km2. With over 237 million people, it has 38’00”E
21’00”S
38’30”E 39’00”E
21’00”S
the world’s fourth largest population. It consists of more B1
than 17 500 islands, 6000 of which are inhabited. The
largest islands are Java, Sumatra, Kalimantan and Sulawesi.
The capital city of Jakarta lies on the island of Java. The
map shows part of the town of Negara in West Bali. It is B2
surrounded by agricultural land. C1
21’30”S 21’30”S

Task 1
Study the 1:25 000 map extract on page 196. Square A C2
a Give examples of three different places of worship. X
b Count the number of schools in the built-up area of
Negara.
22’00”S 22’00”S
Task 2
D
Study the 1:25 000 map extract and Source A.
Identify the following features: Square
Y E
• building A
• line B1 to B2
• type of road C1 to C2 22’30”S
38’00”E 38’30”E
22’30”S
39’00”E
• land use D
• spot height E.

Task 3
B Photograph taken in square X
Study the 1:25 000 map extract and Sources A, B and C.
Compare the land use in squares X and Y.

C Photograph taken in square Y

197
 Map work 5

Farming in Indonesia
Almost 70 per cent of Indonesia’s
237 million people are farmers.
A Traditional rice farming
Many of them grow rice on small
plots of land using traditional
methods. The traditional method
for cultivating rice involves flooding
the fields whilst, or after, setting the
young seedlings. Large amount of
labour are needed, and sometimes
animals such as oxen are used to
pull simple wooden ploughs. Whilst
many traditional farmers produce
rice for themselves and their families,
they aim to produce a surplus to sell
at local markets. However, as few
farmers can afford fertilisers, or any
form of pesticides, yields are low.

Task 1
Study Source A and the map
extract of Negara on page 196.
a Describe the relief (height
and slope) of the land that is
used for growing rice.
b Explain why relief of this type
is needed by traditional rice
farmers.
B The circle of poverty
Task 2
Carry out your own research
using reference books or the Farmers only
internet to find out the climatic able to grow
conditions that are needed for enough for
rice growing. Quantity own family
and quality
of crops No surplus
Task 3 remain low to sell
Study Source B.
Use your own words to explain
why it is difficult for many
traditional rice farmers in Cannot afford
to buy seeds, No income
Indonesia to escape from
poverty. fertilisers,
pesticides or
machinery Little or no
money saved

198 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Map work 5

C Production and trade in rice

Bangladesh China

India Myanmar
Pakistan Japan
USA
Iran
Tropic of Cancer
Vietnam

Equator Philippines
Nigeria
Brazil
Tropic of Capricorn
Indonesia

Thailand

0 2000 4000 km

%%ofofworld
world
production
production
30
30
Task 4
Scale:
Scale:
Study Source C. 20
20 1 mm
1 mm = 5%=of5% of
width
world
world rice
rice imports
imports
a List the top three rice producers in the world in rank
order from highest to lowest. 10
10
b Name two countries that export a greater percentage Scale:
Scale:
1 mm = 5%=of5% of
1 mm width
of the world’s rice than they produce. world
world rice
rice exports
exports
00
c What percentage of the world’s rice does Indonesia
produce?
d Suggest reasons why Indonesia has to import rice
even though rice farming is an important agricultural D Rice production in Indonesia, 1990–2005
activity.
1990 1995 2000 2005
Area harvested 9.9 10.5 11.4 11.7
(million hectares)
Task 5 Yield (tonnes/hectare) 3.9 4.3 4.3 4.2
Study Source D. Total production 39.1 45.2 49.7 49.2
a Use suitable graphs to plot the statistics in the table. (million tonnes)
Remember to use titles for your graphs and label their Total fertiliser consumption 1.9 2.4 2.5 2.8
axes. (million tonnes)
b Suggest reasons for the increase in total production of Tractors used in agriculture 12 28 60 70
rice in Indonesia between 1990 and 2005. (nearest thousand)

199
 Map work 5

Disease in Indonesia
As Indonesia is an LEDC, many of the people do not have good access to
health care. Although the provision of hospitals and clinics is improving,
levels of disease are still high. These include diseases caused by a poor diet,
and diseases caused by unsafe water supplies and poor sanitation.

A Number of cases of dengue fever in Indonesia, January–March 2004

SUMATRA
SULAWESI
KALIMANTAN

Jakarta

High (10 or more) JAVA

Medium (5–9)
Low (under 5)
(per 1000 of population) 0 400 800 km

B Indonesia fights dengue fever

Indonesia is trying to
contain an outbreak of
dengue fever which has
killed 91 people in six
provinces since the start of
the year. Health officials say
around 4500 people have
been taken to hospital with
the disease – twice as many
as in last year’s outbreak.
Dengue fever is carried by
mosquitoes which bite and
infect about 100 million
people worldwide each
year. Java island has been
the worst hit, with at least
38 people reported dead in
East Java province and 17
others in the capital Jakarta.
Symptoms of the disease
include fever, body ache
and, in the most serious
cases, internal bleeding.
Officials in Jakarta have said
that the increased number
of cases could be to do with
heavy rains and pools of
stagnant water in the city
which serve as a breeding
ground for mosquitoes.
Workers in Jakarta have been
spraying neighbourhoods
with insecticide to try and
prevent the disease from
spreading.
Task 1
Study Sources A and B.
a Use your own words to describe the causes and effects of
dengue fever.
b Describe how the numbers of people (per 1000) with
dengue fever in Kalimantan differ from those in Sumatra.
Task 2
You should work in pairs on this task.
a Think of four indicators that can be used to compare levels
of health care between countries.
b Use the internet to find out recent statistics for the four
indicators you have chosen. You will need to find statistics
for Indonesia and three other countries of your choice.
c Explain what the indicators tell you about levels of health
in Indonesia compared with the other three countries you
have chosen.

200 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Map work 5

C Dengue fever in Indonesia, 2001–07

Task 3
Year Number of cases
(to nearest thousand) Study Source C.
2001 18 000 a Draw a pictograph to show the number of cases of dengue fever
in Indonesia between 2001 and 2007. The statistics need to be
2002 22 000
plotted on your pictograph using coffins as symbols – use a scale of
2003 28 000 1 coffin = 10 000 cases of dengue fever.
2004 36 000 b Describe the changes in the number of cases of dengue fever in
2005 49 000 Indonesia between 2001 and 2007.
c Suggest reasons for the changes in the number of cases of dengue
2006 114 000
fever:
2007 92 000 • from 2005 to 2006
• from 2006 to 2007.

D Interviews with health professionals

In the first three days of March there were 71 cases of
dengue fever, compared with 50 cases for all of January. The hospital
is like a war zone with patients sleeping in camp beds in any available
space – corridors, hospital mosques and maternity wards. The health system
was unprepared for the outbreak. The problem is that the number of cases
is increasing – it is very high. So our staff are tired, but they are still working
very hard. Some of the nurses, they should be home at 4 pm but they go
home at 10 pm. We are asking the government to give us more nurses and
doctors. Anyway, we can still handle the situation.
The hospitals are well equipped and
staffed. The main problem is the increase in the
number of mosquito breeding sites. A large number of
construction projects came to a halt in Jakarta after the
Asian financial crisis. The unfinished buildings collected
pools of water where the mosquitoes bred. The people
living in slums make the problems worse by dumping
increased amounts of rubbish in urban slum areas.

Extract from an Extract from an

interview with the interview with
nursing director at Indonesia’s Health
the Persahabatan Minister
Hospital

E Controlling dengue fever

Task 4
Study Sources D and E and the 1:25 000 map of Negara
on page 196.
a The Health Agency is planning a campaign, using
posters, to advise the local people how to prevent the
spread of dengue fever. Produce a poster that could
be displayed in the local clinic in Negara. Your poster
should inform people what they can do around their
homes to prevent dengue fever.
b To what extent do you think people in Negara are at
risk from dengue fever? Give reasons for your opinions.
PLANS TO STOP THE SPREAD OF DENGUE FEVER
To stop the spread of the disease the Health Agency will run a
campaign on the prevention of dengue fever in February and
March. The campaign will stress that the best way of preventing
the disease, which is spread by the Aedes aegypti mosquito, is
to make sure that pools of still water around houses are drained
or covered so that mosquitoes cannot lay their eggs there. The
Agency also plans to use groups of local people, working together,
to spray the streets with insecticides.

201
 MAP
WORK 6 Le Port, Reunion Island
Reunion Island – a French territory!
Reunion is an island of 2512 km2 located in the Indian Ocean, Tourism is one of the most important economic activities on
to the east of Madagascar. It is mainly mountainous although the island. Sugarcane is the main crop and sugar and rum are
there are some lowlands along the coast. It is a French important exports. Reunion Island has an active volcano, La
overseas territory with a population of 763 000 people, which Piton de la Fournaise, which last erupted in 2007.
is expected to rise above a million by 2030. The 1:25 000 map
extract shows Le Port, the main port on the island.

21 22 23 24 25
86 86

85 85

84 84

83 83

82 82
21 22 23 24 25

0 1 2 3 4 kilometres

Scale 1:25 000 (4 cm = 1 km)

202 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Map work 6

A A satellite image of Le Port, Reunion Island

Task 1
Study the 1:25 000 map
extract on page 202.
a Identify six services in Le
E
Port.
b What type of road
B lies between the
roundabouts at 223843
and 229847?
c What is the distance in
metres between these
two roundabouts?
A
d What is the compass
D
bearing along the
road from 229847 to
223943?

Imagery ©2009 TerraMetrics

Key to 1:25 000 map

Task 2
Dual carriageway
Road of good practicability (2 broad lanes and more) Study the 1:25 000 map
Road of average practicability (2 narrow lanes)
extract and Source A
Narrow road, regularly maintained
which is a satellite image
showing part of the area
Religious building: Christian, mosque, other cult, Calvary. Monument. Cemetery in the map extract.
Technical building. Silo. Oil storage tank. Glasshouse a Identify the main land
Triangulation stations. Viewpoint. Fort. Pill box use in each of areas A, B,
Town hall. Shed/workshop. Hospital
C and D.
1 2 3 b Suggest a possible use of
Kinds of activity: 1. industrial or agricultural
2. commercial the circular buildings in
3. public or administrative area E. Give a reason for
Sports ground. Tennis court. Multi-purpose hall. Refuge hut your answer.
c Draw a labelled sketch
Contours at 10 m vertical intervals. Depression. Slope
map to show the layout
of Le Port. You should
show the main roads
Tennis court and different types of
Yachting harbour land use.
Water sports

Police station

203
 Map work 6

Industry in Reunion
A The sugar industry in Reunion
N Saint-Denis Sugarcane
Task 1
Sugar factory Study Source A.
Le Port
Main roads a Describe the distribution of
Saint-André the areas where sugarcane is
grown in Reunion.
Arrondissement-
Saint-Paul du-Vent b Explain the location of the
sugar factories.
Saint-Benoit

Task 2
Study Sources B, C and D.
Saint-Leu
Arrondissement- a What percentage of Reunion’s
sous-le-Vent
exports are to France?
b What percentage of Reunion’s
imports are from Italy?
Saint-Louis
c What percentage of Reunion’s
total exports is sugar?
Saint-Pierre
d In which employment sector is
30 per cent of the workforce of
0 2 4 6 8 10 km
Saint-Joseph Reunion employed?
e In which sector would
the following people be
employed?
B Reunion’s trade partners
Worker in a
Exports
sugar factory
France
Japan
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100% Comoros
Bahrain
Imports Germany
Italy
Worker on a
Others
sugar plantation

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100%
Lorry driver

C Exports from Reunion D Reunion’s employment structure

0%
Sugar
Rum and
molasses Agriculture

Perfume
essences
Lobster Industry
75% 25%
Vanilla
and tea
Others Services

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
50% % of total workforce

204 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Map work 6

E Reunion looks to renewable energy

Reunion Island aims for zero CO2
Surrounded by volcanic rock, sandy beaches and
the Indian Ocean, Reunion Island is hardly a major
polluter. But hit by rising fuel costs and worried about
the impact of global warming, particularly on its
delicate flora and fauna, the small island nation has set
itself the ambitious goal of cutting its greenhouse gas
emissions to zero.
By 2025 it wants to use renewable energy sources to
produce 100% of its electricity, and to power all of
its transport by 2050. ‘We have water, sunshine, and
even an active volcano. We have more energy than we
need for our development,’ Paul Verges, president of
Reunion’s regional council, said.
Thirty-six per cent of Reunion’s electricity already
comes from renewable energy, mostly hydro-electric
power and electricity generated from sugarcane fibre
(bagasse) and Reunion is expanding its solar and wind
energy projects. But, as in other countries, the island’s
rapidly growing energy demands threaten to delay the
targets. Living mostly along the coastline, Reunion’s
population is set to grow by more than 20% to over
1 million people by 2030 from about 800 000 at
present. Reunion’s average energy consumption per
person is growing at 5% per year.
August 2008

F Manufacturing soft drinks

Artificial and natural

Water is purified and flavourings are added The ‘still’ drink is Bottles or cans are
filtered through fine, to a mixture of sugar mixed with carbon filled and sealed
clean sand and gravel and purified water to dioxide gas
make a syrup

Task 3 Task 4
Study Source E. Study the 1:25 000 map extract of Le Port on page 202, and Source F.
Use your own words to explain A multinational company is planning to open a factory making soft drinks in the ‘Zone
how Reunion is aiming to Industrielle’ at grid reference 222849.
increase its use of renewable a Use map evidence to explain why this is a suitable site.
energy. b Suggest reasons why the multinational company is planning to manufacture soft
drinks in Reunion.
c Explain the advantages and disadvantages of this factory for the local people and
for the natural environment.

205
 Map work 6

Impacts of cruise holidays

A A cruise ship
Task 1
Study Source A and the 1:25 000
map extract on page 202.
a Estimate the number of
people that this cruise ship will
accommodate.
b Suggest reasons why cruises are a
popular type of holiday.
c Use map evidence to explain why
cruise ships are able to stop at Le
Port in Reunion.

Task 2
Study Source B.
a How many different countries did
the cruise ship visit?
b On what date did the cruise ship
visit Reunion Island?
c Use the scale to work out the total
length of the cruise between Malé
and Mauritius.

B Cruising to Reunion Island

N Date Port Arrive Depart

30/11/08 Malé (Maldives) 22:00

1/12/08 – 3/12/08 At sea

4/12/08 Praslin (Seychelles) 07:00

5/12/08 Praslin (Seychelles) 06:00

La Digue (Seychelles) 07:30 18:00

Malé
(Maldives) Victoria (Seychelles) 21:00
Mombasa
(Kenya) 6/12/08 Victoria (Seychelles) 17:30
(Seychelles) 7/12/08 – 8/12/08 At sea
Zanzibar
(Tanzania) 9/12/08 Mombasa (Kenya) 05:30 22:00

10/12/08 Zanzibar (Tanzania) 08:00 14:00

Hellville
(Madagascar) 11/12/08 At sea

Port Louis 12/12/08 Hellville (Madagascar) 12:00 22:00

(Mauritius)
Le Port 13/12/08 – 14/12/08 At sea
(Reunion
Island) 15/12/08 Le Port (Reunion Island) 06:30 13:30

Port Louis (Mauritius) 23:00

0 1000 2000 km

206 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Map work 6

C Comparing carbon dioxide emissions D One week’s waste from a cruise ship

0.4
Kg of CO2 per person per km

0.3

8 tonnes
0.2 of rubbish

0.1

4.5 million litres 114 000 litres 950 000 litres

of greywater from sinks, of oil-contaminated of sewage
0 baths and showers water
Cruise ships Planes

E The impact of cruising

As you prepare for your next cruise,
consider this: Your destinations are
someone else’s home, and your trip
can have impacts on the people who
live there. Just ask Larry Spencer from
Juneau, Alaska. Spencer recalls how
before the current Alaska cruise boom,
parts of the town were run down. That
was 1984, when Spencer bought a
historic but dilapidated building on
Juneau’s main commercial street. Today,
the building is a successful retail mini-
mall, one of many shops that line South
Franklin Street.
Virtually everywhere it goes, cruising
encourages economic growth. The
cruise industry has turned the Mexican
island of Cozumel into a major hub
in the western Caribbean. Once
known mainly to divers for its coral
reefs, Cozumel has become the rival
of Cancun as a tourist attraction. Last
year it attracted more than 1.3 million
cruise passengers who use local shops,
restaurants and bars.
Competition is fierce among islands
to attract cruises and the revenue that
comes with them. In St Maarten the
government is spending $65 million
on improvements which include a
new pier capable of handling 8000
to 10 000 passengers at a time, and a
new waterfront complex with shops,
restaurants, and a casino. In return
for its investment, the government
expects 500 new jobs to be created
for island residents, and to generate
revenue for the government, which
will be channelled back into future
development projects. Curaçao,
meanwhile, recently opened a new
‘mega-pier’ to handle big ships. The
result was a record season for cruise
calls. Curaçao estimates that every
cruise passenger who comes ashore
spends about $75 on the island.
However, not every destination
welcomes cruise ships. Grand Cayman
has now banned cruise ships from
visiting on Sundays. Also many
people in Juneau are worried about
the increase in cruise visitors, which
has created congestion downtown
and noise pollution from the buzz of
sightseeing helicopters.

F Is it sustainable?
Task 3
Study Sources C, D, E and F. Sustainability is defined as progress that meets the needs of
the present without making it impossible for future generations
Prepare a report for the government of Reunion Island to meet their needs.
which consider the advantages and disadvantages of
allowing an increase in the number of cruise ships visiting Development is considered to be sustainable if economic, social
Le Port. You should write a conclusion to your report and environmental benefits are achieved in both the short term
and the long term.
which recommends and justifies a strategy that will be
sustainable.

207
 MAP
WORK Map skills checklist
93 94 95
04 04
Use this extract from a 1:25 000 map of part of Mauritius to
check that you can:
• work out distances (in straight lines and along a road)
• estimate the area of a section of land
• use the key to identify buildings and land use
• give a 4-figure grid reference
• give a 6-figure grid reference
03 03
• give a compass direction
• give a compass bearing
• describe relief and drainage
• interpret a cross-section
• mark features on a cross-section
• calculate a gradient
• describe patterns of settlement
02 02
• describe and suggest reasons for transport routes.

01 01
Grand River Bay

00 00
93 94 95
0 1 2 kilometres

Scale 1:25 000 (4 cm = 1 km)

Road – Main A Power line Watercourse (wide), Waterfall, Rapids

Road – Main B
Trigonometrical station – Major, Minor OWH OW OS WT Waterhole, Well, Spring, Water tank
Road – Other
Footpath
. 56 Spot height (in metres) Scrub
Cane track 200 Plantation – Sugar
Depression Contours (V.I. 10m)
Town or other populated area Plantation – Tea
Watercourse, Waterfall, Rapids, Dam
Named or public building Coral

208 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Part C
The Alternative to Coursework
Preparing for Paper 4

Part C covers four topics that are useful for either Paper 3 coursework investigations or Paper 4 examinations: the CBD (Central
Business District), Rivers, Tourism and Weather. Each topic begins with an introductory double-page spread suggesting how these
topics could be investigated through fieldwork and giving ideas that could be developed into coursework. The pages that follow
contain Paper 4 exam questions related to the four topics, selected from examinations set between May 2007 and November 2008.
Each question is provided in full (although lines for writing on have been removed) with analyses of the strengths and weaknesses of
real candidate answers seen by examiners. Relevant exam tips are provided. Part C is best studied with the original papers that many
centres will have. A recent past paper and mark scheme for Paper 4 is available for reference from www.cie.org.uk
Paper 4 can be taken by candidates as an Alternative to Coursework examination. From June 2010 there will be three different
versions of Paper 4, numbered 41, 42 and 43. The Paper the centre receives will depend on which of the three international time zone
groups the centre is allocated to.

209
TOPIC 1 Investigating the CBD
A Part of the CBD of New York, USA
The Central Business District (CBD)
All urban areas, whether in an MEDC or an LEDC, will have
a central area. The CBD has usually developed at the most
accessible point for people surrounding the urban area to
travel to. In some LEDC cities it is characterised by market
functions; in MEDC cities markets may exist but there are
mainly shops and offices at the centre.
There is a high demand for land in the CBD so the land is
too expensive for housing. Instead commercial activities buy
or rent a small area of land and build upwards to save space
and money. Consequently, over time, a feature of all CBDs
is the presence of tall buildings. Another feature is the large
amount of traffic and number of people. There are many
opportunities here for fieldwork investigations.

Task 1
Study Source A.
a Describe the main features of the scene.
b Where is your closest CBD? List any similarities and
differences between it and the CBD of New York.
c To what extent is this photograph useful for describing
New York’s CBD?

B In the CBD we could investigate … The

function of
Your buildings changes
enquiry can Where with height.
start as a hypotheses or does the CBD
a question. A hypothesis is a start and end?
statement which your fieldwork
may prove to be true, partially To
true, or false. A question needs what extent
an answer from your are pavements
fieldwork. congested during
the day?

Route to Geographical Enquiry

Identify an enquiry question, issue or hypothesis

Decide what data is required and how it should be collected

Task 2
Collect and record data
Study Source B.
Present the data a Suggest one other topic that could be investigated in
the CBD.
b Choose one topic from those suggested in Source B or
Analyse and interpret the data
use your suggestion. Using the ‘Route to Geographical
Enquiry’, plan how you would carry out an investigation
Report the conclusions and evaluate the investigation into this topic.

210 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Part C Topic 1

C Investigating traffic flow in New York

N

<Insert 211.2 map extract of New York>

0 200m

New York is a busy city. Vehicles travelling into the CBD have increased
by 7 per cent per year since 1995. If that trend continues until 2035, over
1 million vehicles per day will be entering the CBD. In some places the
average speed will drop to less than 22 km (14 miles) per hour. At present
drivers spend more than the equivalent of a working week each year stuck
in New York’s traffic. As vehicle emissions can cause cancer and
asthma as well as noise, monitoring traffic flow is an important
part of identifying problems and proposing solutions to the
traffic issue.
©AA Media Limited 2009
Cartographic data ©Tele Atlas N.V. 2009

Our Route to Enquiry D The traffic survey recording sheet

Enquiry question: How does traffic flow vary at a major
junction in New York during the day?

TRAFFIC SURVEY SHEET

Equipment needed: Clipboard, watch, recording sheet, pens/ Name ................................................................ Day/date.................................................
pencils, camera, 16 students making 8 pairs. Location of junction............................ Name of street ....................................
Measuring traffic flow in/out of the CBD? IN/OUT
Time period 09.00 1200 15.00
Method: At 09.00, 12.00 and 15.00 (equal three-hour
intervals) 8 pairs of students will carry out a traffic count Bicycle Motorbike Private car Taxi

for 10 minutes. Two pairs of students will be responsible for

one of the four roads merging at the junction. Each pair will
stand on opposite sides of the road and record the numbers of Minibus/van Bus/coach Lorry
different vehicles using a tally system on a recording sheet.

Safety issues: Clothing, ID, money, check if permission * Use a tally system in groups of five (IIII).
needed, stay in pairs, cell phone / school or teacher contact Comments on survey
location, choose a safe position.

Task 3 Task 4
A group of students in a New York school decided to study traffic Study Source D.
flow at the junction of Broadway and Chambers Street. Study a Comment on the layout and content of the traffic
Source C. survey sheet. Could it be improved?
a Describe the location of the junction. Refer to distances and b Consider how the group might present the results of
directions. the survey.
b Do you think this is a good choice of location for this enquiry? c Suggest what conclusions the group might expect
Explain your views. to draw from their fieldwork before they carry it out.
c Read the group’s plan. Comment on its strengths and any Explain your views.
weaknesses. What would you do differently?

211
 Part C Alternative to coursework

Analysing a Paper 4 question: Locating the CBD – May 2007

The Question

Students investigated the central area of a town located on the coast. They surveyed the buildings of the town to identify where
the central business district (CBD) was located. A map of the town is shown on Fig. 1. The students recorded the height, width
and function of the buildings. The hypothesis of the investigation was:
‘the height and width of buildings and the price of the land increase towards the centre of the town’.
(a) Suggest why the increase in price of the land may affect the height and width of buildings. [3]
(b) The students carried out a pilot survey to look at the town. State two reasons for a pilot survey. [2]
(c) 10 sites were chosen to sample buildings in the town. At each site, the 10 closest buildings were observed. The height of
each building was measured by counting storeys and the width of each building was measured in paces. An average height
and width was calculated for each site. These are shown in Table 1.
(i) Use the results in Table 1 to plot the average building height and width at site C and site F onto Fig. 1. [3]

Site A B C D E F G H I J
Average height (storeys) 3 3 2 1 2 1 3 1 2 2
Average width (paces) 12 7 7 7 8 8 8 5 4 5
Table 1
Average height and width of buildings at each site For
3
Examiner’s
Use
Average height and width of buildings at each site

railway station

main
road
C
B
A
E
main
road J

F
G H I

sea

0 50 Key

metres
3 storeys
12 paces

Fig. 1 minor road

Average height and width of buildings at each site

Fig. 1
(ii) Study the completed map (Fig. 1) and describe the pattern of building heights and widths shown in the town. [3]
(ii) Study the completed map (Fig. 1) and describe the pattern of building heights and
widths shown in the town.

.............................................................................................................................. ....
Source: IGCSE Geography (0460/04) May 2007 Question 1
.............................................................................................................................. ....

212 Cambridge IGCSE Geography .............................................................................................................................. ....

.............................................................................................................................. ....
 Part C Topic 1

Getting it right

(a) This was not well done. Candidates could relate the increased cost of land as a reason
✓ Exam tip
for why there were tall buildings in the CBD to ‘save money’ but did not relate this to a
reason why width or ground cover was minimised to save rent. Read the question carefully.
Many candidates only wrote
(b) Answers were generally vague. Too many wrongly understood a ‘pilot’ survey to about height – the question
involve flying over the CBD and taking photographs of the location! Answers such as said ‘… and width’.
‘to be more accurate’ were not sufficient – why would this make the fieldwork more
accurate? It may be that centres that have not carried out fieldwork felt it unnecessary
to deal with the reason for a preliminary survey before the real thing. However, it is an
important part of preparation and planning for any investigation.
(c) (i) Below are two maps with Sites C and F plotted by two candidates. They should
have plotted the average building height and width of Site C and Site F using
the key. One gained 3 marks; the other 0. There was 1 mark per correct shaded
bar then a 3rd mark if the location was close to the sites and shading used the
key provided.

Candidate A Candidate B ✓ Exam tip

Bars have already been
plotted for other sites on
this map so, when adding
Site C and Site F to the map,
the examiner will expect
a similar shading and use
of the key provided. They
should also be as close to
the letter as possible. Some
were drawn almost on other
sites!

• Which map was awarded the full 3 marks?

• Why did the other map gain 0 marks?
✓ Exam tip
(ii) The shading/drawing of bars was more successful than describing the pattern.
Here are two candidate answers to the question on pattern. Note, again, the The word ‘…pattern…’ in
question says height and width. Candidates who described general patterns scored a question involves broad
well; the only specific site reference that was allowed was the anomaly of Site G statements about the plots,
not a description of each
near the coast. Only the most able recognised that width had no clear pattern.
separate site or plot.
Candidate A Candidate B
Site A is a tall building on the map. Site D The narrow buildings are close to the sea. The
is a wide building near the railway station. tallest buildings, especially Site A, are along the
There are no sites near the top of the map. main road. However Site G, which is as tall as Site
A, is near the coast and not along the main road.
• Which scored 3 marks? • Which scored no marks?
• Can you understand why?

213
 4 For
Examiner’s
Use
(d)coursework
Part C Alternative to (i) The ground floor function of the 10 buildings at each site was recorded. Why did the
students only record the ground floor function of the buildings?

..............................................................................................................................[1]
Analysing a Paper 4 question: Locating the CBD – May 2007
(ii) In the boxes below, write ‘CBD’ next to two functions which are found in the CBD of
The Question (continued) a town. [2]

BANK MAIN POST OFFICE

(d) (i) The ground floorDEPARTMENT STORE

function of the 10 buildings at each site was GENERAL STORES
recorded. Why did the students only record the
ground floor function of the buildings? [1]
LOW COST HOUSING TOURIST OFFICE
(ii) In the boxes below, write ‘CBD’ next to two functions which are found in the CBD of a town. [2]
(iii) Tick the hypothesis which would be the best to use to investigate the functions of
BANK
the CBD. MAIN POST OFFICE [1]
DEPARTMENT STORE GENERAL STORES
A ‘Buildings closer to the CBD have a mainly residential function’
LOW COST HOUSING TOURIST OFFICE
B ‘Buildings closer to the CBD have a mainly commercial function’
(iii) Tick the hypothesis which would be the best to use to investigate the functions of the CBD. [1]
C ‘Buildings
A closertotothe
‘Buildings closer theCBD
CBDhave
have a mainly
a mainly tourist function’
residential function.’
B ‘Buildings closer to the CBD have a mainly commercial function.’
C ‘Buildings closer to the CBD have a mainly tourist function.’
Functions of buildings

Site A Site E

Key
bank
department store
clothes shop
restaurant
hotel
tourist office
souvenir/craft shop
taxi

Fig. 2
Fig. 2
Functions of buildings

(iv) The functions of the 10 buildings at Site A and Site E are shown in Fig. 2. Compare the functions of the two sites. [3]
(e) The teacher encouraged a group of students to organise their own pedestrian or traffic count. Describe in detail
how and where the students could do this in the town. [3]
© UCLES 2007 0460/04/M/J/07

Source: IGCSE Geography (0460/04) May 2007 Question 1

214 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Part C Topic 1

Getting it right (continued)

(d) (i) Many candidates recognised that it was simpler and more practical to record
the ground floor function but a large number regarded this as representing the
function of all the floors of the building. Some suggested that they would need ‘a
ladder’ to record the functions above ground floor, which was not accepted!
(ii)/(iii) This was well done. Virtually all candidates recognised two relevant CBD
functions; a few wrongly suggested ‘general store’ and ‘low cost housing’
though. Almost all recognised the commercial function in the choices given.
(iv) The command word ‘Compare…’ was missed by too many candidates. Below are
three very different responses to this question. A ‘compare’ response will describe
one site in relation to another site, e.g. ‘Site A is commercial but Site E is more for
tourists’ not ‘Site A is commercial. Site E is for tourists.’ ‘Site A has a small number/
1 of hotels but Site E has over half / 7 / more hotels’. The use of ‘but…’,
‘whereas…’ ‘on the other hand…’ or words ending in ‘…er’ e.g. longer, indicate to
examiners that a comparison is being made.

Candidate A Candidate B Candidate C

Site A has more clothes Site A is for shopping or using Site E is a tourist site but ✓ Exam tip
shops whereas in Site E the bank. Site E is for tourists Site A is commercial. Site
there are none. Site E has to sleep and rest. E offers more hotels, taxis, It is vital to prepare for and
souvenirs and tourist offices identify command words in
much more hotels than in
than Site A. On the other any question. The command
Site A; more than 50%.
hand Site A mainly has word in (d) (iv) was
shops and some public services ‘Compare’. A number missed
which Site E does not offer. this and gave two entirely
separate descriptions of the
• Suggest which candidate was awarded 0, 2 or 3 marks for their response. functions of the two sites.
• Explain your decisions.
(e) The better candidates appeared to be from centres that had undertaken some fieldwork
and had carried out such counts (‘This is how we carried out…’) even though the centres
opted for the Alternative to Coursework paper. Good answers were precise and specific
and included suggestions such as students in pairs, location of count, what would be
counted, how it would be recorded and the time involved.

Candidate A
Traffic Count: in pairs use a tally system along the main road to count the cars passing in one
direction in a 5-minute period.
Candidate B
Candidate B: Traffic Count: count the number of vehicles along the road and then write down how many
there were.
Candidate C
Candidate C: Pedestrian Count: this could be done along the coast (Site G), on the
main road (Site A) and near the railway station (Site D). One student stands on
one side of the road and another one on the other side. 3 times a weekday (morning,
lunch and rush-hour) for half an hour students tally pedestrians. Tallies are
then added up to give a pedestrian count.

• Discuss the differences between the answers.

• How many marks would you give each response out of the 3 marks available?

215
 Part C Alternative to coursework

For
Analysing a Paper 4 question: Locating the CBD6 – May 2007 Examiner’s
Use
(f)
Land values for each site were collected from the municipal town hall. The value is
measured in thousand US dollars for each square metre. The results are shown on
The Question (continued)
Table 2 and plotted on Fig. 3.

(i) Draw the isoline for 50 thousand US$/m2 [2]

(f) Land values for each site were collected from the municipal town hall. The value is measured in thousand US dollars for
(ii)TheColour
each square metre. resultsinare
theshown
land valued above
on Table 2 and60plotted
thousand 3. 2
US$/m
on Fig. [1]
(i) Draw the isoline for 50 thousand US$/m . 2
[2]
Table 2
(ii) Colour in the land valued above 60 thousand US$/m . 2
[1]
Land values at each site (thousand US$/m2)
Site A B C D E F G H I J
Site Land value thousand US$/m C 65 53 50 E 36 61 28 G 22 25 20 I 22
2
A B D F H J
Land value Table 2
65 53 50 36 61 28 22 25 20 22
thousand US$/m2 Land values at each site (thousand US$/m2)

railway station
30

36
40

50
ro ad
53 main
60 65
61

22

28
22 25 20

sea

0 50
metres
Key

60 isoline of land value (thousand US$/m2)

minor road

tli
Fig. 3
Fig. 3
(g) Look again at Table 1 and Figs 1, 2 and 3. Write a conclusion to this investigation. You should comment on the original
hypothesis suggesting where the centre of the town is located. Give reasons for your decision, stating data from Table 1
and Figs 1, 2 and 3. You should mention building height, building width and the value of the land.
Comment on the original hypothesis. [6]
© UCLES 2007 0460/04/M/J/07
[Total: 30 marks]

Source: IGCSE Geography (0460/04) May 2007 Question 1

216 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Part C Topic 1

Getting it right (continued)

f Drawing the isoline proved too difficult for many candidates. Some partly drew it ✓ Exam tip
accurately but missed the significance of putting it through the 50 value at Site C.
It needed to be drawn at the same distance from the 40 and 60 thousand US$/ Drawing lines through
the same point values is a
m2 isolines and go through the 50 value (on the right at Location C) for both marks.
technique seen on different
Shading the land over 60 thousand US$/m2 was completed more successfully for types of maps. Contours
1 mark. (lines of equal height),
Here are two candidates’ attempts at drawing the isoline and shading the area isohyets (lines of equal
required. Both candidates gained the mark for shading for (f) (ii) but one gained rainfall), isotherms (lines of
equal temperature), isobars
2 marks for the isoline and the other just 1 mark. (lines of equal pressure) are
all examples. Some points
Candidate A Candidate B will be exactly on the line
required; others will mean
that you have to judge
where the isoline would
come between the points
given. This is a difficult skill
well worth practising.

• Which isoline was awarded 1 mark and which 2 marks? Why?

g Read the two candidates’ responses below. Now read the mark scheme and try and
mark these. Note there were 3 marks for references to data!

Candidate A
The hypothesis was right. The height increased as we went towards the centre. As the centre
of the city has a commercial function and has tall wide buildings, we decided that the CBD
is located along the main road.
Candidate B
The height and width of the buildings increased towards the main road. Site A having 3 storey 12 pace
buildings whilst Site H had 1-storey 5 pace buildings. The land value at Site A was also much higher than
that of Site H (Site A = 65 thousand $US per m2 and Site H = 25 thousand $US/m2. We can see the
centre of the town is around Site A on the main road. This hypothesis can be supported by Fig.3 which
shows how land values decrease in rings around the centre of the town. Also Fig. 2 shows how site A is
mainly commercial and buildings close to the CBD are mainly commercial.

Be a marker! Use the mark scheme below to decide how many marks each response
should get and where the marks should be awarded. These answers were awarded 3 and
6 marks.
The hypotheses are correct/supported. The building heights generally increase towards the
centre of the town; e.g. site A and B; but site G is a high building. Buildings are generally wider
towards the centre or the town; site A and B. Site E is also a wide building but not in the town
centre. The value of the land is higher along the main road and lower towards the south and
the railway in the north. Above 60 thousand $ in the centre; below 30 thousand $ at the edge.
(1 for Hypothesis decision, 1 for Location of centre, 1 for Reason, 3 for Data) = 6 @ 1 marks = 6

217
TOPIC 2 Investigating rivers
A Measuring rivers
Gradient of valley side
Gradient of channel
B Along a river we could also investigate …
SUGGESTION BOX
Enquiry questions and hypotheses to test
Channel size and shape
Does the river channel increase in
width and depth as the river moves
downstream away from its source?
Load size and shape
The bedload of a river will
be smaller and rounder as it
moves away from its source.
Speed of flow
The river does not increase its
speed as it moves downstream
towards its mouth.
Task 1
Study Source A.
a Identify three different river characteristics that can be measured.
b Suggest how each could be measured accurately.
c Compare the health and safety issues that must be considered in river studies
with those in the CBD (see pages 210–211).
218 Cambridge IGCSE Geography
Width
Speed of
Depth
flow
Valley shape
How does the shape of the
valley change as the river moves
downstream from its source?
Gradient
Does the river bed gradient decrease
as the river moves downstream from
the source to its mouth?
Impact of human activity
People have changed some parts
of the river and its valley.
Measuring rivers
Measuring river features and processes
is a popular fieldwork exercise. The
students in Source A are measuring
the width of a river in Wales, UK as
part of their coursework investigation.
They are working near to its source
where, because the river is shallower
and not too wide, measurements can
be taken easily, quickly, safely and
accurately. The labels show some of the
measurements that can be recorded at
any site. As the river gets wider and
deeper, this becomes more difficult.
Providing two or more sites are used, it
is possible to describe and compare river
features and processes along its length.
Route to Geographical Enquiry
Identify an enquiry question, issue
or hypothesis
Decide what data is required and how it
should be collected
Collect and record data
Present the data
Analyse and interpret the data
Report the conclusions and evaluate
the investigation
Task 2
Every investigation needs a clear
purpose. This can be written as a
hypothesis to test or an enquiry
question to be answered. Study
Source B.
a Write down one investigation that
is a hypothesis to test.
b Write down one investigation that
is an enquiry question to answer.
c Suggest one other investigation
that could be carried out on a
river.
 Part C Topic 2

C Location of two sites for fieldwork

N
Height in metres
Site 1
Above 400
200 to 400
Below 200
Site 1

Site 2 Site 2

Sea

0 1 2 3 4 5 km

Comparing two sites D Measuring the long axis of a pebble

A group of students carried out an investigation comparing
Sites 1 and 2 along a river. Source C shows a photograph taken
at each site and also the location of each site on a map. The
students chose this hypothesis from those suggested in Source C:
‘The bedload of the river becomes smaller and more
rounded as it moves away from its source.’
At each site they randomly selected 25 pebbles from the bed of
the river and measured the long axis. They also used Powers’
scale of roundness to make a judgement about how rounded
each pebble was.

E Powers’ scale of roundness

Task 3 very angular angular sub-angular sub-rounded rounded well rounded

Sources D and E show how to measure size and roundness. 1 2 3 4 5 6

Source F is an extract from the group’s results. Some

preliminary conclusions can be drawn from these extracts.
a Draw graphs to present the data for the first 7 results at
Sites 1 and 2.
b Describe any relationship that appears to exist between:
• size and roundness • distance from the source and size
• distance from the source and roundness. F Recording the results
Task 4 Partial bedload data-collection
tables for site 1 and site 2.
Decide whether you think the hypothesis is true, partially true
or false. Support your decision with evidence from the data and
graphs you have drawn.

Task 5
Study Source B again and the ‘Route to Geographical Enquiry’.
a Choose one other hypothesis or question or the one you
suggested in Task 2c.
b Use the ‘Route to Geographical Enquiry’ to plan how you
Site 1 Site 2
would investigate this topic.

219
 Part C Alternative to coursework

Analysing a Paper 4 question: River processes – November 2007

The Question

Study Fig. 1. Students investigated the changes in the width and depth of a stream at three sites, Site A, Site B and Site C, as
distance increased from the source.
(a) Complete the hypothesis for this investigation by selecting the correct words from the following:
decrease increase shallower deeper
‘The width will _________ and the depth will become __________ as distance from the source increases.’ [1]

Fig. 1
(b) (i) How did the students measure the width of the stream at each site? Their equipment included two ranging poles and
a measuring tape. Draw a labelled diagram, Fig. 2, for your answer. [3]

Fig.2

Source: IGCSE Geography (0460/04) November 2007 Question 1

220 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Part C Topic 2

Getting it right

(a) Almost 75% of candidates chose decrease and shallower to put in the blank spaces. ✓ Exam tip
• Can you think why? What were the correct answers? Why did so many candidates
get this wrong? Read the question carefully
– the last part says ‘…as
distance from the source
increases.’ Check the
difference between the
mouth and the source of a
river. Many candidates did
not know the difference and
mixed them up!

(b) (i) Below are two very different labelled diagrams answering this question.
One gained the full 3 marks; the other was awarded just 1 mark.

✓ Exam tip
The two ranging poles had
to be located vertically at
the edge of the river on both
sides with the measuring
tape between them. One
sketch shows this. The other
technique does use both
poles and the tape but
this isn’t the correct way to
measure these features of
the stream. Both sketches
are labelled; those that were
not could only gain 1 mark.

Candidate A

Candidate B
• Which sketch was awarded the full 3 marks? Why?
• Why did the other sketch gain 1 mark but not the other 2 marks?

221
 Part C Alternative to coursework

Analysing a Paper 4 question: River processes – November 2007

The Question (continued)

(b) (continued)
(ii) At each site, the students also measured the depth of the stream systematically (every ½ metre). The
results of the investigation are shown in Table 1.

Depth in metres at distances from left bank

Total width (m)

perimeter (m)
Discharge
(m/sec)
Wetted
0.5 m

1.0 m

1.5 m

2.0 m

2.5 m

3.0 m

3.5 m

4.0 m

4.5 m

5.0 m

5.5 m

6.0 m
Site

A 1.40 0.15 0.10 1.50 0.01

B 2.31 0.12 0.15 0.30 0.20 2.50 0.09
C 6.42 0.20 0.25 0.28 0.30 0.32 0.35 0.48 0.48 0.50 0.35 0.36 0.28 1.25
Table 1
Draw a line graph for Site A on Fig. 1, to show the depth of the stream, using information from Table 1. [3]
(c) (i) The wetted perimeter is the amount of bank and bed which the stream water touches. Use Fig. 1 to calculate the
length of the wetted perimeter at Site C. Write your answer in Table 1. [2]
(ii) Explain how the wetted perimeter can change the speed of the river. [2]
(d) (i) The students also measured the velocity of the stream at each site. A floating object was timed travelling over a
distance of 10 metres. The recording sheet for Site B is shown in Fig.3. Fill in two other pieces of important
information on the recording sheet. [2]

Location Site B

Time in seconds of floating object over 10 metres

18.0 16.8 15.4 18.5 13.3
Fig. 3

Source: IGCSE Geography (0460/04) November 2007 Question 1

222 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Part C Topic 2

Getting it right (continued)

(b) (continued)
✓ Exam tip
(ii) Look at the examples of line graphs drawn by three candidates below.
Completing line graphs must
be done accurately. Take a
sharp pencil and ruler into
the examination room. Plot
the points as accurately as
possible – don’t forget to
join them up carefully. Check
you are using the correct
axes too.

Candidate A Candidate B Candidate C

• Marks awarded were 0, 2 and 3 for these graphs. But which gained which mark?
Explain your choices. Can you understand why the one awarded 0 was plotted
like this?

(c) (i) This question asked candidates to calculate the wetted perimeter from Fig. 1 and ✓ Exam tip
then write it on Table 1. Too many did not measure from Fig. 1. They used Table 1
instead. Some added up all the figures for row C giving 10.57; others added the two (i) You must know the meaning
of terms such as wetted
wetted perimeter figures for A and B giving 4. The range of answers acceptable for perimeter, friction, discharge,
2 marks was 6.5–6.7 metres. source and mouth before
Check it yourself. you take this examination.
If a question refers you to
(ii) • Compare the two candidates’ answers below. a Figure you must use that
• The first answer was awarded both marks, the second answer none? Why? Figure, not find another way
to answer it!
First answer: (ii) The first answer gains
The greater the wetted perimeter, the more friction the water encounters with the bed and 2 marks because it links
sides. This reduces the speed of the river. an increase in wetted
perimeter with an increase
Second answer:
in friction. It then explains
The wetted perimeter changes the speed of the river because more water can be held in the stream of
that this reduces speed. The
the river. second answer does not
(d) (i) This question was about extra pieces of information that students would add to say how or why the speed
changes and the increase in
the recording sheet. One example could be the date. The velocity measurements stream water is irrelevant so
are given so the missing items are not to do with measuring anything . Some no marks.
candidates listed what they were going to measure, such as width and depth,
which is not relevant here.
• Can you think of two other important items that you could add to the recording
sheet before you measured the velocity?

223
 Part C Alternative to coursework

Analysing a Paper 4 question: River processes – November 2007

The Question (continued)

(d) (continued)
(ii) State a reason why the timing of the floating object over 10 metres was repeated five times. [1]
(iii) The cross-sectional area is used to calculate the discharge. Look again at Fig. 1 and select the cross-sectional area most
appropriate for Site B from the possibilities below. Underline your answer.
3.29 m2 0.32 m2 0.09 m2 [1]
(e) Study Table 1 and Fig. 1 again. Describe how the following characteristics of the stream change from Site A to Site C.
You should state data to support your descriptions.
• Width
• Depth
• Discharge [6]
(f) The stream was measured again at the same sites after a storm, when 60 mm of rain fell in 48 hours. Describe how this
storm would change the discharge and the processes of the stream.
• Discharge change
• Processes change [3]
(g) (i) Describe in detail how the investigation could be improved. Suggest reasons for these improvements. [4]
(ii) Write a brief conclusion to this investigation. [2]
[Total: 30 marks]

Source: IGCSE Geography (0460/04) November 2007 Question 1

224 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Part C Topic 2

Getting it right (continued)

(ii) ‘To be more accurate’ was an answer given by far too many candidates. It is much
too vague. The velocity was measured five times to get an average velocity and to
eliminate errors.
• Think of two experimental errors that justify carrying out the measuring of the
velocity more than just once.
(iii) The correct answer is 0.32 m2. Try to explain why many candidates circled 0.09 m2
instead.
(e) Here are two candidate answers.

Candidate A Candidate B ✓ Exam tip

Width: The width of the river increases from
A to C as it was 1.4m at A and at C it is
6.42m.
Depth: The depth of the river also increases
as the river moves from A to C as the
maximum depth at A is 0.15m and at C it
is 0.5m.
Discharge: The discharge of the river
increases from A to C as the river moves
downwards as it is 0.01m3 at A while it is
1.25m3 at C.
• Why did Candidate A get 6 marks but Candidate B only 3 marks?
Width: The width goes wider from A to C. Most candidates could
Depth: The depth gets deeper as you go down the identify that all three
river from A to C measurements increased
from A to C. However,
Discharge: The level and amount of discharge despite the question
goes up from A to C. asking for it, Candidate B
did not give any data to
support the statements –
consequently losing 3 marks.
If the question asks for data
or evidence you will be
penalised for not providing
it. Don’t forget the units –
m and m3 here.

(f) Most students recognised that discharge would increase if more water entered the river
after the storm. However, many did not understand what a river process was and wrote
about width, depth or velocity changing. River processes include erosion (refer to types),
transportation and deposition.
• Check the meaning of erosion, transportation and deposition. How do you think
these would change in this river after the heavy storm?
(g) (i) An improvement means what could the students have done better or different
in this investigation. Many candidates repeated what had already been done. ✓ Exam tip
The best answers suggested more sites, measuring at different times of the year
If you are asked to write
or in different weather conditions. Some wrote ‘improve equipment’ – but what
a conclusion at the end
equipment and how would it be better than that used? of a question, always
(ii) Here are two candidate answers. return to the hypothesis
that has been stated at or
Candidate A Candidate B near the start. The answer
requires a conclusion to this
Therefore the students can conclude from the So the conclusion is that more people are needed fieldwork. It should include a
measurements that the width and depth with more accurate instruments to get a more judgement on whether it has
did increase as distance from the source accurate result. been proved correct, partly
increases. The hypothesis was correct. correct or incorrect, with
reasons for your decision.
• Which candidate has met the criteria in the Exam Tip and was rewarded with
2 marks?
• Why did the other get 0 marks?

225
TOPIC 3 Investigating tourism
A The City Palace, Jaipur, India
International tourism
to India
Many countries rely on income from
tourism. This is especially true of LEDCs
such as India. Almost 3 million visitors
travel from overseas countries to India,
of which more than 83 per cent travel by
air, with the majority landing at Delhi.
Western Europe provides over one-third
of these visitors, with more travelling
from the UK (16 per cent) than any
other country. The most popular period
is October to December whereas the least
visitors arrive between April and June.
Carrying out fieldwork investigations of
N
Jaipur is the capital city
of Rajasthan, a state visitor patterns is a popular coursework
CHINA
in the northern part of topic in many countries.
AN

T
KIS India. It is located in
PA Delhi NE
PA L
Jaipur Agra BHUTAN a very dry and sandy B So what shall we investigate … and how?
area but attracts
BA
NGL

tourists who usually

MYAN

INDIA
AD

Next month we are going to spend time at the City

visit the Delhi-Agra-
ES H

Palace in Jaipur. We will be carrying out a survey of visitors to the

MA

Jaipur triangle of cities.

R

building. I want you to think about what hypothesis or question we

Indian Known as the ‘pink’
Ocean
city, Jaipur has many
0 1000 km historical buildings. One
is the City Palace.
could investigate using questionnaires. Also bear in mind that we cannot
ask every visitor so we will have to take a sample. Think about the best
way to do that too.

Task 1
Study Source A and an atlas.
a Describe the location of Jaipur in relation to:
• Delhi, Agra and other features on the map
• the country you live in.
b In what ways does the local economy benefit from
tourists? Refer to evidence from the photograph and Route to Geographical Enquiry
your own ideas.
Identify an enquiry question, issue or hypothesis
Task 2
Decide what data is required and how it should be collected
The teacher in an international school in Jaipur (Source B)
decided to take a group of students to the City Palace
to carry out a survey of tourists, using questionnaires. Collect and record data
He obtained permission from the authorities to do this
outside the main entrance for a period from 10 to 11 am Present the data
on one day in June.
a Do you think this was a good time and month to carry Analyse and interpret the data
out this work?
b Suggest how the results might differ at other times of
day or in other months. Report the conclusions and evaluate the investigation

226 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Part C Topic 3

C Random or systematic sampling?

Sampling and questionnaires
Random sampling for questionnaires
Sampling is a necessary and acceptable part of many There are several ways of using this method. It is best to use random
geographical investigations. There is never enough time, number tables. Using the extract below (see shaded numbers) you could
money, energy, equipment or students to ask questions ask questions of the 61st, 2nd, 10th and 54th person you meet. It avoids
of every visitor to a tourist attraction. The larger the bias and any subjectivity but does take time to set up.
sample the more reliable the data. Group work is one Extract from a random numbers table
way of obtaining more results in a fixed time. But how
23 17 59 66 38 61 02 10 86 10 51 55
do we sample the ‘population’ of tourists?
03 04 10 33 53 70 11 54 48 63 94 60
38 67 23 42 29 65 40 88 78 71 37 18
Task 3
Systematic sampling for questionnaires
Study Source C. The people asked are chosen by a system that is evenly distributed, e.g.
a Why is sampling necessary in many geographical every 3rd person. This avoids bias such as only asking people who might
appear to be cooperative or of a certain age-group. It is easy and simple
investigations?
to use.
b What is systematic sampling? How is it different
Stratified sampling for questionnaires
from random sampling?
This can be used when the proportions of people in a sample are very
c In what situations might you use stratified different, e.g. in a class of students two-thirds may be girls and one-third
sampling? boys. In this case you could use either systematic or random sample
d Take a sample of six students from your class methods to choose four girls and two boys. This would reflect the gender
using systematic, random and stratified sampling balance.
methods. Comment on your findings.

VISITOR QUESTIONNAIRE 2
D Which is better: Questionnaire 1 or Questionnaire 2? Good morning. I am carrying out a geography investigation for
my IGCSE examination. Could I ask you a few questions please?
The hypothesis: ‘The characteristics of visitor patterns to the City Palace
in Jaipur show that they are mostly from overseas rather than from India.’ Time/date Weather Place
1 Have you ever visited this site before?
VISITOR QUESTIONNAIRE 1 Yes No
2 How did you get to hear about this place?
1 Why have you come here? Advert Television Friend Other
2 Have you been here before? 3 How far have you travelled to get here today?
Yes No Can’t remember 5 km < 6–20 km > 30 km
3 How long do you intend to stay here? 4 If you did not arrive by car, how did you travel to the site?
< 4 hours > 4 hours Bus Walk Bike Motorbike Train Other
4 Are you aware that by visiting this place you may cause 5 Why are you attracted to this site?
damage?
5 Where have you come from? 6 How long do you intend staying here?
6 How did you get here? < 2 hours 2–4 hours > 4 hours Longer
Car Train Bus 7 In which country or place are you a permanent resident ?

Gender: Male Female

Task 4
Study Source D and note the hypothesis. The teacher
divided the class into six groups of four students and
set them each a task of devising a questionnaire. The
questionnaires were shown to each group to vote on the
best one to use. Questionnaire 1 received least votes and
Questionnaire 2 received most votes.
a List three differences between the two questionnaires.
b Discuss in a group why Questionnaire 2 was judged to
be the best one to use.
c Following your discussion, write down four reasons
why Questionnaire 2 would be more effective for this
investigation than Questionnaire 1.
Age estimate: < 20 20–35 36–50 51–65 > 65
Task 5
When devising questionnaires it is useful to carry out a
pilot survey.
a Use a copy of Questionnaire 2 with friends or family to
see if it could be improved. They will have to imagine
they are visiting a tourist destination in your country.
b Check the ‘Route to Geographical Enquiry’ opposite.
Devise a plan for the investigation into visitor patterns
at a tourist destination of your choice. Refer to the plan
on page 211 if you need help.

227
 Part C Alternative to coursework

Analysing a Paper 4 question: The impact of tourism – May 2008

This question relied on using questionnaires provided on an insert to the exam paper. The insert can be found on pages 232 and 233. As this
was Question 2 on the exam paper, note that references to Figures begin at Fig. 5 (not Fig. 1).

The Question

Students investigated the impact of tourists on the settlement of Pescasseroli in the Abruzzi National Park in central Italy.
The hypothesis for the investigation was ‘The tourists who visit the National Park have a positive impact on the settlement of
Pescasseroli’. Information about the settlement of Pescasseroli is shown below.

Pescasseroli is a settlement of 2000 inhabitants. It is located on a wide plain surrounded by mountains, in the heart of the Abruzzi
National Park. Activities in winter include downhill skiing and cross-country skiing. In the summer there are ample opportunities for
a variety of trekking and outdoor activities. There are six hotels in the settlement and 11 restaurants for visitors and residents to use.
Fig. 5
(a) The students used the Internet to find out about the settlement. The information in Fig. 5 is from this secondary source of
data. They also collected primary data.
(i) What is meant by a primary source of data? [1]
(ii) State two examples of a primary source of data. [1]
(b) The students designed questionnaires for the tourists and residents to assess the impact of tourists. Fig. 6 [see page 232]
shows the questionnaires.
Question T1 (i) to the tourists was designed to investigate the method of transport used by tourists to reach the National Park.
Fig. 7 is a pie chart of the results.

Fig. 7
Method of transport used by tourists
(i) Describe the pattern shown by these results. Suggest one reason for this pattern. [3]
(ii) Fig. 8 [see page 233] shows the results of the questionnaire for tourists. Use the results from question
T1 (ii) to complete the pictograph on Fig. 9, to represent the tourists’ opinions about parking problems in
the settlement. [2]

Fig. 9
Tourists’ opinions about parking

Source: IGCSE Geography (0460/04) May 2008 Question 2

228 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Part C Topic 3

Getting it right

(a) (i) Examiners were looking for answers that made it clear the information was being
collected for the first time by the person; not for examples of primary sources as
that is needed in (ii). Here are three answers.

Candidate A Candidate B Candidate C

Collecting data using When they obtain the data The data is original.
questionnaires and interviews first hand and it has not been
from the general public. collected before. Original data for
a specific purpose.
Only Candidate B was awarded the mark.
• Discuss why Candidates A and C did not gain a mark.
(ii) A number of candidates wrote ‘farming’ or ‘fishing’ or ‘coal mining’. ✓ Exam tip
• What mistake have they made?
Questionnaires and interviews were accepted here – the important thing was that In questions that require
a specific number of
candidates knew that a ‘primary’ source was information that they were collecting responses, e.g. one, two,
first; it had not been provided by other people such as in a newspaper or book three … the number will
which would be a secondary source. be emboldened. In (a) (ii)
…two examples… were
(b) (i) The pie chart showed three different methods of transport to reach the National needed yet some candidates
Park. Many answers were disappointing as candidates failed to understand the just provided one. Read the
word ‘pattern’ and just listed the percentages for each transport type. Pattern instruction carefully!
requires a comparative answer as given by Candidate A below. Reasons were also
surprisingly weak.
• Look at these answers; there is 1 mark for Description and 2 marks for Reasons.

Candidate A ✓ Exam tip

Describe: Most people came by car to Pescasseroli.
If you are asked to ‘Describe
Reason: Because most people that come there are wealthy.
the pattern’ do not just read
Candidate B off data. You can provide the
Describe: We can see 65% travel by car, 25% by coach, 10% travel by train and bus. data but also give an overall
Reason: Travelling by car is more practical as you can take all your luggage and visit statement that shows you
different parts whenever you want. have looked at all the data
and are making an overall
Candidate A gained 1 mark for description – ‘most’ is a comparative word that judgement, e.g. most, more,
describes a pattern, but the reason is poor. least.
Candidate B just listed percentages (see page 233) but there are two good
reasons for using a car here. Can you spot them? The ideal answer would have
combined Candidate A’s description with Candidate B’s reasons!
(ii) Most candidates used the key to draw in 3 faces (for 12 people) and 1 face (for 4
people) for ‘Very difficult’ and ‘A little difficult’. Some however ignored the key and
drew in all 12 faces and 4 faces which was wrong and wasted time.

229
 Part C Alternative to coursework

Analysing a Paper 4 question: The impact of tourism – May 2008

The Question (continued)

(c) Study question T2 and question T3 of the questionnaire for tourists, Fig. 6 [see page 232]. Explain why these are
important questions for the investigation. 13 For
Examiner’s [3]
Use
(d) Study the results of question T4 of the questionnaire for tourists, Fig. 8 (Insert). Draw a
(d) Study the results of question T4 of the questionnaire for tourists, Fig. 8 [see page 233]. Draw a bar graph on Fig. 10
bar graph on Fig. 10 to show the main reasons why visitors come to the Abruzzi National
Park. [4]
to show the main reasons why visitors come to the Abruzzi National Park. [4]
Reasons for visiting the Abruzzi National Park

Fig. 10
F ig. 10

(e) (i) Use the age and gender information from Fig. 8 (Insert) to explain whether the
Reasons for visiting the Abruzzi National Park
tourist questionnaire results in this sample are reliable and representative.

.............................................................................................................................. ....
(e) (i) Use the age and gender information from Fig. 8 [see page 233] to explain whether
.............................................................................................................................. ....
the tourist questionnaire
results in the sample are reliable and representative.
.............................................................................................................................. ....
[2]
(ii) Suggest how the main reason for ..............................................................................................................................
visiting the National Park may change at a different [2] time of the year or at a
different time of the day. (ii) Suggest how the main reason for visiting the National Park may change at a [3]
different time of the year or at a different time of the day.

.............................................................................................................................. ....

.............................................................................................................................. ....

.............................................................................................................................. ....

.............................................................................................................................. ....

.............................................................................................................................. ....

.............................................................................................................................. [3]

© UCLES 2008 0460/04/M/J/08 [Turn over

Fig. 11
Results of questionnaire for residents (125 results)
(f) Study the results of the questionnaire for tourists, Fig. 8 [see page 233] again, together with the results of the questionnaire
for residents, Fig. 11 [above].
Write a short conclusion to this investigation, ensuring that you state whether you agree with the original hypothesis,
that ‘the tourists who visit the National Park have a positive impact on the settlement of Pescasseroli’. You must refer
to data results from both questionnaires to support your comments. [6]
(g) Suggest, in detail, how the students could collect data to investigate the extent that tourists may increase the litter,
noise and traffic in the settlement. [5]
[Total: 30 marks]

Source: IGCSE Geography (0460/04) May 2008 Question 2

230 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Part C Topic 3

Getting it right (continued)

(c) Question T2 on the questionnaire asked about the length of time tourists were ✓ Exam tip
staying in Pescasseroli; question T3 asked about the type of accommodation tourists
were using. The exam question asked why these were important questions but most Marks are not awarded
for general terms, e.g.
candidates just rewrote the question or gave vague responses and rarely achieved more
‘pollution’, ‘litter’, ‘money’.
than 1 mark out of 3. Here are three candidate answers. Always be more specific, for
example pollution can be air,
Candidate A Candidate B Candidate C noise or visual; litter could
To see if they are passing by To understand the impact tourists It is important to know how be cans, paper, or plastic
or if they are here to see the have on the settlement. They may long tourists stay to find bags; money can be income,
city. To see if they are wealthy contribute to pollution. out how much profit is being pay or profit.
made. If tourists stay for
visitors and what type of
long noise and litter may
accommodation they will be
need managing. If more
using. stay in hotels then more
jobs are being created.

Candidate A has re-written the question and does not explain why these questions are
important.
Candidate B has a vague idea about some impact on pollution but does not say why or
define the type of pollution.
Candidate C does attempt to go further with some reasons, e.g. ‘how much profit’,
‘managing noise and litter’ and ‘job creation’. These three points are worth 3 marks;
nothing in the other two answers deserves any credit.
(d) The bar graphs were generally completed well.
(e) (i) Most candidates judged that the gender balance percentages, while not equal,
were close enough to be representative. Many, however, ignored the age issue
completely. Too many failed to understand the term ‘reliability’; some suggested
young people may not tell the truth, which was not acceptable!
(ii) This was well done regarding variety of visitors during the year, e.g. skiing in winter,
cycling/walking/trekking in summer. Less well done was the variety of visitors
during the day which could be caused by e.g. school holidays, retired people or
school parties in the day; workers visiting in the evening,
(f) Most candidates agreed with the hypothesis and supported it with valid statements ✓ Exam tip
taken from the questionnaire. Many, however, failed to gain the 6th mark, which was
reserved for using both questionnaires, as asked in the question! Remember to state whether
you agree, disagree or
(g) The main problem here was that candidates wrote about the National Park not the partially agree with the
settlement as asked. Failing to see the word ‘settlement’ in the question meant that the hypothesis if asked. Read
scale of the fieldwork became unrealistic, e.g. count the cars going into the National the question too! The
last sentence clearly said
Park! The best answers referred to comparing litter, traffic and noise data in and out of ‘You must refer to … both
the tourist season using small-group techniques at specific places. questionnaires’ ; most
candidates did not.

231
 Part C Alternative to coursework

Analysing a Paper 4 question: The impact of tourism – May 2008

The Question (Insert)

Source: IGCSE Geography (0460/04) May 2008 Question 2

232 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

Part C Topic 3

233
TOPIC 4 Investigating weather
A The Stevenson screen
Measuring the weather Using appropriate instruments, it is
The weather refers to day-to-day changes possible to investigate many aspects
in, for example, temperature, cloud cover, of weather around a school:
air pressure and rainfall. The teacher • Cloud cover and type
• Maximum and minimum
in Source A is reading and recording temperature
weather measurements in preparation for • Rainfall/precipitation
a coursework investigation. • Atmospheric pressure
• Relative humidity
• Wind speed and direction
B Heads … and tails
Tail F: Precipitation
(rain, hail, sleet and eter
snow) falls into the Head 4: Barom Tail C: This instrument records the highest and lowest Head 2: Maximum-
metal funnel and enters temperature over a period of time in degrees Centigrade (°C). minimum thermometer
a glass container. At There are two steel markers inside the tube. One marker stays (Six’s thermometer)
regular intervals the at the maximum temperature; the other stays at the minimum
contents are tipped temperature until they are reset. They are pushed into place by
into a standard gauge mercury which is affected by alcohol in the tube expanding or
and measured. Snow contracting as temperature changes. This instrument is known as
or hail must be melted the Six’s thermometer after James Six who invented it.
first. This is measured in
millimetres (mm). Head 6: Wind vane
Tail B: This measures air
Tail A: The wind forces ). The
pressure in millibars (mb
the cups to rotate. nter
pressure of air moves a poi
They are connected is
Head 1: Rain gaug around a dial. If pressure
to a meter. The meter
e high on the glass it moves
converts the rotations If
the dial around to HIGH. Tail E: This shows
into windspeed. This is ss the
pressure is low on the gla wind direction. If
measured in kilometres .
dial moves towards LOW the wind is from
per hour (km/hr).
the west it is called
a ‘westerly wind’
Head 5: Anemometer and the arrow is
thermometers. One
Tail D: This consists of two pointing from west
re; the other one is kept
records the air temperatu to east.
so it reco rds the tem per ature as if the air
damp
ura ted . The diff erence between the
was 100% sat tive humidity of Head 3: Wet and dry
ines the rela
temperatures determ whi ch gives relative bulb thermometer
a tab le
the air which is read off %.
y as a per cen tag e of 100 (hygrometer)
humidit

Task 1 Task 3
Study Source A. Study Sources C, D and E and read the
a List three factors that should decide where the Stevenson screen is sited. hypothesis on page 235.
Explain why each factor is important. (Page 86 will help with this answer.) a Look at the station circle describing the
b Answer the following: weather recorded by the students at 09.00
• Why is it painted white? hours on Day 1. Check that this matches the
• Why does it have slatted sides? weather shown in the table.
• Why is it mounted on legs? b In pairs, draw two weather station circles –
one each. One of you should use the Day 2
Task 2 data and the other the Day 3 data to add
symbols to your station circle. When you
Study Source B.
have finished, check each other’s station
a Create a two-column table. Match the Heads (instruments 1–6) circle against the data.
with the Tails (labels A–F). c To what extent do you think the hypothesis
b Describe, after additional research, how two of these weather is true, partially true or false? Support your
instruments work. views with evidence from the data.

234 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Part C Topic 4

C How to record the weather

– 11km Wind Cloud Weather
Note: The knot is
Cirrus speed (knots) amount (oktas) an international
mist
Cirrocumulus – 10 calm 0 measurement used
fog
1 or less
in meteorology for
1–2
–9 drizzle measuring wind speed.
Cirrostratus 3–7
2
rain and Use 8 km/hour = 5
drizzle
–8 8–12
3 knots for conversion.
4 rain Cloud cover is estimated
–7
13–17
5
rain and snow by looking up at the sky
Altocumulus (For each extra
half-feather add snow and judging how many
6
–6
5 knots) eighths (or oktas) is
rain shower
7 or more covered.
Altostratus 48 – 52
rain and snow
–5 8 shower

sky obscured, snow shower

The wind vane usually by fog
–4 shows direction hail shower
Stratocumulus from which wind missing or
comes. doubtful data thunderstorm
Stratus –3
Cumulonimbus
–2
Cumulus
Nimbostratus –1
D Overall recording sheet – observations from 7 groups

–0 Time Current Pressure Direction Wind speed Cloud Cloud Current

temp. (mb) wind (knots or cover type weather
(°C) from km/hour) (oktas)
Day 1 09.00 6 1010 South- 10 kn 4 Stratus Drizzle
Recording the weather (17 March)
Day 2 09.00 7 1015
west
West
(16 km/hr)
14 kn 3 Cumulus Mist
Once measurements are taken, they need to be (18 March) (22 km/hr)
recorded. A common code of symbols is required so Day 3 09.00 9 1024 South 6 kn 1 Cirrus Clear
(19 March) (10 km/hr)
that weather can be compared between
different regions. In the UK the Meteorological Office
uses the system shown in Source C.
E The weather station circle for 09.00 hours on Day 1
A geography class in the UK decided to investigate
Temperature Pressure in
the hypothesis: in degrees millibars (mb)
centigrade (°C)
‘The weather around the school shows little change 6 1010
Present
on three consecutive days in March.’ weather Cloud cover
symbol (oktas)
The class carried out some fieldwork using the
weather instruments they had in the school. They Wind Direction wind Past weather
speed (knots) is coming from symbol
were divided into seven groups of four students. Each
group was responsible for measuring or observing
one aspect of the weather at the same time on three
consecutive days. After taking their readings they Route to Geographical Enquiry
presented these on weather station circles.
Identify an enquiry question, issue or hypothesis

Task 4 Decide what data is required and how it should be collected

Think of a suitable enquiry question or hypothesis for a
weather investigation around your school. Collect and record data
a Work through the ‘Route to Geographical Enquiry’
and devise a plan to measure and record the relevant Present the data
weather, then to present, analyse and evaluate the
investigation.
b When measuring and recording weather, student errors Analyse and interpret the data
often limit the value of the results. Why? How might
such errors be overcome? Report the conclusions and evaluate the investigation

235
 Part C Alternative to coursework

Analysing a Paper 4 question: Weather – November 2008

As this was Question 2 on the exam paper, note that references to Figures begin at Fig. 6 (not Fig. 1).

The Question

Students recorded the rainfall and wind direction for 14 days at their school in September. The school is located to the east of
the coast and at an altitude of 400 metres. The hypothesis for the investigation was:
‘The school receives more rainfall when wind comes from the west’.

Fig. 6
(a) Study Fig. 6, which shows a low-cost rain gauge. The teacher fixed it to a fence post so that it was accessible for the
students but secure.
(i) How is this instrument different from a traditional rain gauge? [1]
(ii) Explain how the rain gauge shown is used to measure the rain each day. Write the numbers 1–4 in the instruction
box below to show the correct order for accurate measurements to be made. [2]

Date September 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th 13th 14th
Rainfall (mm) 0 0 0 3 4 1 0 0 5 13 10 4 0 6
Wind direction E SE E SW W SW SE S SW W N SW S W
Table 2
(iii) Table 2 shows the rainfall results. Describe the most appropriate graph type to use to represent this data. You should
suggest labels for the axes of the graph. [2]

Source: IGCSE Geography (0460/04) November 2008 Question 2

236 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Part C Topic 4

Getting it right

(a) (i) Most candidates scored 1 mark here although a few thought the traditional rain ✓ Exam tip
gauge was placed ‘underground’ and gave the ‘low-cost’ as a difference. Examiners
were looking for a physical difference in the instruments or in their siting. Some Many students referred
to ‘It…’ in their answer
candidates listed many differences; only one was required for the mark. The use but this could have meant
of ‘It…’ in answers should have been avoided as it was not clear which gauge was the traditional rain gauge
being referred to. Look at these three answers. or the low-cost one. The
candidate needs to name
Candidate A the instrument so that the
A traditional rain gauge is sunk into the ground and raised to at least 30 cm from the examiner knows which one
ground to prevent splash back from rain drops. In the rain gauge a measuring cylinder is is being referred to.
placed. It is not hung on a fence post.
Candidate B
It does not contain a funnel and is not placed below the ground to improve accuracy of measurements.
Candidate C
It is placed in the ground and does not have measurements up the side.
• Are all these worth 1 mark?
• What confusion is caused by using ‘It…’ instead of the proper name?
(ii) The correct order 2, 1, 4, 3 was listed by almost all candidates. A few reversed the
recording and the emptying of the cylinder.
(iii) A disappointing number of candidates failed to gain both marks for this answer;
most gained 1 mark for the type of graph but failed to suggest appropriate labels.
Examiners were looking for a bar graph (or histogram) with rainfall on the vertical
axis and months/time on the horizontal axis. Too many candidates thought a
scatter graph was appropriate or came up with complex graphs that also included
wind direction. Read the three answers below.

Candidate A Candidate B Candidate C

The most appropriate graph
type to represent this data
would be a bar graph with
the wind direction on the
x-axis and the average
rainfall (in millimetres)
on the y-axis.
A Bar Graph is the most Line Graph.
appropriate graph to represent y-axis Rainfall (mm)
the data. The X-axes of the
graph is the Date of the days x-axis Wind direction
from 1st to 14th of September.
The Y-axes is the amount or
rainfall in millimetres.

• Be a marker! Use the suggested mark scheme below to decide which of these
candidates was awarded 0, 1 or 2 marks for their answers. Discuss your marking
with your classmates.

(a) (iii) Mark as follows:

Bar graph or histogram [1]
Dates/month/time and rainfall [1]. Must refer to both axes for the mark. Each can be
on either axis as bar chart could be horizontal or vertical.

237
 Part C Alternative to coursework

Analysing a Paper 4 question: Weather – November 2008

The Question (continued)

(b) The wind direction was measured using a wind vane fixed to the school roof (Fig. 7). Complete the sentence in
each box about the wind vane. [4]

Fig. 7
(c) Re-read the hypothesis for the investigation:
‘The school receives more rainfall when wind comes from the west’.
Study Fig. 8, which shows a sketch map of the location of the school.

Fig. 8
In detail, explain why wind from the west may bring rain to this school. [4]

Source: IGCSE Geography (0460/04) November 2008 Question 2

238 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Part C Topic 4

Getting it right (continued)

(b) Most candidates obtained 2 or 3 marks here. Here is the mark scheme for ✓ Exam tip
this sub-section.
Some people learn and
(b) Mark scheme: explain more effectively by
The paddle is wide … – large surface area to allow wind to push it/catch the wind. [1] using pictures or diagrams.
The arrow … – shows where wind direction is coming from. [1] If you illustrate an answer
The letters represent … – all 4 points/cardinal or compass points. [1] with a labelled diagram,
even if it not asked for, it
It is on the roof … – wind not obstructed/sheltered; so it is exposed. [1]
will gain credit if it answers
Not more air/stronger winds. the question. If you do this
there is no need to write an
Candidate A answer that says the same
as the diagram. Only new
material would gain extra
marks.

• Candidate A gained 3 marks – where?

• Why did this candidate not get the other mark?
(c) Most candidates recognised the sea to the west of the school (although some referred
to it as the east!) and wrote that the wind from the west would pick up moisture or
evaporate water to bring towards the school; this would gain 2 marks. However, too
few noted the significance of the label to the map which stated that the school was at
an altitude of 400 metres. Consequently, to get more than 2 marks out of 4, candidates
had to refer to the process of relief rainfall. Those who did scored highly; some drew
labelled diagrams to illustrate relief rainfall.
Read these two answers.

Candidate A Candidate B
To the west of the school is the sea. Winds Because the sea is close to the school on the west
from the west bring rain to the school as the side the school gets more rain when the wind is
air is moist as it also carries moisture from coming from the west. This is because the wind
evaporation. The moist wind flows to the east brings all the water that has been evaporated from
towards the school. Because the school is at the sea and rains on the school.
an altitude of 400 metres above sea level,
the moist air/wind is forced to rise. As it
rises the air expands which causes it to cool.
Water vapour in the air condenses to form
clouds that bring precipitation.
• Candidate A gained 4 marks but Candidate B only gained 2 marks. Why?

239
 Part C Alternative to coursework

Analysing a Paper 4 question: Weather – November 2008

The Question (continued)

Fig. 9
Wind rose for September
(d) (i) Study Fig. 9, which shows a partly completed wind rose. Complete the wind rose for the east
(E) and north (N) directions using the results shown in Table 2 [page 236]. [2]
(ii) The prevailing wind direction is south-west (SW). What is a prevailing wind? [1]
(iii) Describe the pattern of wind direction shown by the wind rose (Fig. 9). [3]
(e) The students linked the rainfall data and wind direction results by drawing a scatter graph (Fig. 10).

Fig. 10
(i) Complete the graph by adding the results for south-west (SW) winds from Table 2 [page 236]. [2]
(ii) Comment on the pattern of the results by completing the boxes on Fig. 10. [3]
(iii) The hypothesis for this investigation was:‘The school receives more rainfall when the wind comes from the west’.
Does this data support the hypothesis of the investigation? Circle your decision. [1]
YES TO SOME EXTENT NO
(f) In detail, suggest how this weather investigation could be improved and extended to make it more reliable
and representative. [5]
[Total: 30 marks]

Source: IGCSE Geography (0460/04) November 2008 Question 2

240 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Part C Topic 4

Getting it right (continued)

(d) (i) The majority of candidates had no problem plotting the two results for east and
north; a few drew them the wrong way round, though!
(ii) Understanding the definition of a prevailing wind is a basic requirement in
studying weather. Read these three answers.

Candidate A
The direction the wind comes from most often
Candidate B
The wind that comes from the sea and is the strongest
Candidate C
The most frequently occurring wind direction
•  Which two candidates gained the mark? Why?
•  Why did the other candidate get the answer wrong?
(iii) Describing a pattern requires some overall comparison between data; no marks
were awarded for just reading off data for individual directions on the wind rose.
Some candidates described the winds blowing to areas when the wind rose shows
where winds are coming from.
•  Suggest why Candidate B was awarded all 3 marks but Candidate A gained
none in the two answers below.

Candidate A Candidate B
Wind blows to the west for three days. It Most wind came from the west and south-west.
blows for two days to the east and south-east There is no wind from the north-east or north-
and south. Most wind blows for 4 days to west. Wind came from the north for just one day
the south-west. whereas the next least wind (2 days each) came
from the east, south-east and south.
(e) (i) Most candidates plotted the data correctly on the south-west line although a few
just plotted three points correctly (the 4th being put at 11 or 13?); some put all
four plots on the 0 line.
(ii)/(iii) Candidates were asked to comment on the ‘pattern’ of the results in the boxes.
Pattern requires some overall judgement of these results, not a description of
each plot. In (iii) most candidates agreed with the hypothesis although, given the
data on the graph clearly supporting it, a number still suggested the hypothesis
was wrong by circling NO. Only a few candidates recognised the anomaly and
suggested it was unusual due to ‘freak’ conditions or student error.
(f) This was done well, with candidates suggesting extending the time, covering other
seasons or using a traditional rain gauge – though not always stating how these would
make this investigation more reliable and representative. Some suggested using other
instruments but never explained how they would improve and extend this investigation
as required. A few suggested the same techniques already covered in the question,
which again is not improving or extending this investigation. Candidates must focus on
what the question requires.

241
 So what coursework could we do?
Fieldwork is vital ... even for an
examination!
There are many varied reasons why centres choose
the ‘Alternative to Coursework’ Paper rather than
carrying out coursework. However, even with
constraints preventing coursework, it is still important
that candidates gain an understanding of the methods
that could be used to do this. The world map below
illustrates many different coursework titles that schools
have used in various countries. All are either enquiry
questions to answer or hypotheses to test. It should be
possible in all centres to gain a basic understanding of
fieldwork techniques, not only within the classroom,
but also within the school grounds. Studies of
vegetation, microclimates, and environmental issues
are all feasible small-scale studies that, while not
meeting the full coursework requirements, will give
students vital experience of the ‘real world outdoors’.
Paper 4 may be an ‘Alternative to Coursework’
examination but the candidates who provide the
best answers have clearly carried out some fieldwork
activities in their school grounds or local area at least.
This is to be encouraged.

High order
What is the shape (comparison) shops School buildings
What are the inputs,
and size of the will be located closer have significant
processes and
‘sphere of influence’ to the centre of the impacts on local
outputs of the local
of the local sports town than low order weather around the
Are the leisure fruit factory?
centre? (convenience) goods. school. What physical and
facilities in the town
human impacts have
adequate for the
been caused by the
needs of its
recent earthquake?
population?

To what extent are

Out-of-town retail Canada the main roads and
parks have a
pavements
damaging effect on Spain congested in the
town centre shops. USA Portugal Cyprus China local town?
Tropic of Cancer Dubai
Nigeria

Equator India
Kenya Seychelles Singapore
Rainfall is high when
the wind comes Peru Botswana Where does the
from the west.
Tropic of Capricorn CBD end?

South
Africa
0 2000 4000 km
Public transport New Zealand
Tourism brings more
provision in the local
advantages than
town does not meet
disadvantages to the
the needs of the
How does the use of local coastal resort.
people. There is no change How does a local How and why does buildings on the
in the size and shape river meander vegetation change ground floor change
of stones as a river compare with a with altitude? with distance from
moves downstream. ‘textbook’ meander?
the CBD?

242 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Part Theme

Topic 1 Population growth A 1

This sheet supports Task 1a/b on page 4 of the textbook.

World population growth, 1800–2100 (est.)

10

7
World population (billions)

0
1800 1820 1840 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 2040 2060 2080 2100
Year Scale: = 4 years

A population explosion
The population of the world is growing by 88 million people every year which means an
extra 241 095 people every day. There are 167 more people now than there were one
minute ago! If there are 30 people in your class, the world’s population increases by this
amount every 10 seconds. This rapid growth of world population, called the population
explosion, is slowing down. Estimates suggest that by the end of this century it may have
stabilised at around 10 billion. Not all countries have the same rates of population growth.
Some are still growing rapidly, whilst others have low growth rates or are even declining.

World Population to
Reach 10 Billion in 2100

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 1 Population and Settlement © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 1 Population growth A 1

This sheet supports Task 4 on page 5 of the textbook.

The Demographic Transition Model

The Demographic Transition Model is a model of the way that population growth can be
divided into four stages as birth and death rates change over time. It is based on what has
happened in Europe and North America. The part of the graph representing population
growth is the area between the lines, where birth rate is higher than death rate.

The Demographic Transition Model

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5

HIGH
Birth rate and death rate

LOW
TIME
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5
Birth rate Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5
Birthrate
Death rate
Deathincrease
Natural rate
Natural increase

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 1 Population and Settlement © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 2 Too many or too few? A 1

This sheet supports Task 3 on page 11 of the textbook.

Population and land in Indonesia

% % Sulawesi % Irian Jaya

N 30 25 0 25 0
Kalimantan
25 0 20 20
20 15 15
75 25 75 25
15 10 10
75 25
10 5 5
5 0 50 0 50
0 50

Jakarta

% Sumatra % Java % Bali

25 0 25 0 25 0
20 20 20
15 15 15
75 25 75 25 75 25
10 10 10
Pie charts = % population
5 5 5 0 200 400 km Bar charts = % land
0 50 0 50 0 50

Island % of Indonesia’s land % of Indonesia’s population

Java 6.9 60.2
Bali 0.3 1.6
Sumatra 24.7 20.3
Kalimantan 28.1 4.8
Sulawesi 9.9 7.2
Irian Jaya 22.0 0.8

Indonesia’s Transmigration Scheme

Indonesia is a country that consists of over 17 000 islands, about   Task
9000 of which are inhabited. On some islands many people are 1 Use Source D on page 11 to help you
crowded in a relatively small area whilst other inhabited areas add the names of countries, seas and
are underpopulated. During the late 20th century the Indonesian the six islands named in the table to
government gave people incentives to move from the overpopulated your outline map.
islands of Java and Bali to the islands of Irian Jaya, Kalimantan, 2 Add vertical bars to the axes provided
Sumatra and Sulawesi. The purpose of this transmigration was to: to show the percentage of Indonesia’s
• reduce the poverty and overpopulation on Java land that each of the six islands covers.
• provide opportunities for hard-working poor people 3 Complete each pie chart to show the
• provide a workforce to make better use of the natural resources of percentage of Indonesia’s population
the underpopulated outer islands. that lives on each of the six islands.

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 1 Population and Settlement © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 3 Population structure and control A 1

This sheet supports Case Study 3a on pages 18–19 of the textbook (1 of 2).
Table 1 China’s population in 1950 (total 556 760 000)
Age
1950
80+ Age cohort % male % female
75–79
70–74 80+ 0.1 0.2
65–69
60–64
75–79 0.2 0.4
55–59 70–74 0.5 0.7
50–54
45–49 65–69 1.0 1.2
40–44
35–39
60–64 1.5 1.6
30–34 55–59 1.9 1.9
25–29
20–24 50–54 2.2 2.1
15–19
45–49 2.7 2.6
10–14
5–9
Age 40–44 3.0 2.8
0–4
80+ 1950
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 75–790 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
35–39 3.3 3.1
% male 70–74 % female 30–34 3.7 3.4
65–69
Age
60–64
80+ 2000 25–29 4.1 3.7
55–59
75–79
50–54
20–24 4.5 4.0
70–74
45–49
65–69 15–19 5.2 4.6
40–44
60–64
35–39 10–14 5.2 4.4
55–59
30–34
50–54 5–9 5.4 4.8
25–29
45–49
20–24
40–44 0–4 7.2 6.4
15–19
35–39
10–14 Source: UN
30–34
5–9
25–29
0–4
20–24
8 7 6 5 4 3 Table
2 1 2 China’s population
015–19 0
1 2 3 in
4 2000
5 6(total
7 1 276 301 000)
8
% male 10–14 % female
5–9
Age
0–4
80+ 2000 Age cohort % male % female
5 4 3 2 1 0 75–790 1 2 3 4 5
% male 70–74 % female 80+ 0.3 0.5
65–69
Age 75–79 0.5 0.7
60–64 2050
80+
55–59 (estimated) 70–74 0.9 1.0
75–79
50–54
70–74
45–49
65–69 1.4 1.4
65–69
40–44
60–64 60–64 1.7 1.6
35–39
55–59
30–34 55–59 1.9 1.8
50–54
25–29
45–49
20–24
50–54 2.5 2.3
40–44
15–19
35–39 45–49 3.4 3.3
10–14
30–34 40–44 3.4 3.2
5–9
25–29
0–4
20–24 35–39 4.3 4.0
6 5 4 3 2 1 015–19 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
% male 10–14 % female 30–34 5.1 4.8
5–9
Age 25–29 4.9 4.6
0–4
80+
5 4 3 2 1 0 75–790 1 2 3 4 5 20–24 3.9 3.7
% male 70–74 % female
15–19 4.1 3.8
65–69
60–64 10–14 4.8 4.4
55–59
50–54 5–9 4.2 3.8
45–49
0–4 4.0 3.6
40–44
35–39 Source: UN
30–34
25–29
20–24
15–19
10–14
5–9
0–4
Cambridge IGCSE
6 5 4 3   Part
Geography   2 A Theme
1 0 1 Population
0 1 and
2 Settlement
3 4 5 6 © Cambridge University Press 2010
% male % female
 70–74
65–69
60–64
55–59
50–54
45–49 Topic 3 Population structure and control
40–44
35–39
30–34
25–29
This sheet supports Case Study 3a on pages 18–19 of the textbook
20–24

(continued 2 of 2). 15–19

10–14
5–9
0–4
6 5 4 3
Table
2 1
30China’s
0
population
1 2 3
in 2050
4 5 6
(estimated total 1 485 664 000)
% male % female

Age Age cohort % male % female

80+
75–79 80+ 1.7 2.8
70–74
65–69
75–79 2.0 2.6
60–64 70–74 2.2 2.5
55–59
50–54 65–69 2.7 2.8
45–49
40–44
60–64 3.5 3.4
35–39 55–59 3.3 3.1
30–34
25–29 50–54 3.2 2.9
20–24
15–19
45–49 3.0 2.7
10–14 40–44 3.1 2.8
5–9
0–4 35–39 3.3 3.0
6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 30–34 3.3 3.0
% male % female
25–29 3.2 3.0
20–24 3.1 2.9
15–19 3.1 2.9
10–14 3.2 3.0
5–9 3.3 3.0
0–4 3.2 3.0
Source: UN

  Task
1 Complete the population pyramids
for China’s population in 2000 and
2050 (estimated).
2 a How is the 2000 pyramid
different from the 1950
pyramid?
b Using information from
pages 18–19 of the textbook,
suggest why the 2000 pyramid
is different from the 1950
pyramid.
3 Suggest problems that China’s
rulers will face in 2050 if these
estimates are correct (see Task 4d
on page 19).

Officials estimate that there will be 20–30 million bachelors in China by 2020. Will the
boys in this classroom who want a bride all find one when they become adults?

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 1 Population and Settlement © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme 3

Topic 4 Population density Population per km2

Over 15
A 1

5–15
Less than 5 4
This sheet supports Case Study 4a Task 1 on page 24 of the textbook.
0 200 400 km
The population density of Namibia’s regions

N ANGOLA ZAMBIA

8
11 1
10
12 5

13
NAMIBIA

9
2 BOTSWANA

6
Atlantic Region Population
Ocean density/km2
1 Caprivi 5.5
3 2 Erongo 1.7
3 Hardap 0.6
Population per km2 4 Karas 0.4
Over 15
5 Kavango 4.2
5–15
Less than 5 4 SOUTH AFRICA 6 Khomas 6.8
7 Kunene 0.6
Region Population 8 Ohangwena 21.3
0 200 400 km density/km2
9 Omaheke 0.8
1 Caprivi 5.5
2 Erongo 1.7 10 Omusati 8.6
3 Hardap 0.6 11 Oshana 18.7
4 Karas 0.4 12 Oshikoto 4.2
5 Kavango 4.2
13 Otjozondjupa 1.3
6 Khomas 6.8
7 Kunene 0.6
8 Ohangwena 21.3
Namibia – an LEDC in Africa 9 Omaheke 0.8

The Republic of Namibia is a country in southern Africa10

on the 8.6 with a
Omusati
Atlantic
coast,
low GDPNAMIBIA 11 Oshana 18.7
per person of US$ 5200. It gained independence from South Africa in 1990
12 Oshikoto
and its capital city is Windhoek. With an overall population 4.2 2 it is
density of 2.5/km
one of the most sparsely populated countries in the world. Much of the country
13 Otjozondjupa 1.3 is
desert, with a hot, dry climate. Rainfall is sparse and erratic and there are prolonged
periods of drought. The economy is dependent on the extraction and processing
of minerals for export, for example diamonds and uranium. Mining employs
only 3 per cent of the population while about half of the population depend on
subsistence agriculture.

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 1 Population and Settlement © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 5 International migration A 1

This sheet supports Case Study 5 on pages 30–31 of the textbook.

The European Union (EU) 2009

Countries that joined before 2004

The European Union (EU) 2009
Member state Average Population N
Country Population
Average (millions) Average income per
(member
income per
income (millions) person (US$)
states) person (US$)
per person Over 40 000
(US$)
1 Luxembourg 56 380 4.8 30 000 – 40 000
1 Luxembourg 56 380 4.8
2 Denmark
2 Denmark 40 750 40 750 5.5 5.5 20 000 – 29 999
3 Sweden 10 000 – 19 999
3 Sweden 35 840 35 840 9.1 9.1
4 Ireland 34 310 4.3 Less than 10 000
4 Ireland
5 United 34 310
Kingdom 33 630 4.360.1
6
5 UK 6 Finland33 630 32 880 60.1 5.3
7 Austria 32 280 8.2
6 Finland 32 880 32 130 5.316.4 3
8 Netherlands
7 Austria
9 Belgium 32 280 31 280 8.210.5
10 Germany 30 690 82.8
8 Netherlands
11 France
32 130 30 370 16.460.9
23
9 Belgium
12 Italy 31 280 26 280 10.558.2
13 Spain 21 530 43.6 27
10 Germany 30 690 82.8 2
14 Greece 16 730 11.2
26
11 France15 Portugal30 370 14 220 60.910.6
391.5
12 Italy EU-15 26 280 29 200
Average/Total 58.2 4 5 20
8 25
13 Spain 21 530
Countries that joined in 43.6
2004
10
9
14 Greece
Country 16 730 Average 11.2Population 1 21
(member income (millions) 24
15 Portugal
states) 14 220 per person 10.6 7
22
(US$) 11
EU-15 16 Cyprus 20 18
16 510 0.9
Ave/Total
17 Malta
29 200 12 050
391.5 0.4
12
18 Romania 2 960 21.5 19

Countries that joined from 2004

19 Bulgaria 2 750 7.6 15 13
20 Slovenia 14 770 1.9 14
Member21 states Average 9 130
Czech Republic
Population
10.2
income per (millions)
22 Hungary 8 370 10.1 17
person (US$)
23 Estonia 7 080 1.3 16
16 Cyprus
24 Slovakia 16 510 6 480 0.95.4
17 Malta25 Poland 12 050 6 100 38.5
0.4
26 Lithuania 5 740 3.4
18 Romania
27 Latvia 2 960 5 580 21.52.3 0 200 400 km
Average/Total2 750 8 126
19 Bulgaria 103.5
7.6
20 Slovenia 14 770
A8 countries 1.9
21 Czech 9 130 10.2
Republic
22 Hungary 8 370 10.1
  Task
23 Estonia 7 080 1.3 1 a How many countries made up the EU before 2004?
b How many countries joined from 2004?
24 Slovakia 6 480 5.4
c List the A8 countries.
25 Poland 6 100 38.5 2 a Use a choropleth system and the key above to shade the
26 Lithuania 5 740 3.4 countries according to average income per person (US$).
27 Latvia 5 580 2.3 b How many countries in the EU have an average income per
person above US$ 15 000?
Average/total 8 126 103.5
c How many A8 countries have an average income per person
20–27 = the A8 countries above US$ 15 000?
3 a Suggest two reasons why the A8 countries wanted to join the
EU.
b Suggest two reasons why the EU was prepared to admit the
A8 countries in 2004.

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 1 Population and Settlement © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 6 Rural settlements A 1

This sheet supports Case Study 6a on pages 34–35 of the textbook.

Villagers from Korodegaga have to travel

Red N to eight surrounding settlements for
ERITREA Sea YEMEN
goods and services.

SUDAN
DJIBOUTI
ETHIOPIA
Addis SOMALIA
Ababa
Korodegaga

0 200 400 km
KENYA

Diseases reported from the village
Women: malaria, TB, gastric, headache, eye
problems, teeth problems
Men: malaria, diarrhoea, TB, gastric, eye problems
Children: malaria, stomach problems, colds
The Awash river brings a lot of waste from factories
and hotels which is in the drinking water.
Traditional treatments
The only traditional treatment
carried out is cutting the tonsils of
children but there are traditional
practitioners and sheiks.
Non-traditional facilities available
A dresser can give first aid, tablets
and injections and buys medicines
from the nearest Red Cross shop. The
malaria control centre is 25 km away
– too far for residents. Once there,
they have to wait for two days to be
treated.

Life in Korodegaga, Ethiopia

Korodegaga village is a collection of nine
small hamlets south of Addis Ababa. It has
a population of about 1400 living in 300
houses. This area was first settled in the
early 20th century by nomadic pastoralists.
Living in the village is not easy. Villagers
have to travel by foot to many other places to
obtain services. An aid worker from Self-Help
International (an NGO) drew the network
of links with reasons for travelling to other
settlements. She also recorded some of the
health issues that the villagers face.
  Task
1 a Where do the villagers get the following goods and services
from?
• Firewood
• Medical treatment
• Education
• Food crops
b Where do you obtain goods and services from? Draw a similar
links diagram with your home at the centre. Try to add a scale
to the diagram (this was not done by the researcher). How
much of this travelling involves walking?
2 a What are the main health issues in the area where you live?
b How do they compare to the health issues in Korodegaga?
c How does your access to medical help compare with that in
Korodegaga?

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 1 Population and Settlement © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 6 Rural settlements A 1

This sheet supports Task 5 on page 33 of the textbook.

Selecting a settlement site

0 1km
E F

er
Riv
229
265

269
15
46
46
15
30
er
R iv 160

er
R iv

A B C D

A Part of low-lying marshland

B Low ridge of limestone
C Part of low-lying marshland
D A gently sloping area at the foot of hills
E A steeply sloping west-facing hillside
F The exposed upland surface of the hills

Calculating the Attractiveness Index

Positive factors Negative factors
A B C D E F A B C D E F
Water available 1 1 1 1 0 0 Lack of water 0 0 0 0 1 1
Gentle slopes 1 Steep slopes 0
Low altitude 1 High altitude 0
Good natural drainage 1 Poor natural drainage 0
No flood hazard 0 Flood hazard 1
TOTALS 4 TOTALS 1
Attractiveness Index for Zone A = Positive total – Negative total = 3

Attractiveness indices for all 6 zones

Zone A Zone B Zone C Zone D Zone E Zone F
3

The best zone for locating a settlement site would be ______________

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 1 Population and Settlement © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 7 Urban settlements A 1

This sheet supports Case Study 7b Task 1 on page 43 of the textbook.

Population density in Barcelona

Population/km2 District Population Average Population Population

N

30 000 or more /km2 life with higher born

20 000–29 999 expectancy qualifica- overseas
10 000–19 999 (years) tions (%) (%)
Less than 10 000
Cuitat Vella 19 757 73.2 11.4 22.7
Eixample 33 275 79.7 23.9 8.1
Sarria
Sant
Horta
Guinardo Gracia 27 237 79.2 21.6 6.8
Gervasi
Nou
Barris Les Corts 13 675 80.4 26.9 6.7
Les
Corts Nou Barris 20 422 78.2 6.2 4.6
Gracia Sant
Andreu Sant Marti 19 118 78.9 10.6 5.2

Eixample
Horta 13 879 79.0 12.1 4.7
Guinado
Sant
Marti
Cuitat
Vella Sants 7 832 78.4 11.1 7.2
Sants Montjuic
Montjuic
Sant 20 610 79.1 10.5 4.6
Andreu

0 1 2 km
Sarria Sant 6 612 80.5 36.7 7.8
Gervasi

Scatter graph
40

30
% with higher qualifications

20

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
% born overseas

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 1 Population and Settlement © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic A 1
8 Urbanisation
This sheet supports Task 3 on page 45 of the textbook.
Push and pull factors – why they go to town

ORIGIN (villages and countryside) DESTINATION (towns and cities)

Obstacles to migration

Rural push factors Urban pull factors

(incentives to move out) (incentives to move in)

  Task
1 Use the Sources on page 45 of the textbook to help you write ‘push’ and ‘pull’
factors in the circles provided.
2 Suggest and label any obstacles that may make rural-to-urban migration difficult.

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 1 Population and Settlement © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 9 Urban problems A 1

This sheet supports Topic 9 and is linked to Task 2 on page 50 of the textbook.

Tropic of Cancer

Equator

Tropic of Capricorn

0 2000 4000 km

Quality of life indicators for eight urban areas

Urban area Average % of homes Murders per Levels of noise Mean traffic Levels of air
number of with water and 100 000 (1–10) 1 = Low, speed (km/hr pollution
people per electricity people 10 = High in rush hour) (1–10) 1 = Low,
room 10 = High
Cairo (Egypt) 1.5 94 56.4 7 12.4 10
Jakarta (Indonesia) 3.4 85 5.3 6 16.3 10
London (UK) 0.6 100 2.5 8 10.4 3
Melbourne (Australia) 0.5 100 2.0 3 20.3 1
Moscow (Russia) 1.3 100 7.0 6 31.5 7
San Francisco (USA) 0.6 98 5.8 3 16.0 3
Seoul (South Korea) 2.0 100 1.2 7 13.8 7
Shanghai (China) 2.0 95 2.5 5 15.3 3

Stress in the cities

As cities increase in size they
become stressful and difficult
places to live in. Parts of the cities
become run-down and undesirable.
As the land use of many cities
was not planned for the current
population, they are finding it
more and more difficult to cope
with the large numbers of people.
Efforts to provide homes, services,
transportation and jobs are already
losing the race against rapid
population growth.
  Task
1 Use an atlas to help you name each of the eight urban areas listed on the
world map.
2 Choose the correct item in the passage by circling answers or filling in
blanks.
‘The most crowded city is Jakarta with an average number of 0.6 / 1.5 /
3.4 people per room. This city also has the lowest / highest percentage
of homes with water and electricity. The most dangerous city to live in is
Seoul / Cairo / Moscow with over 50 murders per 100 000 people. The
city with the most noise is __________________ with ____________ and
Seoul coming a close second. The city that has the highest traffic speed is
Moscow / London / Melbourne with a mean speed of over 30 km/hour.
Cairo and Jakarta share the highest air pollution levels. The lowest air
pollution levels are in ___________________.’

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 1 Population and Settlement © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 10 Urban sprawl A 1

This sheet supports Tasks 3 and 5 on page 57 of the textbook.

Key: Housing Roads Trees Fields

Space for your cartoon or song about urban sprawl referred to in Task 5:

Your cartoon Your song lyric

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 1 Population and Settlement © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 11 Plate tectonics A 2

This sheet supports Task 1a on page 62 and Task 4a on page 63 of the textbook.

Like biting an apple

The surface of the Earth is known as the crust. This is a collection of solid tectonic plates
that join together like a jigsaw puzzle. Around the solid core at the centre of the Earth is
a layer of molten magma. This is called the mantle. Through this layer flow convection
currents. The plates float on the mantle. The convection currents move these plates away
from or towards or alongside each other. These movements along plate boundaries give rise
to earthquakes, volcanoes and fold mountains.

The plates are still moving!

Converging and diverging plates

Continental plate – this part of a plate is mostly above the ocean, forming land.
It is between 25 and 100 km thick and is mostly made of granite, a lighter rock than basalt.
Oceanic plate – this part of a plate is mostly below the ocean. It is mainly made of basalt
between 5 and 10 km thick. It is a dense, heavy rock so it sinks below the continental plates.

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 2 The Natural Environment © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 12 Weathering A 2

This sheet supports Task 1c on page 68 of the textbook.

Two types of weathering

There are two main types of weathering:
Mechanical (physical) weathering – this involves disintegration or breaking
of rocks into smaller pieces with no chemical change in their composition.
Chemical weathering – this involves the decomposition of rocks by changing
their chemical composition.

A landscape decays

1 2 3

1 2 3

Joints
Bedding plane
1 4 2

Ice

River
erosion 6 3

4 4 55 6 6

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 2 The Natural Environment © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic A 2
13 Rivers – from source to mouth
This sheet supports Topic 13 and is linked to Task 1 on page 70 of the textbook.

Water stores and flows

The area of land from which a river collects its water is known as a drainage basin or
catchment area. Water can exist in three states in the water cycle – gas, liquid and solid.
Wherever the water is, it is either being stored or being transferred by a flow.
  Task
1 Study the diagram. Add the following
Drainage basin input labels in the correct boxes on the diagram:
(precipitation) • Surface store
Condensation • Groundwater store
• Soil water store
Evapotranspiration • Interception by vegetation
• Channel store in stream or river
2 Find out and write down the meaning of
the following terms:
Infiltration
Percolation
Overland flow
Throughflow
Groundwater flow
Overland flow Condensation
Infiltration (run-off )
Evapotranspiration
3 What do you understand by the terms
input and output? Give an example of
Throughflow
each from the diagram.
4 Suggest two places on the diagram where:
• water is stored
Deep percolation
Groundwater flow • water flows or is transferred
• water changes its state from liquid to
gas.
Drainage basin output Water stores 5 Suggest how the systems diagram might
(river discharge) change if applied to an urban area. Explain
Water flows
and transfers why.

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 2 The Natural Environment © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic A 2
13 Rivers – from source to mouth
This sheet supports Task 1a on page 70 of the textbook.
The water (hydrological) cycle

2
Precipitation = rain and snow Clouds
RIVER SOURCE
Where river 4
begins in
the uplands Waterfalls
V-shaped Prevailing 1
valleys 3 wind
Trees
Ox-bow
Upper course Lon
g lake
prof 5
ile o Meanders Sea
f rive
r’s fall Delta RIVER MOUTH
Middle course Floodplain Where the river
meets the sea
Lower course

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 2 The Natural Environment © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 13 Rivers – from source to mouth A 2

This sheet supports Task 4c/d on page 73 of the textbook.

55 56 57 58 59 60
81 81
A slow
retreat –
10 kilometres
80 80
in 12 000
years!

79 79

78 78

77 77

76 76

75 75

74 74

73 73

72 72

71 71

70 70
55 56 57 58 59 60
Scale 1: 50 000 (2 cm = 1km)
0 1 2 3 km

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 2 The Natural Environment © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 14 Coasts A 2

This sheet supports Case Study 14a and is linked to Task 2 on page 78 of the
textbook.
Caves, arches and stacks

C
B
A
B
A

  Task
1 The top sketch shows
a coastal headland at
low tide. On the sketch
D D name the features
shown at A, B, C and D.
2 Circle the statement
below that best
describes the material
found at point D.
• Sand deposited by
wave action
• Rocks fallen from the
cliff
• A mixture of sand and
rocks
3 The three lower
sketches show stages in
coastal erosion. Write
each of the following
statements under the
correct sketch.
• Erosion by waves
widens the cracks and
faults in the cliff to
form a cave.
• The cave is widened
and deepened until
the sea cuts right
through the headland
to form an arch.
• The waves continue
to erode the sides of
the arch until the roof
collapses leaving a
column of rock called
a stack.
4 Cut out the three boxes
and stick them in your
book in the correct
order.

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 2 The Natural Environment © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 15 Coral reefs A 2

This sheet supports Case Study 15 on pages 84–85 of the textbook.

Your turn to ask the questions...

  Task
1 Read the information above. It is
taken from a booklet given to tourists
about to be taken out to see the Great
Barrier Reef. Use a highlighter or
underline 10 key points.
2 Work in pairs. Create five questions to ask your 3 Discuss with your
classmate about the reef (and make sure you classmate any
know the answers too!). Each question must ways that this
begin with one of the following: information sheet
What …?   Where …?   When …?   could be improved.
How …?   Why …?

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 2 The Natural Environment © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 16 Weather and climate A 2

This sheet supports Task 3d on page 87 of the textbook.

A climate graph for Cambridge
A climate graph for Cambridge
20° 20°
Temperature (°C)
Plants do not
Plots are marked in grow when the
the middle of each temperature is
month because the below 6°C.
figures are average
temperatures. 10° 10°

6° 6°
Growing season temperature

0° 0°
A line joins the plots J F M A M J J A S O N D Temperature scale
because the average 2 cm = 10°C
temperature rises
and falls smoothly Rainfall scale
during the year. 2 cm = 20 mm
60 60
Rainfall (mm)

40 40

Bars are drawn for

rainfall because the
figures are the total
for the month.
20 20

0 0
J F M A M J J A S O N D

Cambridge, UK (52°N 0°E) J F M A M J J A S O N D

Temperature (°C) 3 4 6 8 12 15 17 16 14 10 6 4
Rainfall (mm) 41 31 35 38 46 48 60 57 50 53 49 44
Average annual rainfall = 552 mm Temperatures are average (mean) for each month.

Temperature Rainfall
Maximum temperature (°C) Highest rainfall (mm)
Month of maximum temperature Month of highest rainfall
Minimum temperature (°C) Lowest rainfall (mm)
Month of minimum temperature Month of lowest rainfall
Annual temperature range (°C) Total rainfall (mm)

Drawing and reading a climate graph

The weather is what we experience from day to day.
  Task
For example, you might say ‘Today the weather is warm 1 a Write two sentences about the weather
and dry’. outside now.
b Compare it with yesterday’s weather.
The climate is what we experience from month to month
2 Complete the climate graph for Cambridge on the
and from year to year. For example, you might say
axes provided.
‘England has a mild, wet climate’. On a climate graph
3 a From your graph, complete the table.
you can see the average temperature and rainfall (or
b Complete Task 4 on page 87 of the textbook.
precipitation) for each month of the year. The figures
used are an average of the weather over at least 30 years.

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 2 The Natural Environment © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic A 2
17 Tropical rainforests
This sheet supports Case Study 17 Task 5c on page 91 of the textbook.

Why Madagascar is ‘bleeding from its heart’

1 2 3 4
Rainforest is destroyed.
Crops no longer grow on the infertile soil.
The ash supplies nutrients.
Heavy rainfall eventually washes
nutrients and red soil into rivers.
People set fire to the trees – a practice
called slash-and-burn farming.
Crops grow well for a number of years.
Animals lose habitats and food.
5 6 7 8 People go elsewhere to remove more
rainforest. This is called shifting
cultivation.

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 2 The Natural Environment © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic A 2
18 Hot deserts
This sheet supports Case Study 18 on pages 94–95 of the textbook.

N
WESTERN EGYPT
SAHARA ALGERIA

LIBYA
Atlantic Ocean 100
100 100
MAURITANIA 100 MALI
100
100 Faya-Largeau
NIGER
300 Timbuktu
300 100 100
300 300
Gao 100
SENEGAL 300 Khartoum
300 300 300
100 Rainfall 600 600 600 Lake 300
900 900 600 300 Chad
900 600 600 600 CHAD 600
GAMBIA 1200 1200 Bamako SUDAN
1200 600 600 600
900 BURKINA FASO Kano 600
GUINEA 1200
0 500 1000 km BISSAU GUINEA 1200 900 900 600
BENIN
900
1200 1200 NIGERIA 900 900
SIERRA 900
Region Annual Vegetation LEONE 1200 1200
rainfall (mm) IVORY 1200
COAST 1200 1200
LIBERIA 1200 CENTRAL
Desert Under 100 None GHANA AFRICAN REPUBLIC 1200
1200
Semi-desert 100–300 Scrubland TOGO Calabar CAMEROON
Sahel 300–600 Savanna grassland
Sudan 600–900 Savanna grassland with trees Gulf of Guinea
EQUATORIAL DEMOCRATIC
Southern interior 900–1200 Savana woodland GUINEA REP. OF REPUBLIC OF CONGO UGANDA
Coastal Over 1200 Tropical rainforest GABON CONGO

Locating the Sahel area

Most tropical countries experience a wet and dry
  Task
season. The Sahel belt of North Africa is such a region. 1 The map shows total annual rainfall at various places across North 3 Label the 300 mm isohyet as ‘The
It is about 300–500 km wide from north to south. It Africa. northern limit for crops’.
stretches from Mauritania and Mali in the west to a Draw lines that join up places of equal rainfall (isohyets). Use lines 4 Suggest how land use and people
Sudan and Ethiopia in the east. for 100 mm, 300 mm, 600 mm, 900 mm and 1200 mm. might be affected if the Sahel belt
b Describe the distribution of rainfall. (300–600 mm isohyets) moves south
The word ‘Sahel’ comes from the Arabic for ‘fringe’.
2 a Use the information in the key to shade in the different vegetation by 200 km in the next 50 years. Use the
The area is on the edge of the desert and savanna
zones using appropriate colours. scale to help you.
grasslands. In recent years it has moved south due to
a lack of rain and the activities of people.
b Comment on the relationship between rainfall and vegetation type.

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 2 The Natural Environment © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 19 Natural hazards A 2

This half-sheet supports Case Study 19a Task 3b on page 99 of the textbook.

Cyclone Nargis made landfall on the southern coast of

Myanmar on 3 May 2008. Wind speeds varied from 200
to 300 km/h. Very strong winds were responsible for
much of the damage. Flooding and mudslides were the
result of heavy rainfall. A 3.6 metre storm surge caused
death and destruction by flooding the low-lying
Irrawaddy delta where most people live. An estimated
2.4 million people were severely affected, including
over 140 000 killed or missing.

This half-sheet supports Case Study 19b Task 4a/b on page 101 of the textbook.

Urban and rural areas N

have been affected
since 2002 ... QUEENSLAND

S OU TH
AU S TR A L I A

NEW SOUTH
WA L E S

V I C TO R I A
Southern
Ocean

Tasman
Sea
0 500 km

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 2 The Natural Environment © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 20 Human activity has impacts A 2

This sheet supports Case Study 20a Task 4 on page 105 of the textbook.

Short-term emergency relief aid Long-term development aid

Aid from governments, organisations and charities to help Aid from governments, organisations and charities to enable
people survive straight after the flood. This is sometimes called countries and communities to ensure people have access to basic
humanitarian aid. needs so they can improve their living conditions in the months and
years after a flood.

Give water.
Unicef Give life.
£25 is enough to save 250 Give £15.
children by treating them Give for Mozambique
with anti malaria drugs
Homes and lives washed away. £50 could help save The floods have subsided, the
television crews have gone but
Devastating floods have left hundreds of thousands of people 300 children suffering WaterAid is still in Mozambique.
homeless and destitute. Homes have been washed away, from cholera or dysentry
livestock drowned and livelihoods destroyed. Hundreds have by treating them with As Government and
died and now disease threatens the survivors. The waters are rehydration salts international donors focus on
still rising. the rebuilding, there is a real
£75 is enough to buy 800 danger that much needed long-
Major UK aid charities in the Disasters Emergency Committee water purification tablets term development work in other
are already working in some of the worst affected areas. and give 800 children one areas of the country will suffer
They urgently need money for food, clean water, shelter litre of clean water from lack of funds.
and medicines. Seeds and tools are needed for urgent crop March 2000
planting as soon as the waters subside. Please help by making WaterAid is committed
a donation now. to helping the people of
Mozambique, by helping them
Your gift – no matter how small – will help
take control of their lives and be
Disasters Emergency Committee better prepared should disaster
actionaid  •  British red cross  • cafod  • christian aid strike again.
concern  • help the aged  • merlin Will you help our long-term
oxfam  • save the children  • tearfund  •  world vision development work with
March 2000 a gift of £15? March 2000

Helicopter rescue Seeds for crops Building a well Clothing Training a teacher
Blankets Buying crops at a fair Lending money to a small Tents Setting up a refugee
price business camp
Building a dam Giving out food parcels Vaccinating babies and Water pumps Tablets for malaria
children

Key:
Short-term aid ■   Task
Long-term aid ■ 1 Read the appeal adverts, which appeared in the
UK in March 2000. List examples of the type of aid
required. Label them short-term S and long-term L.
2 On the table above, shade in the short-term and
long-term aid boxes in two different colours.
Complete the key.

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 2 The Natural Environment © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic A 3
21 Agriculture
This sheet supports Case Study 21a Task 4a on page 113 of the textbook.
A systems diagram for shifting cultivation practised in Brazil by the Erigbaagtsa tribe
INPUTS PROCESSES OUTPUTS
What goes in? What goes on? What comes out? Use of outputs   Task
PHYSICAL THE FARMING SYSTEM CROPS
When you have
completed Task 4a on
page 113, add any arrows
that return materials
back into the system, e.g.
the output of manure
HUMAN ANIMAL PRODUCTS from animals will become
an input contributing to
the process of fertilising
the land.

CAPITAL

Shifting cultivation
Shifting cultivation is still practised by some tribes in the remote,
forested areas of the Amazon Basin, in Brazil. The tribe first selects a
small patch of rainforest. To create a clearing in the forest, the people
cut down the natural vegetation using simple tools, and burn the
logs. The nutrients are released as ash, which dissolves and is washed
by rain into the soil as natural fertiliser. A variety of food crops are
grown, such as rice, maize and cassava. The crops grow very quickly
and are ready to harvest after four to six months.
After two or three years, due to a decline in the fertility of the soil,
the yield declines and the clearing is abandoned. Another patch
will be cleared and the tribe will try not to return to the abandoned
clearing for at least 50 years. This type of farming is practised by
tribes such as the Erigbaagtsa, who also obtain food and other useful
materials by hunting and gathering in the rainforest. However,
deforestation now threatens the continuation of this lifestyle.

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 3 Economic Development and the Use of Resources © Cambridge University Press 2010

Topic 22 Food shortages
This sheet supports Case Study 22 on pages 118–119 of the textbook.
sudan children’s appeal
T oday in Sudan, the lives of
an estimated 1.2 million
people are at immediate risk
from starvation. Children
are suffering terribly. Right
now, food is the priority. Save
the Children is urging the
international community to
support the UN in delivering
the food that is needed now to
save lives.
We have worked alongside the
resourceful people of Sudan
through many tough times
in the past, but civil war and
drought mean that lives of
many children depend, for
now, on outside help.
N 25°E EGYPT
LIBYA
CHAD Northern
Darfur
Khartoum
S U
Western Al Fashir
Darfur
Nyala
Southern
Darfur
CENTRAL
AFRICAN
REPUBLIC
0 300 km DEM. REP. OF
THE CONGO
Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 3 Economic Development and the Use of Resources © Cambridge University Press 2010
Part Theme
A 3
Save the Children staff
are working round the
clock providing immediate
those who need it most
• working closely with other
charities active in the region
assistance and planning to assist in the delivery of
ahead for the future, when the food aid and essential relief
present chronic food needs items.
have been met. We are:
We’re pressing for peace as
• supplying high energy the only long-term solution
biscuits for children
to the problems in Sudan. But
• distributing fishing meanwhile, we’re doing all
equipment, seeds, tools and we can.
other basic survival items
We believe that the children
• training local mobile teams of Sudan have the right to a
to create and maintain new childhood, as much as any
water sources child of any nation.
• providing experts to the UN Whatever you can send will
World Food Programme to help …
plan how to get the food to
Reproduced from Save the Children’s appeal advert with the
permission of Save the Children UK© 1998, all rights reserved
35°E
Red
Sea
Wadi Halfa
Port Sudan
20°N
le
Ni
Atbara
ERITREA
D A N
  Task
Blue
ite Nile
1 a What is the difference
Ni
between short-term aid
le
and long-term aid?
Wh
b Give examples of both
10°N types of aid mentioned
ETHIOPIA in the Save the Children
appeal.
2 Using pages 118 and 119,
Juba create your own appeal
poster for the Darfur region
KENYA
UGANDA of Sudan.
 Part Theme

Topic 23 Work and employment A 3

This sheet supports Topic 23 and is linked to Task 3 on page 121 of the textbook.

Graphing employment structures

0 100

0 100

10 90
10 90

20 80
20 80

30 70
30 70

40 60

Se
%

40 60

co
tor

Se
%

n
co

da
sec
tor

nd

ry
50
sec

50
ary

ary

sec
50 50
ary

sec

tor
Pri
m

tor

%
Pri

%
60 40
60 40

70 30
70 30

80 80 20 20

90 90 10 10

100 100 0 0
0 0 10 10 20 20 30 30 40 4050 5060 70
60 80
70 90
80 100
90 100
Tertiary sector % sector %
Tertiary
How you do it do it 0
How
– using
you
the USA 2% 100
2% 0 100 Employment structure, 2007
as an – using
example the USA
as an example 10 90
10 90 Country Primary (%) Secondary (%) Tertiary (%)
20 80
20 80
USA 2 21 77
30 70
30 70
UK 2 18 80
Se
tor

40
Se
co

60
tor
sec

40
nd

co

60
sec

Russia 11 29 60
nd
ary
ary

50 50
ary
ary
m

50 50
sec
Pri

60 40 Tunisia 20 30 50
m

sec
tor
Pri

60 40
tor

70 30
70 30 China* 43 25 32
80 20 21%
80 20 21% India* 28 29 43
90 10
100
90 0 10 South Africa* 9 24 68
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
100* Regarded as a newly industrialised country (NIC)
100 Tertiary sector 77% 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Tertiary sector 77%

  Task
1 Complete the large triangular graph using the figures
in the table. The small graph shows you how to plot the
points, using the USA as an example.
2 a Describe the patterns shown on the graph.
b Suggest reasons for these patterns.

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 3 Economic Development and the Use of Resources © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 24 Manufacturing industry A 3

This sheet supports Case Study 24 Tasks 2 and 3 on pages 128–129 of the
textbook.
Why choose Karachi?

Pakistan – iron and steel Karachi

engineering industries
Industry
Pir CBD
Taxila Mangho North SUPER
Gujrat Karachi HIGHW Education
Wazirabad AY
Gujranwala Mostly housing
Faisalabad Lahore Qasba Karachi
Orangi University
Cantonment
AIRPORT
Nazimabad Engineering
University
Hyderabad Iron and steel Medical
University Malir
Karachi Engineering Layari
Saddar NATIONAL HIGHWAY
Arabian Sea Shipyard Karachi
Port Korangi
Clifton
Steel
Arabian Sea Mill
0 5 km
Port
Qasim
Pakistan – iron and steel
engineering industries
Why choose Pipri? Mangrove swamp N
Site for
township
NR OAD
Factors Description of reason Road MAI Pir
Taxila Mangho North
influencing Railway Gujrat Karachi
Wazirabad MAIN LINE KARACHI – KOTRI
location Conveyor belt system Gujranwala
Faisalabad Lahore Qasba
PHYSICAL Orangi

Site AIRP
Nazimabad Engineer
Universit
Natural routes Medical
s

Hyderabad Iron and steel

ial

Slag University
STEEL
er

Karachi Layari
at

Engineering MILL
m

Saddar
w

Arabian Sea
PortShipyard
Ra

Karachi
HUMAN Qasim Port Koran
BERTH
S Clifton
Capital
Arabian Sea reek Widened
oC channel
Raw materials 0 5 km
ar
Gh

Pipri – site of 0 2 4 km
Pakistan Steel Mills

Energy Mangrove swamp N

Road
Railway
Labour
Conveyor belt system

Markets

Transport

Port
Pakistan Steel Qasim
BERTH
S
The first steel factories for Pakistan Steel were built in 1973 at Karachi.
The site is spread over 18 600 hectares: 10 000 hectares for the works,
Pipri – site of
8070 hectares for the workers’ township, and 200 hectares for the water reservoir. Pakistan Stee

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 3 Economic Development and the Use of Resources © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 25 Hi-tech industry A 3

This sheet supports Case Study 25 and is linked to Task 2 on page 132 of the
textbook.

Multinationals lead India’s IT revolution

By Steve Schifferes, Bangalore
When 13-year-old Taylor, who lives in Modesto, Advantage India
California, wants help with her homework, she no
There are many reasons why India has become the
longer goes and asks her mother. Instead she goes
centre of the global IT services industry. It has a
to her computer and gets on the Internet where she
highly educated workforce with two million college
dials up an e-tutoring service, Tutor Vista, based in
graduates a year, all of whom speak English. It has
Bangalore, India for help with her Maths
excellent international data communication links and
and English.
good Internet access in the major cities. And the wages
‘My daughter is literally at the top of every single
of its professional IT workers average one-quarter to
one of her classes and she has never done that before,’
one-tenth of the wages of equivalent jobs in Europe and
says her single-parent mother, Denise Robinson.
the USA.
Denise pays $2.50 per hour for the service, a fraction
of the $40 per hour charged by US online tutoring
services or the $100 an hour charged for face-to-face Multinationals flood in
tutoring. In the late 1980s India’s government deliberately
targeted exporting IT services for growth and
The Internet IT service revolution removed regulations that limited overseas investment.
Multinationals flooded into India eager to take
Denise’s experience is just one small example of the
advantage of cheap wages and a huge global market.
IT services revolution that is sweeping the world of
Texas Instruments from the USA was the first
business, and is changing the face of India. In the past
multinational to arrive in 1988. Now more than 500
economists thought that only goods could be traded
major international companies have IT operations in
across borders whilst most services could not be
Bangalore. Among the well-known names are Hewlett-
imported and so were not subject to the same pressures
Packard, Dell, IBM and Accenture. Microsoft has
of international competition.
established one of its three global research centres
But the Internet has changed all that and now
in Bangalore – the other two are in China and at
the fastest-growing portion of international trade
Microsoft headquarters in the USA. In December 2007
is in services. And it is big companies, not private
Cisco Systems announced a £1.1 billion investment
individuals, who are making the most of the lower cost
in Bangalore creating 6000 jobs. It will be run by new
of many international services. They have found it
globalisation officer Wim Elfrink. ‘We believe that
cheaper to move many parts of their business – such as
India is the hub for the world where the ICT sector is
accounting, IT support, payrolls – to locations overseas.
concerned,’ said Mr Elfrink.
This is known as outsourcing.
The global leader in the provision of these services
is India which exports $25 billion per year of these
services. This figure is expected to rise to $60 billion
by 2010.

  Task
1 How does Taylor Robinson get help for her homework? Do you think this is a good thing? How do
you get help for homework?
2 a What is the difference between a ‘good’ and a ‘service’?
b Why was it easier to transport goods than services between countries?
c How does the Internet make it possible to trade services overseas?
3 a What is a ‘multinational company’? List four that have set up IT centres in India.
b Why have they been attracted to India since the late 1980s?
4 Suggest ways in which the people living in Bangalore benefit from the presence of multinational
companies. Will there be any disadvantages?

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 3 Economic Development and the Use of Resources © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 26 Tourism A 3

This sheet supports Case Study 26a on pages 136–137 of the textbook.
Mahe Island, The Seychelles – a destination for international tourists

N Machabee
Carana

Glacis North East Point

Sunset Beach Hotel H
La Gogu
e
La Retraite
Berjaya Beau Vallon Bay Mar Anglaise
Le Meridien Coral Strand Mahek Anse Etoile
Le Petit Village Fishermans Restaurant
Mont Signal Ste Anne Marine National Park
Cove
Le Corsaire
La Scala H H La Perle Noire Pointe Conan
H H
H Coco D'or Hotel
Anse Major
Danzil Bel Beau St Sainte Anne
Baie Ternay Marine Ombre Vallon Louis Rd Ste. Anne Resort H
National Park Victoria
Mare Aux Cochons
Trois Botanical
Freres Round Island Moyenne
Garden
Morne Seychellois
Mo

rn
National Park Mont Fleuri Long Island
Port Launay Marine National Park eB
lan
c
Congo Rouge Cerf Island
uc i La Louise
n s So Copolla Studio Devoud
Conception Port Glaud Sa Art Gallery
Mission Les Mamelles
Berjaya Mahe
Therese H Beach Hotel
Petit Paris
Grand Anse Anonyme
Cascade
La Misere H Anonyme
Island Resort
H
Le Meridien International
Barbarons Beach Hotel Mont Sebert Airport

Pointe Larue

Anse Polite Anse Aux Pins

H Hotels and guest houses Anse Boileau
H
Indian Ocean Mo
Villages unta
gne Po
La Roussette Hotel
see Rd
Restaurants Anse Louis Val de Pres

Marine parks Au Cap

Palm Resorts H
Petrol stations Anse La Mouche Pointe au Sel
Anse Aux
Anse Soleil Poule Les C
Places of interest Bleus a nn Fairyland
Beachcomber el
Dangerous swimming H
Tom Bowers
l

Ile Souris
Sandy beaches Petite Anse Baie Lazare Anse Royale
Le Jardin Du Roi
Anse Gouvernment H Valmer Resorts
Baie & Chalets Anse Parnel
Lazare al
V

d'andor

Anse Forbans
Takamaka
Quatre Bornes

world Anse Intendance

H Anse Forbans Chalets
Banyan Tree H Anse Marie Louise
Seychelles

0 1 2 3 4 5 km Police Bay
Pointe Du Sud

  Task
1 Study the map. It shows Mahe Island which is part of the Seychelles (an LEDC in the Indian Ocean).
a Suggest four different ways in which people who live on Mahe Island might benefit from
international tourists visiting the island.
b Suggest four different problems that international tourists might cause for the people who live
on Mahe Island.
2 Use evidence from the map to explain why Mahe Island is attractive to tourists.

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 3 Economic Development and the Use of Resources © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 27 Energy supply and demand A 3

This sheet supports Case Study 27b Task 2a/b on page 144 of the textbook.

Saudi Arabia – supplying oil to the world

In 2007 the countries of the Persian Gulf (Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia
and the United Arab Emirates) produced about 30 per cent of the world’s oil.

Mt Mt
500 N 500
% world
12.4
12.3 400 400
7.9
5.5
4.8 300 300
4.4
4.0
3.5
3.5 200 200
3.3
38.4
100 100 100

7
0 0

Mt Mt
500 500

400 400

300 300

200 Oilfield 200

100 Oil pipeline 100

Operating 0 200 400 km
0 Under construction 0

The top ten oil producing countries, 2007 The top ten exporters, 2007
Producers Million tonnes % world Exporters Million tonnes
Russia 487 12.4 Saudi Arabia 358
Saudi Arabia 483 12.3 Russia 248
USA 310 7.9 Iran 130
Iran 218 5.5 Nigeria 119
China 188 4.8 Norway 109
Mexico 173 4.4 UA Emirates 106
Canada 157 4.0 Mexico 99
Venezuela 138 3.5 Canada 93
Kuwait 136 3.5 Venezuela 89
UA Emirates 131 3.3 Kuwait 88
Rest of world 1516 38.4 Rest of world 764
WORLD 3937 100 WORLD 2203

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 3 Economic Development and the Use of Resources © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 28 Generating electricity A 3

This sheet supports Topic 28 on pages 148–149 of the textbook.

Coalfield rway
Moto

Ca
nal

Reservoir

Reservoir
Can
al

Reservoir

River

Can
al

Motorway Coal store Canal

Main line railway Coalfield Marshland
Branch line railway Cooling tower Reservoir
275 kV transmission line Power station buildings

Locating thermal power stations

Thermal power stations are generally located close to their source of   Task
fuel. For example, coal-fired power stations may be located on or near Study the sketch map of the site of a
coalfields as coal is bulky, heavy and expensive to transport. Many have coal-fired thermal power station.
their own railway lines linked to mines in order to transport the coal.
Power stations that are fired by oil or natural gas are located close to
Annotate (add labels to) the map to
oil refineries or oil and gas pipelines. In some countries fossil fuels are
show why this is a suitable site for a
imported so power stations are built close to major ports. The areas of
power station.
flat land required for building thermal power stations may be found
close to rivers, where the large quantities of water needed for cooling
can be extracted from the river and waste water returned to it.

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 3 Economic Development and the Use of Resources © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic A 3
29 Water
This sheet supports Case Study 29 Task 4 on page 155 of the textbook.
The Katse Dam – part of Africa’s largest water-management scheme

A major water-transfer project

The Lesotho Highlands Water Project (LHWP) is the largest civil engineering divert about 40 per cent of the Senqu/Orange river water through
project in Africa. It is the world’s second largest water-transfer project after five large-scale dams. After taking water for its own use, much will be
the Three Gorges Dam in China. When completed (estimate 2027), it will sold to South Africa where demand is greater than supply.

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 3 Economic Development and the Use of Resources © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 30 Damaging the environment A 3

This sheet supports Task 5 on page 157 of the textbook.

Elbasan – a heavily polluted industrial centre

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 3 Economic Development and the Use of Resources © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic A 3
31 Conservation and management
This sheet supports Task 1 on page 164 of the textbook.

Life begins with the sun

Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide

Photosynthesis Oxygen
Photosynthesis Oxygen

Energy Energy Energy

store store store

Grasses Arctic hare Arctic fox

Death Death Death

Death Death Death

Photosynthesis can be shown by this formula:

Photosynthesis
Carbon dioxidecan be shown
+ water + theby
sun's formula:
this energy
Rock minerals Carbon dioxide + water + the
plant food + oxygen sun's energy
Rock minerals plant food + oxygen

Nutrients and gase producers: pl ants Water

Nutri Food plants Water
ents and gasess Food producers:

Consumers: herbivores Consumers: carnivores Deco mposers Energy from

Consumers: herbivores Consumers: carnivores Decomposers
Energy from the sun
the sun

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 3 Economic Development and the Use of Resources © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 31 Conservation and management A 3

This sheet supports Case Study 31a Task 1 on page 166 of the textbook.

A difficult climate in
the tundra
A rc tic
The tundra climate affects O ce a n

people and the environment

across the northern latitudes
of the continents of North
America, Europe and Asia. Verkhoyansk
Verkhoyansk, in northern Pa c if ic
O ce a n
ircle
Russia, is reputed to be one A rc tic C

of the coldest places on Earth

where people live. Russia

Kazakhstan China
Japan
0 400 800 km Mongolia

  

Climate data for Verkhoyansk, Russia (66°N 129°E)

J F M A M J J A S O N D
Temperature (°C) –50 –45 –32 –15 0 12 14 9 2 –15 –38 –48
Precipitation (mm) 5 5 3 5 8 23 28 25 13 8 8 5
Average annual precipitation = 539 mm Temperatures are average (mean)
for each month.
  Task
1 a Study the map. Describe the
Welcome to the coldest place on Earth location of Verkhoyansk.
Breathe out warm air and watch the leaves his or her home for more than 20 b Use an atlas to compare this
water droplets turn to ice. It happens minutes. If they do, danger creeps in. location with the location of the
in Verkhoyansk, a tiny community in Fur hats and coats are normal. Thick-
nearest town or city to where you
Siberia. Here, in the coldest town in the soled boots are made from reindeer
world, temperatures fall to minus 65 skin. ‘We have a very big deep-freeze
live.
degrees centigrade. Here car engines out there,’ said Dmitri Potapova. 2 a Draw a climate graph for
are covered in quilts to insulate them Verkhoyansk using the axes on
from the cold. Drinking water is cut this sheet.
from the frozen River Yana; men load up b How can you tell that
ice blocks onto a horse and sleigh and 20°
Temperature (°C)
20° Verkhoyansk is in the northern
carry them back to town. Even milk is 10° 10° hemisphere?
preserved in chunks.
0° 0°
c List the following:
The 2000 townspeople love the • average temperature of the
extreme temperature. ‘Even if it is –10° –10° hottest month
minus 60 degrees I can just put on
–20° –20° • average temperature of the
warm clothes,’ says Olga Ammacova.
But the harsh climate takes its toll.
coldest month
–30° –30°
Horse herders are eligible for a pension • annual temperature range
at the age of 37. As one of them said,
–40° –40° • average annual precipitation.
‘Few of us reach the age of 47’. –50° –50° d Suggest reasons for the large
Surprisingly the North Pole is not the 50 50 temperature range and the low
Rainfall (mm)
coldest place on Earth. Verkhoyansk
0 0
total precipitation.
claims that honour although it is over J F M A M J J A S O N D 3 a Give three examples from the
3000 km from the Pole. This is because article that show how the climate
it is in the middle of a vast mass of affects people and their way of
land with no ocean around it to keep life.
temperatures up in winter. No one
b Would you like to live in
Verkhoyansk? Explain your view.

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 3 Economic Development and the Use of Resources © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part

MAP B
WORK
1 Monsefu, Peru
This sheet supports Task 3 on page 177 of the textbook.

Dune management
There are conflicts arising over the use of the sand dunes between
  Task
Santa Rosa and La Bocana del Rio. They are being used for many 1 Choose the scheme that you think will be most useful. Write the
different purposes and the dunes and ecosystems are being damaged. advantages of your scheme and the disadvantages of the other three
The table below shows information about four possible schemes being schemes below.
considered to manage the dunes. I would choose Scheme  1  /  2  /  3  /  4
The advantages of this scheme are:
Scheme 1 Scheme 2
Ban all human activities on the dunes, and use Fence off areas of the dunes so that different
24-hour security patrols and CCTV. activities can take place in each.
The disadvantages of the other three schemes are:

Scheme 3
Provide a free information centre and guides
for students and visitors.
Scheme 4
Allow unlimited use and charge an entrance
fee to all users of the dunes.
2 In a group discuss your views and listen to the views of others.
Which scheme did your group agree to choose? Scheme  1  /  2  /  3  /  4
Explain why your group chose this scheme.

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part B Geographical Skils © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part
MAP
WORK 2 Harare, Zimbabwe B

This sheet supports Task 4b on page 183 of the textbook.

Quality of life indicators for selected LEDCs
Country GDP per person (US$) Energy use per person Number of doctors Adult literacy
(kg oil equivalent) (per 100 000 people) (percentages)
Algeria 6603 1036 85 70
Bangladesh 1870 158 23 41
Egypt 4211 708 212 56
Ethiopia 756 299 3 42
India 3139 519 51 61
Mexico 9803 1563 171 85
South Africa 11 192 1093 69 81
Zimbabwe 2100 752 6 90

A scatter graph to show the relationship between GDP

per person (US$) and adult literacy in selected LEDCs

12 000
  Task
Circle the correct choice in the
sentence below:
10 000 This scatter graph shows that
a positive / a negative / no
relationship exists between
GDP per person and adult
literacy in the selected LEDCs.
8000
GDP per person (US$)

6000

4000

2000

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Adult literacy (%)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part B Geographical Skills © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part

MAP B
WORK
3 Ewaso Kedongi, Kenya
This sheet supports Task 3 on page 189 of the textbook.

X Fold sheet along this edge and hold edge along the line X–Y on the map Y

1620
1640
1660
1760

Cattle trough
1800 1800
1780 1780
1760 1760
1740 1740
1720 1720
1700 1700
1680 Cattle 1680
trough
Height (in metres)

Height (in metres)

1660 1660
1640 1640
1620 1620
1600 1600
X Y
A cross-section along the Ewaso Kedong Valley, Kenya

A cross-section is a diagram showing variations in height and slope along a line drawn on a map. Horizontal scale 1:50 000 (2 cm = 1 km)
The cross-section X–Y has been partly completed by working through the stages in the task below. Vertical scale 1 cm = 50 metres
Note that as this is a relatively flat
landscape, the vertical scale begins at
  Task • A frame for your cross-section has been drawn on graph paper. 1600 metres instead of 0. This ensures
that the changes in height and slope
The base of the frame is the same length as the cross-section can be clearly seen over the 1600–
Complete the cross-section diagram above by following these line X–Y. The vertical scale has been chosen to show the 1800 metres. This is known as vertical
steps. height and slope clearly. exaggeration.
• Place the fold-over straight edge X–Y at the top of this sheet • Draw fine pencil lines down from the marked contours on the
along the cross-section line X–Y on the map on page 184. edge of the sheet to the horizontal axis of the graph paper.
• Along the straight edge of this sheet mark the points where Mark a cross at the correct height on this line by referring to
each contour crosses it, labelling the height of each contour. the vertical scale. Join up the crosses in a smooth line.
Some have been done for you on the cross-section above. • Draw labelled arrows to show the location of the quarry and a
• Use the key to help you mark on the locations of a quarry and main track on the cross-section.
a main track. The cattle trough has been marked for you. • Shade the land in your cross-section.

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part B Geographical Skills © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part
MAP
WORK 4 Montego Bay, Jamaica B

This sheet supports Map work 4 on pages 190–195 of the textbook.

Tourism creates jobs at home and abroad

Type of job Why it is needed

  Task
1 The cartoon above shows some
different jobs created in the USA by
tourists travelling to Jamaica.
2 1 a Complete the table by listing the
jobs shown in the cartoon.
b Add two other tourist-related jobs
3 not shown in the cartoon.
c Say why each job is needed.
2 a Make a similar list of jobs created
4
in Jamaica by tourists visiting
from the USA.
5 b Draw your own cartoon to
illustrate these jobs.
3 a Some jobs, such as taxicab drivers,
6 are needed for tourists both in the
USA and Jamaica. Can you think
of others?
7 b Some tourist-related jobs are
created in the USA but not in
Jamaica. Suggest why.
8 c Some tourist-related jobs are
created in Jamaica but not in the
USA. Suggest why.
9

10

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part B Geographical Skills © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part
MAP
WORK 5 Negara, Indonesia B

This sheet supports Task 3a on page 201 of the textbook.

Drawing a pictograph
Year Number of cases of dengue fever
A pictograph uses symbols to represent a certain (to nearest thousand)
number. These illustrate a topic in a way that
2001 18 000
other graphs, such as straightforward bar graphs,
do not. They are often used when the numbers in 2002 22 000
the data are large and require a scale, and where 2003 28 000
the topic under review is appropriate for a visual 2004 36 000
symbol.
2005 49 000
2006 114 000
2007 92 000

A pictograph to show the number of cases of dengue fever in Indonesia, 2001–07

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

Scale: = 10 000 cases of dengue fever

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part B Geographical Skills © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part
MAP
WORK 6 Le Port, Reunion Island B

This sheet supports Task 2c on page 203 of the textbook.

Reunion Island – a French territory!

Reunion is an island of 2512 km2 located in the Indian Ocean to the east of Madagascar.
It is mainly mountainous although there are some lowlands along the coast. It is a French
overseas territory with a population of 763 000 people, which is expected to rise above a
million by 2030. The 1:25 000 map extract on page 202 shows Le Port, the main port on
the island.

The layout of Le Port, Reunion Island

21 22 23 24 25
86 86

85 85

Le Port

84 84

83 83

82 82
21 22 23 24 25

Key

0 0.5 1 km
Scale: 1: 25 000

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part B Geographical Skills © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 1 Population growth A 1

Sample question
(a) Study Fig. 1.

Country Birth rate (per 1000 people) Death rate (per 1000 people)
Angola 48 23
Australia 12 7
Eritrea 40 10
Fig. 1
(i) Which of the three countries in Fig. 1 has the highest natural population growth rate? (1)
(ii) Compare the population growth rates of Angola and Australia. Give figures in your answer. (2)
(iii) Suggest three reasons for the differences in the population growth rates of Angola and Australia. (3)

(b) Study Fig. 2.

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4

HIGH
Large families

Birth rate falls

due to changing
Birth rate and death rate

social conditions

Death rate falls

due to better Small families
health care and
living conditions
Birth rate
Death rate

LOW
TIME

Fig 2.
(i) D  escribe how the size of the population of a country will change as it passes through
Stages 2, 3 and 4 of the demographic transition. (3)
(ii) Explain why these changes occur. (4)
(iii) At what stage of the Demographic Transition Model is the country in which you live? Give reasons for your answer. (5)

(c) For a country that you have studied, explain why it has a high rate of natural population growth. (7)
 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 1 Population and Settlement © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 1 Population growth A 1

Marking scheme
(a) (i) Eritrea 1 mark    (1)
(ii) Growth rate in Angola is higher
25 per 1000 in Angola but 5 per 1000 in Australia/20 per 1000 higher 2 @ 1 mark    (2)
(iii) Ideas such as:
Birth rates are higher in Angola/lower in Australia
Less availability of contraception in Angola/more availability of contraception in Australia
Less educated about contraception in Angola/more educated about contraception in Australia
L ess likely to be able to afford contraception in Angola/more likely to be able to afford contraception
in Australia
M ore likely to want children to work on the land in Angola/less likely to want children to work on the
land in Australia
M ore likely to want children to send out to earn money in Angola/less likely to want children to send
out to earn money in Australia
M ore likely to want children to look after parents in old age in Angola/pensions more likely to be
available in Australia
M ore likely to have large families due to tradition in Angola/less likely to have large families due to
tradition in Australia etc.
NB Answers must be comparative. 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(b) (i) Stage 2 – increases rapidly
Stage 3 – increase slows down
Stage 4 – stable     3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(ii) Ideas such as:
Increase in Stage 2 as death rate falls while birth rate remains high
Fall in death rate is due to improvement in medical care (dev)
Increase slows down in Stage 3 as birth rate reduces rapidly and fall in death rate slows down
Fall in birth rate due to women working/contraception etc (dev)
Stability in Stage 4 as birth and death rates are similar/both low 4 @ 1 mark or development    (4)
(iii) Answers will vary according to country. Accept any relevant reasoning.
e.g. India: ideas such as:
In Stage 3 as growth rates are slowing down
As average family sizes are being reduced (dev)
As contraception becomes more readily available/affordable (dev)
Urban growth reduces birth rates
As families no longer need children to work on land (dev)
Not in Stage 4 as birth rates still exceed those of MEDCs
As traditional values still encourage large families (dev) etc. 5 @ 1 mark or development    (5)
(c) Levels marking
Level 1  (1–3 marks)
Statements including limited detail explaining high rates of natural population growth. e.g. to send children out to work, because there
is no contraception, because of their traditions etc.
Level 2  (4–6 marks)
Uses named example.
More developed statements explaining high rates of natural population growth. e.g. to send children out to work to earn money
working in the towns, because contraception is not easily available in rural areas, because men are considered of higher status if they
have more children etc.
NB Max. 5 marks if no named example
Level 3  (7 marks)
Uses named example, e.g. Swaziland.
Comprehensive and accurate statements including some place-specific reference. e.g. to send children out to work to earn money
working in the towns like Mbabane, because contraception is not easily available in rural areas, because men are considered of higher
status if they have more children, polygamy is allowed even the king has many wives etc. (7)

 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 1 Population and Settlement © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 2 Too many or too few? A 1

Sample question
(a) Study Fig. 1.

Overpopulation Optimum population Underpopulation

Fig. 1
(i) What is meant by the term ‘optimum population’? (1)
(ii) Name an example of a country that is:
A underpopulated
B overpopulated. (2)
(iii) Explain how overpopulation could cause problems in a country for:
A people (3)
B the natural environment. (4)

(b) Study Fig. 2.

Country A has a population of 30 million and is underpopulated.

Country B has a population of 13 million and is overpopulated.

Fig. 2
(i) Give three reasons why Country A may be underpopulated even though it has a larger population than Country B. (3)
(ii) Explain why many underpopulated countries try to attract migrants from other countries. (5)

(c) Explain how underpopulation has caused problems in a country or area you have studied. (7)
 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 1 Population and Settlement © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 2 Too many or too few? A 1

Marking scheme
(a) (i) T  he correct number of people for the resources of a country / a population that is neither too few
nor too many for the available resources. 1 mark    (1)
(ii) Any suitable example such as:
A = Australia/Canada etc.
B = Nigeria/India etc. 2 @ 1 mark    (2)
(iii) Ideas such as:
A (people):
Pressure on food supplies / not enough farmland
Lack of housing
Poverty
Congestion on roads
Unemployment
Pressure on health services / not enough hospitals
Pressure on educational services / not enough schools etc. 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
B (natural environment):
Atmospheric pollution
Noise pollution
Water pollution
Deforestation/loss of natural environment
Negative impact on food chains / loss of biodiversity etc. 4 @ 1 mark    (4)
(b) (i) Ideas such as Country A may have:
a large area of land
can produce lots of food
many natural resources for manufacturing goods / or example, e.g. timber
large supplies of energy / or example, e.g. coal 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(ii) Ideas such as:
To attract young/dynamic people
They do not have enough workers
Particularly skilled/qualified (or examples) (dev)
To develop economy
By exploiting e.g. oil resources or other example (dev)
And building infrastructure (dev)
To help defend country/armed forces etc. 5 @ 1 mark or development    (5)
(c) Levels marking
Level 1 (1–3 marks)
Statements including limited detail describing problems caused by underpopulation. e.g. not enough people to exploit resources, lack of
workers, need to attract immigrants etc.
Level 2 (4–6 marks)
Uses named example.
More developed statements describing problems caused by underpopulation. e.g. lack of workers which leads to low productivity, little
development occurs as resources are not fully exploited, conflicts caused by need to attract foreign workers etc.
NB Max. 5 marks if no named example
Level 3 (7 marks)
Uses named example, e.g. Australia.
Comprehensive and accurate statements including some place-specific reference. e.g. lack of workers which leads to lower than
optimum productivity, large areas of outback undeveloped/underutilised, conflicts caused in major cities such as Sydney by need to
attract foreign workers etc. (7)

 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 1 Population and Settlement © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 3 Population structure and control A 1

Sample question
(a) Study Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
(i) What is a census? (1)
(ii) State two pieces of useful information a government can gain from a census. (2)
(iii) Give three reasons why many LEDCs do not carry out a census.  (3)

(b) Study Fig. 2.

LEDC MEDC

Age Age
85+ 85+
80–84 80–84
75–79 75–79
70–74 70–74
65–69 65–69
60–64 60–64
55–59 55–59
50–54 50–54
45–49 45–49
40–44 40–44
35–39 35–39
30–34 30–34
25–29 25–29
20–24 20–24
15–19 15–19
10–14 10–14
5–9 5–9
0–4 0–4
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Males Females Males Females
% of total population % of total population

Fig. 2
(i) Describe three differences between the MEDC population pyramid and the LEDC population pyramid. (3)
(ii) Suggest why the MEDC pyramid has a different shape.  (4)
(iii) Explain the ways in which a government can increase the size of its population. (5)

(c) For a country you have studied, describe the policies used by the government to reduce rates of population growth. (7)
 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 1 Population and Settlement © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 3 Population structure and control A 1

Marking scheme
(a) (i) A count of the population. 1 mark    (1)
(ii) Ideas such as:
Total population
Gender balance / numbers of males and females
Age structure / people in different age groups
Ethnic details etc. 2 @ 1 mark    (2)
(iii) Ideas such as:
Cannot afford expense
Government has other priorities
Many areas are inaccessible
Many people do not have permanent homes
Many residents are illiterate etc. 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(b) (i) Differences such as:
LEDC pyramid has wider base / MEDC narrower base
LEDC pyramid has narrower top / MEDC wider top
LEDC is pyramid-shaped / MEDC rocket-shaped etc. 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(ii) Ideas such as:
Increasing/high percentage of elderly dependants
Strain on working population / higher taxes have to be paid
Need for more money to be spent on care homes/health
Care/facilities for elderly etc.
Not enough workers
Difficult to defend country
Need to attract foreign workers
Services for young under-utilised / uneconomical / have to be closed etc. 4 @ 1 mark or development    (4)
(iii) Ideas such as:
Financial rewards for having more children/or examples (to max. 2)
Grants towards housing for larger families
Paid maternity leave
Free childcare facilities
Free education
Advertising benefits of larger families etc. 5 @ 1 mark or development    (5)
(c) Levels marking
Level 1 (1–3 marks)
Statements including limited detail which describe the attempts to reduce rates of population growth. e.g. more family planning, more
birth control, educate women, improve health care etc.
Level 2 (4–6 marks)
Uses named example.
More developed statements describing attempts to reduce rates of population growth. e.g. one-child policy, forced abortions and
sterilisation, promoting the benefits of birth control, educate women so that they can have a career, free education for single child in
family, loss of benefits for subsequent children etc.
NB Max. 5 marks if no named example
Level 3 (7 marks)
Uses named example, e.g. China.
Comprehensive and accurate statements including some place-specific reference. e.g. one-child policy was forced onto the Chinese
people when it was introduced in 1979, constant advertisements on TV and in the press about the benefits of having only one child,
‘granny police’ who advised authorities if a second child was born etc. (7)

 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 1 Population and Settlement © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 4 Population density A 1

Sample question
(a) Study Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
(i) Fig. 1 shows part of Shanghai, which is densely populated. What is meant by the term ‘densely populated’? (1)
(ii) In 2008 the population of the Shanghai municipality was 18 450 000. The area of the municipality is 6340 km2.
Work out the population density. Show your calculations. (2)
(iii) State three different types of land use in a densely populated urban area such as Shanghai. (3)

(b) Study Fig. 2.

Arctic C
ircle

Tropic of Cancer

Equator

Tropic of Capricorn

Population/km2
Over 200
51–200
0 2000 4000 km
11–50
1–10
Less than 1

Fig. 2
(i) Compare the population density in Europe and Australia. (3)
(ii) Suggest reasons why Africa has many sparsely populated areas (less than 10/km2). (4)
(iii) Explain why few people live in areas that are mountainous. (5)

(c) For a named area you have studied, explain why it has a high population density. (7)
 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 1 Population and Settlement © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 4 Population density A 1

Marking scheme
(a) (i) Large numbers of people live close together/lots of people live in a small area. 1 mark    (1)
(ii) 2910/km2
Correct working shown (i.e. 18 450 000 divided by 6340)     2 @ 1 mark    (2)
(iii) Land uses such as:
Housing/residential
Industrial
Commercial/businesses/offices
Shops
Leisure facilities / or example
Educational/schools/colleges
Health care/hospitals etc. 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(b) (i) Ideas such as:
In Europe density is generally higher
There are more areas over 50/km2 in Europe
In Australia there are more areas less than 1/km2
T
 here are some exceptions/anomalies, e.g. on south-east coast of
Australia higher density than in northern Scandinavia etc. 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(ii) Ideas such as in Africa:
There are extremes of climate
Large areas of desert/arid landscapes
Where producing food / obtaining water to live on is impossible
Or areas of rainforest
Many areas are inaccessible/have poor communications
And there are areas where there are few economic activities/work available
As in many areas resources are not exploited etc. 4 @ 1 mark    (4)
(iii) Ideas such as:
Steep terrain makes building difficult
Lack of access/poor communications/winding roads
Areas of infertile soil
Make food production / agriculture difficult
Few economic opportunities / lack of employment
Many mountainous  areas have extreme climates
With very cold winters/lots of snow etc. 5 @ 1 mark    (5)
(c) Levels marking
Level 1 (1–3 marks)
Statements including limited detail which suggest reasons for high population density. e.g. lots of jobs, low land, temperate climate,
good access etc.
Level 2 (4–6 marks)
Uses named example.
More developed statements which explain reasons for high population density. e.g. lots of jobs as there are many manufacturing/
commercial businesses located in the area, low land is easy to build settlements on/communications through, good access by road, rail
and air etc.
NB Max. 5 marks if no named example
Level 3 (7 marks)
Uses named example, e.g. north-east USA.
Comprehensive and accurate statements, including some place-specific reference. e.g. lots of jobs as there are many commercial offices
and headquarters of international companies in cities such as New York, flat land on Manhattan Island and the coastal plain is easy to
build settlements on, good international access by air with three airports serving New York etc. (7)

 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 1 Population and Settlement © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 5 International migration A 1

Sample question
(a) Study Fig. 1 which shows recent international migrations.

Some of the world’s more important

current migration routes

Atlantic Ocean

Tropic of Cancer

Pacific Ocean

Equator

Indian Ocean

Tropic of Capricorn

0 2000 4000 km

Fig. 1
(i) What is meant by ‘international migration’? (1)
(ii) What is the difference between:
A forced and voluntary migration
B permanent and seasonal migration? (2)
(iii) Describe the general pattern of migration shown by Fig. 1. Give examples to support your answer. (3)

(b) Study Fig. 2.

Migration benefits sender and receiver countries, Annan says

United Nations Secretary-General, Kofi Annan, yesterday said that international migration brings
benefits to sender and destination countries ...

Fig. 2
A migrant is considering moving from an LEDC to an MEDC.
(i) Suggest three obstacles that will need to be overcome by the migrant. (3)
(ii) Explain the likely benefits of this migration for the migrant. (4)
(iii) Explain the likely benefits of such migration for the sender and destination countries. (5)

(c) Name two countries between which people have migrated. Explain why migration has taken place between
these countries. (7)
 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 1 Population and Settlement © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 5 International migration A 1

Marking scheme
(a) (i) Movement of people between countries. 1 mark    (1)
(ii) A Forced migration occurs when people have no choice but voluntary migration occurs when people
choose to move.
B
 Permanent migration is when people move and stay where they have moved to
but seasonal migration is when they move back after a short time. 2 @ 1 mark    (2)
(iii) Ideas such as:
M
 ost international migrations are short distances, e.g. Eastern to Western Europe / Poland to UK /
Zimbabwe to South Africa etc.
But there are exceptions, e.g. China to USA
M
 ost migrations are from LEDCs to MEDCs, e.g. Mexico to USA / India to Saudi Arabia etc.    3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(b) (i) Ideas such as:
Lack of money
Language barriers
Fear of discrimination
Worries about not finding employment
Leaving friends and family etc. 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(ii) Ideas such as:
Work opportunities / earn a living
To improve quality of life
Better provision of doctors/hospitals etc.
Better chance of education for children
Escape persecution etc. 4 @ 1 mark    (4)
(iii) Ideas such as:
For sender countries:
Less pressure on jobs
Less pressure on food resources / agricultural land
Less pressure on living space
Remittances received from abroad etc.
For destination countries:
Adds to skilled labour supply, e.g. doctors/teachers
Provides cheap/unskilled labour/people to do jobs no one else wants to do
Leads to multicultural society / fosters cultural understanding
P
 rovision of specialist amenities, e.g. restaurants/takeaways etc.
 Max. 3 marks on sender/destination countries    5 @ 1 mark or development    (5)
(c) Levels marking
Level 1 (1–3 marks)
Statements including limited detail which suggest reasons why an international migration has taken place. e.g. to find jobs, to obtain
better services, they can’t grow enough food, war, drought etc.
Level 2 (4–6 marks)
Uses named example.
More developed statements which explain why an international migration has taken place. e.g. to find jobs in service sector/factories,
for their children to have greater access to schools/universities, for their families to have better health care/access to hospitals/clinics,
so they can buy food from shops rather than rely on arid farmland, refugees escaping war zones in fear for their lives, drought prevents
them from producing enough food for adequate nutrition etc.
NB Max. 5 marks if no named example
Level 3 (7 marks)
Uses named example, e.g. Turkey to Germany.
Comprehensive and accurate statements including some place-specific reference. e.g. more employment in Germany where there were
many jobs in rebuilding cities like Cologne after the Second World War, greater access to schools/colleges/hospitals/doctors than in
isolated, mountainous areas of Turkey, refugees escaping war zone close to Iraqi border in fear for their lives, drought in regions such as
central Anatolia causes problems with producing enough food etc.
NB At any level any combination of pulls and pushes can be credited but do not double credit pulls and pushes, e.g. to obtain better
services in destination country/lack of services in sender country. (7)

 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 1 Population and Settlement © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 6 Rural settlements A 1

Sample question
(a) Study Fig. 1.
9

World, total population

8 World, urban population
World, rural population
7

6
World population (billions)

0
1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
Year Estimated

Fig. 1
(i) What is meant by ‘rural area’? (1)
(ii) In which year was the world’s rural population:
A 2 billion
B the same as the world’s urban population? (2)
(iii) Compare the world’s urban and rural populations in 1950 with what is expected in 2030.
Use figures to illustrate your answer. (3)
(iv) Describe the differences between a typical rural area in an LEDC and an MEDC. (4)

(b) Study Fig. 2 which shows a rural settlement in an MEDC.

Fig. 2
(i) Suggest three reasons why the rural settlement shown in the photograph grew up at that site. (3)
(ii) Suggest the likely advantages and disadvantages for people of living in this rural settlement today. (5)

(c) For a named area that you have studied in an LEDC, explain why rural depopulation has occurred. (7)
 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 1 Population and Settlement © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 6 Rural settlements A 1

Marking scheme
(a) (i) Area of countryside / agricultural land / sparsely populated area. 1 mark    (1)
(ii) A 1960, B 2010 2 @ 1 mark    (2)
(iii) Ideas such as:
Both are larger in 2030 than in 1950
Urban is much more in 2030 than it was in 1950
Rural increased from about 1.8 billion in 1950 to 3 billion in 2030
Urban increased from about 0.7 billion in 1950 to 5 billion in 2030 Reserve 1 mark for use of statistics. 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(iv) Differences such as:
MEDC rural areas have less poverty
Details of differences in housing structures
Less likely to have supplies of electricity in LEDCs / details of differences in fuels used
Less likely to have running water in LEDCs
MEDCs will have more schools
MEDCs will be more likely to have doctors/clinics in rural areas
In LEDC rural areas people work in agriculture, in MEDCs relatively few rural dwellers work on farms
In LEDCs people will work in their village, in MEDCs they may commute
Details of differences in transport provision/access etc. 4 @ 1 mark    (4)
(b) (i) Advantages such as:
Fresh water supply
Flat land
Fertile land/land for cultivation
Sheltered from wind
Nearby woodland for use as building material/fuel etc. 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(ii) Advantages such as:
Proximity to open space
For country walks / dog walking (dev)
Large homes / garden space
Quiet environment
Low crime rates
Low levels of atmospheric pollution
Village ‘community’ / everyone knows each other etc.
Disadvantages such as:
High cost of properties/land
Very little local employment
Need to commute to work (dev)
No locally available middle/high order services/or examples
N
 eed to travel distances for weekly shopping (dev)
 Max. 3 marks on each of advantages/disadvantages    5 @ 1 mark or development    (5)
(c) Levels marking
Level 1 (1–3 marks)
Statements including limited detail which suggest reasons why rural depopulation has occurred. e.g. lack of jobs, to obtain better
services, lack of water, disease, poor food supplies etc.
Level 2 (4–6 marks)
Uses named example.
More developed statements which explain why rural depopulation has occurred. e.g. lack of jobs due to mechanisation of agriculture,
lack of access to schools, lack of health care facilities / access to hospitals/clinics, lack of clean water as they have no piped supplies,
diseases like typhoid due to lack of clean water, inadequate food supplies due to drought conditions etc.
NB Max. 5 marks if no named example
Level 3 (7 marks)
Uses named example, e.g. Caatinga in north-east Brazil.
Comprehensive and accurate statements including some place-specific reference. e.g. lack of jobs due to mechanisation of agriculture,
lack of access to schools, lack of health care facilities / access to hospitals/clinics in villages such as Pau Ferro, lack of clean water as
they have no piped supplies, loss of land in valley of São Francisco as it was flooded as part of HEP scheme, inadequate growth of staple
food crops such as cassava due to drought conditions etc. (7)

 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 1 Population and Settlement © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 7 Urban settlements A 1

Sample question
(a) Study Fig. 1. Increase in size
of settlement,
population and
number of
services
Capital Above 2 million
city

URBAN
Regional 150 000–500 000
centre

Large 25 000–150 000

town

Small 2500–25 000

town

Village 100–2500
RURAL

Hamlet 10–100

Fig. 1
(i) What is meant by the term ‘settlement hierarchy’? (1)
(ii) Give two examples of services found in villages. (2)
(iii) State three differences between the characteristics of services found in a village and a city. Refer to:
• order of services
• sphere of influence
• threshold population. (3)
(iv) Explain why people travel further to buy a television set than a newspaper. (4)

(b) Study Fig. 2.

Fig. 2
(i) T he settlement shown in the photograph grew as a fishing village.
Suggest three ways in which the land use is different now. (3)
(ii) Describe and explain the changes that will have occurred in the employment structure. (5)

(c) For a town or city that you have studied, explain the reasons for its growth and functions. (7)
 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 1 Population and Settlement © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 7 Urban settlements A 1

Marking scheme
(a) (i) Arrangement of settlement in size/order of importance 1 mark    (1)
(ii) Examples such as:
Church
Post office
Primary school
Doctor’s surgery/clinic
Public house
General store/newsagent etc. 2 @ 1 mark    (2)
(iii) Ideas such as:
Village services are low order, those in cities include middle and high order
Services in villages have smaller sphere of influence than those in cities
Services found in villages have lower threshold population than those in cities 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(iv) Ideas such as:
Newspapers are low order goods, televisions high order
Television shops have a larger sphere of influence than newsagents
There are more shops selling newspapers than televisions
So people are likely to have a newsagent near their home (dev)
P
 eople buy newspapers daily/more frequently than televisions – so it would be impractical/
not worthwhile to travel a long distance for newspapers (dev)
T
 elevisions are a high-cost item, newspapers low-cost – so it is worth travelling a
distance for television to compare price/quality (dev) etc. 4 @ 1 mark or development    (4)
(b) (i) Differences such as:
Construction of tourist apartments/hotels
Conversion of cottages into holiday homes
Building of marina to replace fishing quays
Building of tourist shops/facilities on quayside etc. 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(ii) Ideas such as:
Decrease in importance of primary sector (description)
Because there will be fewer people employed as fishermen (explanation)
And fewer farmers due to farmland being built on (explanation)
Decrease in importance of secondary sector / manufacturing (description)
As there will be a decline in fish processing industry (explanation)
Increase in importance of tertiary sector/services (description)
D
 ue to growth of tourism/jobs in hotels/in marina (explanation) etc.
 Max. 3 marks on description/explanation    5 @ 1 mark or development    (5)
(c) Levels marking
Level 1 (1–3 marks)
Statements including limited detail on reasons for growth and function of settlement. e.g. good road access, flat land, railways serve it,
on a river estuary etc.
Level 2 (4–6 marks)
Uses named example.
More developed statements on reasons for growth and function of settlement. e.g. focus of routes / route centre, good roads enabled
growth of industry, flat land that was above floodplain, bridging point of river etc.
NB Max. 5 marks if no named example
Level 3 (7 marks)
Uses named example, e.g. Rotterdam.
More developed statements on reasons for growth of named settlement including some place-specific reference. e.g. Rotterdam is
a port, located near mouth of River Rhine; deepwater anchorage; sheltered anchorage; space for expansion of warehouse facilities;
opposite side of North Sea to UK encouraged trade; hinterland of industrial towns in Netherlands and Germany; break-of-bulk point for
river trade along Rhine etc. (7)

 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 1 Population and Settlement © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 8 Urbanisation A 1

Sample question
(a) Study Fig. 1.

Percentage of total
population living
in urban areas
Over 80
60–80
40–59
ASIA
NORTH EUROPE 20–39
AMERICA
Under 20

Tropic of Cancer
AFRICA
Equator
SOUTH
AMERICA
Tropic of Capricorn
AUSTRALASIA

0 2000 4000 km

Fig. 1
(i) What is meant by the term ‘urbanisation’? (1)
(ii) Name:
A an Asian country where less than 20% of the total population live in urban areas
B a South American country where over 80% of the total population live in urban areas. (2)
(iii) Describe the main differences in the percentage of population living in urban areas in Africa and Europe.
Use figures to support your answer. (3)
(iv) Suggest how Fig. 1 might look different in 2050. Give reasons for your answer. (4)

(b) Study Fig. 2 which was taken in an urban area in India.

Fig. 2
(i) Describe three features of the buildings shown in the photograph. (3)
(ii) Explain how rapid urbanisation will cause problems in Indian cities such as the one shown in the photograph. (5)

(c) For a named city in an LEDC, explain how the living conditions have been improved. (7)
 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 1 Population and Settlement © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 8 Urbanisation A 1

Marking scheme
(a) (i) An increasing proportion of people living in urban areas 1 mark    (1)
(ii) A Afghanistan/Nepal/Thailand/Vietnam
B Argentina/Chile/Venezuela/Uruguay 2 @ 1 mark    (2)
(iii) Ideas such as:
Europe has more people living in urban areas than Africa
Europe mainly 60% or over
Africa mainly below 60%
There are exceptions, e.g. Ireland 40–60% / Libya over 80%
 NB 1 mark reserved for use of statistics    3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(iv) Ideas such as:
There will be more countries with higher percentage of people living in urban areas / in darker shaded areas on map
Especially in Africa/Asia/or specific example of a country
As rural to urban migration is still taking place in LEDCs
Unlikely to be significant change in Europe/North America/Australasia/or specific example of a country
As there is little rural to urban migration
Or possibly a decrease may occur due to counter-urbanisation etc.
 NB 1 mark reserved for each of description/reasoning    4 @ 1 mark or development    (4)
(b) (i) Features such as:
They are located alongside a river
One storey
Made from corrugated sheets/canvas/sacking/cardboard
Self-built
Small
Close together
No windows
No foundations
Flimsy building materials etc. 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(ii) Ideas such as:
Not enough housing
Growth of shanty towns/squatter settlements/people living on streets (dev)
Not enough employment
Resulting in poverty (dev)
Which may lead to high crime rates/begging (dev)
Inadequate water supplies/few people have piped water
And inadequate sanitation/waste thrown into rivers
Which leads to water-borne disease/typhoid/cholera (dev)
Pressure on services/or examples etc. 5 @ 1 mark or development    (5)
(c) Levels marking
Level 1 (1–3 marks)
Statements including limited detail on methods used to improve living conditions in LEDC cities. e.g. improve water supply, improve
sanitation, build permanent houses, provide better health care, improvement of communications, self-help schemes etc.
Level 2 (4–6 marks)
Uses named example.
More developed statements on methods used to improve living conditions in LEDC cities. e.g. installation of piped water supplies,
building of sewage treatment works, local authority builds cheap housing/apartments for rent, build tarred roads to shanty towns,
provide bus links to shanty towns, regular refuse collection/recycling, education in building/plumbing skills, provision of free or low-
cost building materials, building of primary health care centres etc.
NB Max. 5 marks if no named example
Level 3 (7 marks)
Uses named example, e.g. Rio de Janeiro.
Comprehensive and accurate statements, including some place-specific reference. e.g. installation of piped water supplies in favelas,
building of sewage works in areas such as Rocinha, local authority builds cheap housing/apartments for rent, build tarred roads to
shanty towns on steep hillsides on edge of city, provide public transport to shanty towns, regular rubbish collection/recycling, free
education in building skills for adults in schools in Rocinha, provision of free or low-cost building materials, building of primary health
care centres etc. (7)

 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 1 Population and Settlement © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 9 Urban problems A 1

Sample question
(a) Study Fig. 1.
Urban area Average % of homes Murders per Levels of noise Mean traffic Levels of air
number of with water and 100 000 people (1–10) speed (km/hr pollution
people per electricity 1 = low in rush hour) (1–10) 1 = low
room 10 = high 10 = high
Cairo (Egypt) 1.5 94 56.4 7 12.4 10
Jakarta (Indonesia) 3.4 85 5.3 6 16.3 10
London (UK) 0.6 100 2.5 8 10.4 3
Melbourne 0.5 100 2.0 3 20.3 1
(Australia)
Moscow (Russia) 1.3 100 7.0 6 31.5 7
San Francisco (USA) 0.6 98 5.8 3 16.0 3
Seoul (South Korea) 2.0 100 1.2 7 13.8 7
Shanghai (China) 2.0 95 2.5 5 15.3 3
Note: Where 1 to 10 scale is used 1 is low and 10 is high
Fig. 1
(i) Name an example of an urban area from Fig. 1 that experiences traffic congestion. Give a reason for your choice. (1)
(ii) Give two reasons why it is important to solve the problem of traffic congestion in cities. (2)
(iii) Using evidence from Fig. 1:
A Suggest three different urban problems (other than traffic congestion) faced by planners in Cairo.  (3)
B Identify two similarities and two differences between the quality of life in London and in Melbourne. (4)

(b) Study Fig. 2.

Public
transport

Comprehensive Solutions Urban

redevelopment to urban regeneration
problems

Public housing
Ring roads
schemes

Fig. 2
(i) What is meant by:
• public housing
• public transport
• ring road? (3)
(ii) Describe the advantages and disadvantages of either urban regeneration or comprehensive
redevelopment for people living in inner cities. (5)

(c) In all large urban areas there have been changes in land use. These include the development of:
• road networks
• residential areas
• industrial areas
• leisure and shopping facilities.
For a named urban area, identify a recent change in land use. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of this
development for people who live in the urban area that you have named. (7)
 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 1 Population and Settlement © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 9 Urban problems A 1

Marking scheme (1 of 2)
(a) (i) e .g. Cairo/Jakarta/London/San Francisco/Seoul/Shanghai – low mean traffic speed
Example and reasoning both needed 1 mark    (1)
(ii) Ideas such as:
To reduce time wasted in traffic jams/speed up journeys
To reduce air pollution from queueing traffic
To reduce stress levels / road rage
To improve safety for motorists/pedestrians
So that goods can be delivered more quickly/efficiently etc. 2 @ 1 mark    (2)
(iii) A Problems such as:
Atmospheric pollution
Some homes without basic utilities/water/electricity
High crime rates
Noise pollution etc. 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
B Similarities such as:
100% of homes have water and electricity
Small/similar average number of people per room/not much overcrowding
Small/similar number of murders/low crime rate
Differences such as:
More noise in London
Slower traffic/more congestion in London
Less air pollution in Melbourne Max. 2 marks on similarities/differences    4 @ 1 mark    (4)
(b) (i) Public housing = houses built by local authority/municipality/available for cheap rent etc.
P
 ublic transport = methods of transport that can be used by large numbers of people /
are available for anyone to use/buses, trains, trams, metro etc.     If examples are given at least 2 are needed for 1 mark
R
 ing road = a road that goes around an urban area / around the CBD / enables traffic to pass through an
urban area without going through the centre etc. 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(ii) Candidates choose either urban regeneration or comprehensive redevelopment.
Urban regeneration
Advantages such as:
Lower-cost option
Therefore local taxation remains lower
Enables people to stay in their own communities
Within easy reach of CBD/for work or services (dev)
So their children can keep attending same school (dev)
Improves environmental quality
Creates employment etc.
Disadvantages such as:
Long disruption from building work
Creates noise/dust (dev)
Traffic congestion in construction phase (dev)
Practical difficulties of upgrading old housing stock (could be argued that this may be more expensive than building new houses)
Comprehensive redevelopment
Advantages such as:
Completely fresh start / opportunity to plan land use carefully
Opportunity to plan to incorporate business use to provide work (dev)
And open space/leisure facilities/play areas (dev)
All homes built with required utilities/water/electricity supply
Practical advantage of rebuilding in an empty area rather than working around existing buildings/residents etc.
Disadvantages such as:
High-cost option
People have to temporarily move away from their community
And may not be able to afford new homes in area once redeveloped
So they will have to live further from CBD/work etc. (dev)
Thus destroying communities/social fabric (dev)
M
 odern homes of poor/cheap design may soon fall into disrepair (dev) etc.
 Max. 3 marks on advantages/disadvantages    5 @ 1 mark or development    (5)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 1 Population and Settlement © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Topic 9 Marking scheme

Marking scheme (continued 2 of 2)

(c) Levels marking
Level 1 (1–3 marks)
Statements including limited detail on advantages or disadvantages of a change in land use in an urban area. e.g. building a new out-
of-town shopping area; people have more choice of shops, shops are easier to get to, it becomes noisy, woodlands destroyed, more litter
etc.
Level 2 (4–6 marks)
Uses named example.
More developed statements on advantages or disadvantages of a change in land use in an urban area. e.g. building a new out-of-town
shopping area, people have more choice of shops as there are many big name shops there selling comparison goods, shops are easier
to get to as they do not have to travel from suburbs into CBD, it becomes noisy for residents alongside the main roads as traffic levels
increase, areas of woodland are destroyed so people have no longer got areas to take their dogs for walks/for children to play, more
litter from fast-food outlets etc.
NB Max. 5 marks if no named example
Level 3 (7 marks)
Uses named example, e.g. Lakeside Shopping Centre in Joondalup, a suburb of Perth, Western Australia.
Developed statements on advantages and disadvantages, including some place-specific reference. e.g. people have more choice of
shops as there are department stores like Target and Kmart there selling comparison goods, shops are easier to get to as adjoining the
centre is the Joondalup Interchange, served by trains and bus routes covering suburbs from Whitfords to Clarkson, it becomes noisy
for residents alongside the main roads such as Boas Avenue as traffic levels increase, the establishments of fast-food outlets such as
Bucking Bull and Hungry Jacks result in problems of litter for local residents etc. (7)

 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 1 Population and Settlement © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 10 Urban sprawl A 1

Sample question
(a) Study Fig. 1, a cartoon about urban sprawl.

“We’re waiting for the city to come to us …”

Fig. 1
(i) What is meant by ‘urban sprawl’? (1)
(ii) State two ways in which the cartoon is showing that urban sprawl is occurring. (2)
(iii) State three land uses in areas where urban sprawl had occurred. (3)
(iv) Suggest reasons why sprawl is more likely to occur around some urban areas than others. (4)

(b) Study Fig. 2.

Urban sprawl is gobbling up green space in southern Ontario at an unprecedented rate. At the current
rate, an additional 1070 square kilometres of rural land will be urbanized by 2031, almost double the
size of the City of Toronto. Sprawling patterns of growth destroy green space and farmland, pollute
rivers, and force us to be too dependent on vehicles, which in turn creates air pollution and global
climate change.

Fig. 2
(i) Describe three different effects of urban sprawl on local natural environments. (3)
(ii) Using your own words, explain why urban sprawl may contribute to global environmental problems. (5)

(c) Name an example of a town or city you have studied where urban sprawl has taken place.
Describe its impacts on local people. (7)
 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 1 Population and Settlement © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 10 Urban sprawl A 1

Marking scheme
(a) (i) Expansion of urban areas on surrounding rural land 1 mark    (1)
(ii) Ideas such as:
On sign distances to city are getting smaller
New buildings/construction visible close to edge of city
Person’s comment suggests outward growth of city etc. 2 @ 1 mark    (2)
(iii) Land uses such as:
Residential
Shopping malls/out-of-town retail parks
Industrial estates
Ring roads/motorways etc. 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(iv) Ideas such as:
Population will be growing more in some cities than others
As a result of economic growth/migration etc. (dev)
Relief will determine how far the city can spread
Flat land will present no obstacles (dev)
However, mountains/swamp/desert may limit expansion (dev)
Different town councils/municipalities may have different policies
Some have green belts preventing expansion (dev) etc. 4 @ 1 mark or development    (4)
(b) (i) Ideas such as:
Destruction of woodlands/hedgerows/deforestation
Loss of habitats 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(ii) Ideas such as:
Burning of vegetation to clear space for building will increase release of carbon dioxide
Loss of vegetation will result in fewer plants to use up carbon dioxide …
thus build-up of carbon dioxide in atmosphere will worsen greenhouse effect …
increasing global average temperatures (dev) …
which may melt ice caps (dev) …
and cause flooding of coastal lowlands (dev)
Longer journeys by car from outer suburbs will increase carbon dioxide in atmosphere …
and oxides of sulphur and nitrogen from exhausts may cause acid rain …
which will lead to loss of forest/damage to lakes (dev) etc. 5 @ 1 mark or development    (5)
(c) Levels marking
Level 1 (1–3 marks)
Statements including limited detail on problems caused by urban sprawl. e.g. traffic congestion, loss of farmland, noise pollution, visual
impact, more new houses/houses with gardens available etc.
Level 2 (4–6 marks)
Uses named example.
More developed statements on problems caused by urban sprawl. e.g. traffic congestion as many people who live in new developments
commute to work in CBD, loss of farmland due to new housing developments/road construction, atmospheric pollution from increased
traffic/leads to increase in asthma, loss of woodlands/open areas reduces number of areas people can go for country walks/walk the
dog, people who once had views across farmland now overlook retail park, more new houses available with plenty of space/in semi-
rural setting etc.
NB Max. 5 marks if no named example
Level 3 (7 marks)
Uses named example, e.g. Las Vegas.
More developed statements, including some place-specific reference. e.g. traffic congestion as many people who live in new
developments commute to work in hotels on the Strip in the CBD, atmospheric pollution from increased traffic/leads to increase in
asthma as fumes are trapped by high pressure cells in this desert environment, loss of desert landscape reduces number of areas people
can go for recreational activities/study, people who once had views across desert now overlook casinos, more new houses available with
plenty of space and room for outdoor pools etc. (7)

 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 1 Population and Settlement © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 11 Plate tectonics A 2

Sample question
(a) Study Fig. 1.

Pacific Ring North e

American Eurasian g of Fir
Rin
of F

ROCKIES Plate Plate

Pacific
ALPS
ire

Pacific
HIMALAYAS Plate
Pacific Atlantic ATLAS
Plate Ocean MOUNTAINS Pacific
Ocean
African
Plate
Pacific ANDES Indian
Ocean Ocean
South
American Indo-Australian
Nazca Plate Plate
Plate

Antarctic
Plate
Direction of plate movement

Fig. 1
(i) What is the outer layer of the Earth called? (1)
(ii) Use Fig. 1 to explain why the outer layer of the Earth can be compared with a jigsaw. (2)
(iii) The following processes take place at plate boundaries. For each process name two
Plateplates
1 thatPlate
share2 a

boundary where it is happening: Divergent

boundary
A sea-floor spreading
B subduction
C formation of fold mountains. (3)
(iv) Explain why earthquakes occur at plate boundaries. (4)

(b)

Plate 1 Plate 2 Plate 1 Plate 2

Divergent Convergent
boundary boundary

Fig. 2
Plate 1 Plate 2
(i) ExplainConvergent
why volcanoes are formed at divergent plate boundaries. (3)
boundary
(ii) Explain why there are active volcanoes along convergent plate boundaries. (5)

(c) Name an area you have studied and state whether it has been affected by an earthquake or a volcanic eruption.
Describe how the earthquake or eruption affected people and the environment in the area. (7)
 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 2 The Natural Environment © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 11 Plate tectonics A 2

Marking scheme
(a) (i) Crust 1 mark    (1)
(ii) Ideas such as:
It is made up of several pieces which fit tightly together
It is relatively thin etc. 2 @ 1 mark    (2)
(iii) A = African/South American; Eurasian/North American
B = South American/Nazca; Eurasian/Pacific
C = Indo-Australian/Eurasian; African/Eurasian 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(iv) Ideas such as:
Plate boundaries are lines of weakness
Plates are moving at either side of boundary
Locked together/friction
Build-up of pressure
Sudden movement/jerk apart etc. 4 @ 1 mark    (4)
(b) (i) Ideas such as:
Gap/line of weakness created as plates move apart
Magma emerges through gap
Lava solidifies to form volcanoes etc. 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(ii) Ideas such as:
Subduction of one plate/oceanic plate
Due to greater density of oceanic plate (dev)
Friction/heating
Oceanic plate destroyed/turns to magma/melts
Build-up of magma
Results in pressure (dev)
Magma rises through lines of weakness 5 @ 1 mark or development    (5)
(c) Levels marking
Level 1 (1–3 marks)
Statements including limited detail describing effects of a volcanic eruption or earthquake on people or environment. e.g. people killed,
housing destroyed, roads and railways damaged, vegetation destroyed etc.
Level 2 (4–6 marks)
Uses named example.
More developed statements describing effects of a volcanic eruption or earthquake on people or environment. e.g. people killed by hot
lava/suffocation by toxic fumes, housing buried by lava/layers of dust, communications disrupted by lava covering roads/railways,
devastation of lumbering industry by destruction of forests etc.
NB Max. 5 marks if no named example
Level 3 (7 marks)
Uses named example, e.g. Mt St Helens volcanic eruption.
More developed statements describing effects of a volcanic eruption or earthquake on people and environment including some
place-specific reference. e.g. 61 deaths/suffocation by toxic fumes, forests and logging camps destroyed, communications disrupted by
floodwaters washing away roads/railway bridges, loss of fish in a hatchery on Toutle river etc. (7)

 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 2 The Natural Environment © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 13 Rivers – from source to mouth A 2

Sample question
(a) Study Fig. 1 which shows part of the upper course of a river.

Fig. 1
(i) The river in the photograph is close to its source. What is meant by the ‘source’ of a river? (1)
(ii) Describe two characteristics of the channel of the river shown in the photograph. (2)
(iii) Describe three ways in which the river and valley shown in the photograph is likely to change by its middle course. (3)
(iv) State two different types of load transported by a river such as one shown in photograph.
Explain how each type is moved downstream.  (4)

(b) Study Fig. 2 which shows a river and part of its floodplain.

Fig. 2
(i) Explain how a floodplain is formed by a river. (3)
(ii) Explain why there are advantages and disadvantages for people who live on floodplains. (5)

(c) Describe and explain the formation of an ox-bow lake. You should use labelled diagrams. (7)
 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 2 The Natural Environment © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 13 Rivers – from source to mouth A 2

Marking scheme
(a) (i) The start of a stream/river 1 mark    (1)
(ii) Ideas such as:
Narrow/approx. 1 metre average
Width varies / 0.5 to 2 metres approx.
Contains some debris/rocks
Irregular long profile / contains rapids / small waterfall
Shallow
Course is fairly straight/slightly winding etc. 2 @ 1 mark    (2)
(iii) Ideas such as in middle course:
The river will contain more water / be wider / be deeper
Meanders may be present / ox-bow lakes may form
Valley will become wider / floodplain will develop
Sides will be more gently sloping etc. 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(iv) Transportation processes as follows:
Traction: large materials being pushed/rolled along bed
Saltation: pebbles being picked up by water and bounced along the bed / series of hops
Suspension: light materials carried within the water
Solution: materials dissolved in the water 2 marks for names of processes and 2 marks for explanations    4 @ 1 mark    (4)
(b) (i) Ideas such as:
River overflows banks/flooding occurs
Speed of water decreases/standing water alongside river
Materials are deposited
Repeated flooding causes build-up of materials to form floodplain
Migration of meanders etc. 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(ii) Ideas such as:
Advantages:
Agriculture/fertile soils/good grazing land In temperate lands cattle can be grazed on good pastures (dev)
As a result of deposition of silt (dev) Communications (by river/road/rail on floodplain)
So output of crops is high (dev) River may be source of food/fish
Water for irrigation Flat building land etc.
So in tropics rice can be grown as staple food (dev)
Disadvantages:
Flooding Instability of foundations
Results in loss of crops/livestock/property (dev) Need to bridge river
O
 ften densely populated/competition for space etc.
 Max. 3 marks on advantages/disadvantages    5 @ 1 mark or development    (5)
(c) Levels marking
Level 1 (1–3 marks)
Statements including limited detail which attempt to explain formation of ox-bow lake. e.g. erosion of outer banks, deposition on inner
banks, river cuts off a meander etc.
Level 2 (4–6 marks)
More developed statements which clearly explain formation of ox-bow lake. e.g. erosion on outer bends where speed of flow is
faster, deposition on inner bends where flow is slow, river cuts off a meander by eroding outer banks of meander, neck narrowed, and
eventually cut through during time of flood / high flow, former meander cut off / sealed by deposition etc.
Level 3 (7 marks)
Comprehensive and accurate process-specific statements/terminology. Needs to include labelled diagram(s). e.g. erosion by hydraulic
action which undercuts outer bends where speed of flow is faster, deposition to create slip-off slopes on inner bends where flow is slow,
river cuts off a meander by eroding outer banks of meander, neck narrowed, and eventually cut through during time of flood / high flow,
former meander cut off/sealed by deposition of silt/sediment etc. (7)

 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 2 The Natural Environment © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 14 Coasts A 2

Sample question
(a) Study Fig. 1.

Y
X

Fig. 1
(i) The landforms in the photograph were formed by coastal erosion. What is meant by ‘erosion’? (1)
(ii) Identify the types of landform labelled X and Y. (2)
(iii) Name or describe three different processes that may affect landform X. (3)
(iv) Explain how landform Y has been formed. (4)

(b) Study Fig. 2.

a Original coastline before erosion

b Present-day coastline

Bay
Headland
Hard, resistant rock
Softer, less resistant rock

Fig. 2
(i) Explain the formation of bays and headlands in an area such as that shown in Fig. 2. (3)
(ii) Explain why a large beach may form in a bay. (5)

(c) For a stretch of coastline where coastal deposition has occurred, describe the coastal landforms
and explain their formation. You may use labelled diagrams in your answer. (7)
 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 2 The Natural Environment © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 14 Coasts A 2

Marking scheme
(a) (i) Wearing away 1 mark    (1)
(ii) X = cliff
Y = stack  2 @ 1 mark    (2)
(iii) Processes such as:
Weathering (or example such as freeze–thaw)
Hydraulic action / power of waves entering cracks in rocks
Corrasion / materials carried by waves hit cliffs and erode them
Corrosion/solution of chalk/limestone by seawater etc. 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(iv) Ideas such as:
Erosion of base of cliff/waves hit cliff
Lines of weakness eroded to form notches
Caves develop
Back-to-back caves break through to form arch
Arch roof collapses to form stack etc. 4 @ 1 mark    (4)
(b) (i) Ideas such as:
There are resistant / less resistant rocks outcropping / rocks of different hardness
Soft rocks form bays / hard rocks form headlands
Differential erosion occurs
Less resistant rocks worn more rapidly etc. 3 @ 1 mark or development    (3)
(ii) Ideas such as:
Bays are sheltered
So materials are not washed away (dev)
Wave energy is concentrated on headlands
Wave refraction dissipates energy of waves in bay
So constructive waves occur in bay
Which deposit materials rather than eroding (dev)
Less resistant rocks are broken down easily into small particles etc. 5 @ 1 mark or development    (5)
(c) Levels marking
Level 1 (1–3 marks)
Statements naming or describing or explaining formation of depositional coastal landform/s in limited detail. e.g. sand spit, sand bar,
formed by longshore drift etc.
Level 2 (4–6 marks)
Uses named example.
More developed statements describing or explaining formation of depositional coastal landform/s. e.g. longshore drift occurs, swash
moves materials at oblique angle and backwash at right-angle, materials move in zigzag fashion, causes sand bar to gradually extend
across bay, formation of lagoon etc.
NB Max. 5 marks if no named example
Level 3 (7 marks)
Uses named example, e.g. Slapton sand bar.
More developed statements describing and explaining formation of depositional coastal landform/s including some place-specific
reference. e.g. longshore drift occurs from south to north, swash moves materials at oblique angle and backwash at right-angle,
materials move in zigzag fashion, causes sand bar to gradually extend further across former bay, eventually extends all way across,
blocks off river’s route to sea, formation of lagoon, sedimentation reduces size of lagoon etc. (7)

 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 2 The Natural Environment © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 15 Coral reefs A 2

Sample question
(a) Study Fig. 1.
Coral reefs at risk from human activities
100 000

High or very high

90 000
Medium
Low
80 000

70 000
Coral reef at risk (km2)

60 000

50 000

40 000

30 000

20 000

10 000

0
Middle Caribbean Indian South-east Pacific
East Ocean Asia

Fig. 1
(i) How many square kilometres of coral reef are at risk in the Middle East? (1)
(ii) In which area is:
A the largest area of coral reefs at risk
B the largest area of coral reefs at high or very high risk? (2)
(iii) What type of coral reef is:
A close to the shore, separated by shallow water
B at least 10 km from the shore, separated by deep water
C a more or less circular or continuous reef extending all the way around a lagoon without a central island?
Choose your answers from:
atoll    barrier reef    fringing reef (3)
(iv) Explain why marine pollution puts coral reefs and their ecosystems at risk. (4)

(b) Study Fig. 2.

Major coral reef regions

Pacific Atlantic
Ocean Ocean
Tropic of Cancer Red
Sea Caribbean
Sea
Equator
Indian
Tropic of Capricorn Ocean

0 2000 4000 km

Fig. 2
(i) Describe the distribution of the major coral reef regions shown on Fig. 2. (3)
(ii) Describe and explain the conditions required for the development of coral. (5)

(c) For a place you have studied, explain why an area of coral reef provides opportunities for people. (7)
 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 2 The Natural Environment © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 15 Coral reefs A 2

Marking scheme
(a) (i) 21 000 1 mark    (1)
(ii) A Pacific
B South-east Asia 2 @ 1 mark    (2)
(iii) A Fringing reef
B Barrier reef
C Atoll 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(iv) Ideas such as:
Damage to coral caused by chemicals in water
Species/fish poisoned
Toxins build up in food chain
Food chains/webs disrupted
As predators have no food (dev)
Murky water prevents sunlight passing through
So coral polyps will not thrive (dev) etc. 4 @ 1 mark or development    (4)
(b) (i)
Ideas such as:
Next to / attached to coasts
Mainly between Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn/between 30°N and 30°S
Areas with warm ocean currents
I n South-east Asia / Caribbean / east African coast /Middle East /
Indian Ocean etc. (2 areas needed for 1 mark)    3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(ii) Ideas such as:
Warm water/seas; temperatures above (20°C) (dev)
To allow growth of coral polyps (expl)
Shallow water
Not more than 60 metres deep (dev)
Plentiful supply of oxygen in water/unpolluted
Water free from sediment/clear
So sunlight penetrates (expl)
Because reef-building corals depend on microscopic algae/plankton (expl)
And sunlight is necessary for these algae to thrive (expl)
Areas subject to strong wave action
Waves carry food, nutrients and oxygen to the reef (expl)
Waves distribute coral larvae (expl)
Waves prevent sediment from settling on the coral reef (expl) etc. 5 @ 1 mark or development    (5)
(c) Levels marking
Level 1 (1–3 marks)
Statements including limited detail describing opportunities provided for people by an area of coral reef. e.g. fishing, tourism, shelter,
diving, medicines etc.
Level 2 (4–6 marks)
Uses named example.
More developed statements describing opportunities provided for people by an area of coral reef. e.g. people make a living / provide
food from fishing on reefs, tourism industry can be established giving jobs in hotels, people are employed to take people to reefs in
small boats / provide facilities for diving on reef, some people make a living by catching small colourful fish and selling them for export
market, ports grow up which may be protected from large waves by areas of coral, some people collect coral which supports small-scale
craft industry, some corals can be used to treat asthma, heart disease, leukaemia, tumours and HIV. Chemicals produced by sea slugs
and sponges to repel fish are useful as insecticides etc.
NB Max. 5 marks if no named example
Level 3 (7 marks)
Uses named example, e.g. Seychelles.
Comprehensive and accurate statements including some place-specific reference. e.g. people make a living / provide food from fishing
on reefs off coast of Mahe Island, tourism industry can be established giving jobs in hotels in Beau Vallon Bay, people are employed
to take people to reefs in small boats / provide facilities for diving on reef, some people make a living by catching small colourful fish
and selling them to South African market for tropical fish enthusiasts, ports such as Victoria grow up which may be protected from
large waves by areas of coral, some people collect coral which supports small-scale craft industry, chemicals produced by sea slugs and
sponges to repel fish are useful as insecticides etc. (7)

 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 2 The Natural Environment © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 17 Tropical rainforests A 2

Sample question
(a) Study Fig. 1. Arctic C
ircle

Tropic of Cancer

Equator

Tropic of Capricorn

Tropical rainforest 0 2000 4000 km

Fig. 1
(i) Define the term ‘ecosystem’. (1)
(ii) Name a country with a tropical rainforest ecosystem:
A in Asia
B in South America. (2)
(iii) Describe the distribution of areas with a tropical rainforest ecosystem. (3)

(b) Study Fig. 2. Betafo, Madagascar

30° 30°
Temperature (°C)
20° 20°
Growing season
10° temperature (°C) 10°

0° 0°
350 350
Rainfall (mm)
300 300

250 250

200 200

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
J F M A M J J A S O N D

Fig. 2
(i) I dentify and state the temperatures of the months with the highest and lowest maximum
temperature in Betafo. What is the annual range of temperature? (3)
(ii) Explain why the annual precipitation is high in the tropical rainforest. (4)
(iii) Explain the relationship between the climate and the natural vegetation of tropical rainforests. (5)

(c) Describe and explain how human activity is changing an area of tropical rainforest you have studied. (7)
 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 2 The Natural Environment © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 17 Tropical rainforests A 2

Marking scheme
(a) (i) The living and non-living things in an area interacting with each other 1 mark    (1)
(ii) A Indonesia/Malaysia etc.
B Brazil/Peru etc. 2 @ 1 mark    (2)
(iii) Ideas such as:
On or close to equator
Between 10°N and 10°S
South America / South-east Asia / Africa 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(b) (i) Highest: December 30°C
Lowest: June 16°C
Range = 14°C 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(ii) Ideas such as:
Overhead/high-angle sun
High temperatures
Large amounts of evaporation
Humid conditions
Large amounts of transpiration
Convectional rainfall etc. 4 @ 1 mark    (4)
(iii) Candidates need to explain the relationship between climate and natural vegetation,
rather than just describing vegetation.
Ideas such as:
Large amounts of/high density of vegetation due to hot/wet climate
Evergreen due to high temperatures all year round / little seasonal change
Drip-tip leaves to remove heavy rain
Emergents need to grow tall to get sunlight
Variety of species as growing conditions are ideal/hot/wet
Canopies help shield plants from hot/wet conditions etc. 5 @ 1 mark or development    (5)
(c) Levels marking
Level 1 (1–3 marks)
Statements including limited detail explaining how human activity is changing an area of rainforest. e.g. vegetation is being cleared /
deforestation is taking place, the land is being farmed, mining is taking place, animals are killed, soil is washed away etc.
Level 2 (4–6 marks)
Uses named example.
More developed statements explaining how human activity is changing an area of rainforest. e.g. lumbering is taking place to export
hardwoods, minerals such as iron ore are extracted from the area from opencast mines, the area is used for commercial farming /
grazing of cattle, animals are killed and species threatened with extinction, disruption to food chains, loss of habitat reduces numbers of
species, loss of vegetation reduces interception therefore increasing run-off / causing floods etc.
NB Max. 5 marks if no named example
Level 3 (7 marks)
Uses named example, e.g. Amazonia.
Comprehensive and accurate statements explaining how human activity is changing an area of rainforest, including some place-
specific reference. e.g. in Amazonia thousands of species of plants, insects and animals in the state of Mato Grosso are threatened with
extinction, trees are being chopped down and transported downriver from settlements like Manaus for export, raw materials such as
iron ore are extracted from the opencast mines such as the Carajas mine, loss of habitat in marshy areas alongside river Amazon, loss of
vegetation reduces interception increasing run-off and causing floods as soil is washed into river Amazon and its tributaries etc. (7)

 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 2 The Natural Environment © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 18 Hot deserts A 2

Sample question
(a) Study Fig. 1.

In tropical deserts during the summer, daytime temperatures between 44° and 47°C are not unusual.
A record air temperature of 62.6°C was measured in the Sahara Desert on 13 September 1922,
and that was in the shade! Nights, however, are much cooler. The temperature may drop 25°C or
more after the sun sets. At night temperatures of 10°C are common, and they may even drop below
freezing.

Fig. 1
(i) State the maximum temperature which has been recorded in the desert. (1)
(ii) Explain why:
A daytime temperatures in the tropical desert are high (2)
B nights are cold in tropical deserts. (3)
(iii) Explain why there is not much rainfall in a tropical desert such as the Sahara. (4)

(b) Study Fig. 2.

Fig. 2
(i) Give three pieces of evidence from Fig. 2 which suggest that the photo was taken in a tropical desert. (3)
(ii) Describe how areas of tropical desert are used by people. (5)

(c) For a named hot desert you have studied, describe and explain how plants have adapted to the climate. (7)
 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 2 The Natural Environment © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 18 Hot deserts A 2

Marking scheme
(a) (i) 62.6°C 1 mark    (1)
(ii) A Ideas such as:
Sun is overhead/shines from a high angle
Lack of cloud cover  2 @ 1 mark    (2)
B Ideas such as:
Sun is not shining
There are no clouds/humidity is low
Heat can easily escape
By radiation 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(iii) Ideas such as:
Many are a long way from oceans
Therefore no water body to supply moisture
Affected by trade winds
Which blow over large areas of land hence no source of moisture
Some are in rainshadow
Lack of evaporation to create atmospheric moisture
High pressure / descending air etc. 4 @ 1 mark or development    (4)
(b) (i) Ideas such as:
Large areas of bare rock
Scattered scrub vegetation
Evidence of exfoliation of rocks / peeling of outer layers
Evidence of undercutting of rock by wind blasting etc. 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(ii) Ideas such as:
Tourism
Adventure sports or example (dev)
Salt extraction
Agriculture / growing dates
On irrigated land / at oases (dev)
Nomadic herding / keeping camels/goats
Oil extraction etc. 5 @ 1 mark or development    (5)
(c) Levels marking
Level 1 (1–3 marks)
Statements including limited detail on how plants have adapted to the desert climate. e.g. they store water, they only grow after rain,
they have spiky/narrow leaves, long roots etc.
Level 2 (4–6 marks)
Uses named example.
More developed statements on how plants have adapted to the desert climate. e.g. seeds/plants remain dormant / shed leaves during
long dry spells, narrow/spiky leaves reduce rates of evapotranspiration / because of high temperatures, long roots / wide spreading
roots search for water, some plants/cacti store water in their tissues / in order to survive long periods of drought etc.
NB Max. 5 marks if no named example
Level 3 (7 marks)
Uses named example, e.g. Sahara Desert.
Comprehensive and accurate statements, including some place-specific references or references to named plants. e.g. seeds/plants
remain dormant during long dry spells, narrow/spiky leaves reduce rates of evapotranspiration / because of high temperatures, long
roots / wide spreading roots of saguaro cactus search for water, some plants/cacti store water in their tissues / in order to survive long
periods of drought, e.g. prickly pear cactus, some plants have resinous coatings that reduce water loss, e.g. creosote bush. (7)

 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 2 The Natural Environment © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 19 Natural hazards A 2

Sample question
(a) Study Fig. 1.
Major hurricanes affecting the USA in 2005
N
CANADA
Dennis
Estimated cost of damage: Over $2 billion total losses
Wind speed at landfall: 194 km/h
Maximum windspeed: 241 km/h

Katrina
USA Estimated cost of damage: Over $100 billion total losses
Wind speed at landfall: 232 km/h
Maximum windspeed: 278 km/h

Atlantic
Ocean Rita
Estimated cost of damage: Over $10 billion total losses
Wind speed at landfall: 194 km/h
Maximum windspeed: 283 km/h
Gulf of
Mexico Tropic of Cancer
Wilma
MEXICO CUBA Estimated cost of damage: Over $12 billion total losses
Wind speed at landfall: 222 km/h
Maximum windspeed: 286 km/h

Hurricane tracks
Dennis
Katrina
Rita
0 500 1000 km
Wilma

Fig. 1
(i) Identify the hurricane which crossed Cuba. (1)
(ii) Identify the hurricane:
A with the highest maximum windspeed
B that caused the greatest amount of damage. (2)
(iii) Suggest three reasons why the four hurricanes caused different amounts of damage. (3)
(iv) Describe the short-term impacts of hurricanes on people who live in the areas that are affected. (4)

(b) Study Fig. 2.

Deadly Wildfires Devastate Australia

The worst bushfires on record in Australia have destroyed thousands of houses and ravaged towns and
farmland, killing over 150 people.

Fig. 2
(i) Suggest three long-term impacts of the bushfires in Australia. (3)
(ii) Explain why MEDCs such as Australia are likely to recover more quickly from natural disasters than LEDCs. (5)

(c) C
 hoose a hazard you have studied, in a named area, which was caused by the weather or climate.
Choose from:
• a tropical storm (cyclone, typhoon or hurricane)
• a flood
• a drought.
Describe the causes of the hazard. (7)
 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 2 The Natural Environment © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 19 Natural hazards A 2

Marking scheme
(a) (i) Dennis 1 mark    (1)
(ii) A Wilma
B Katrina 2 @ 1 mark    (2)
(iii) Ideas such as:
Different windspeed/strength
People may have been better prepared for some than others
Depends whether areas affected were densely populated or not
Depends on economy of areas affected
Depends on relief of land / potential for flooding etc. 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(iv) Ideas such as:
People killed/injured
Damage to housing/property/homelessness
Disruption of transport links / roads blocked
Electricity supplies disrupted
Workplaces damaged / people cannot earn money
Crops damaged / farm animals killed
Drinking water polluted / disease etc. 4 @ 1 mark    (4)
(b) (i) Ideas such as:
Negative impact on economy
People will have no work / workplaces destroyed
Need to rebuild houses
Loss of food supplies/starvation/need to import food
Financial cost of rebuilding infrastructure/services 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(ii) Ideas such as:
Houses/other buildings are likely to be more resistant/stronger
Therefore there is likely to be less damage to them
They are more likely to have money to be able to reconstruct
And appropriate skills/technology/equipment
And not have to be so dependent on foreign aid (dev)
Warning systems / monitoring more likely to be in place
And protection schemes may have been implemented etc. 5 @ 1 mark or development    (5)
(c) Levels marking
Level 1 (1–3 marks)
Statements including limited detail describing the causes of a hazard e.g. flooding – heavy rain, impermeable rocks, floodplains built on
etc.
Level 2 (4–6 marks)
Uses named example.
More developed statements describing the causes of flooding. e.g. heavy rain falling over a relatively short period, impermeable
rocks encouraging overland flow and rapidly raising river levels, underlying rocks saturated, building on floodplain encouraging rapid
movement of water to river / constricting flow etc.
NB Max. 5 marks if no named example
Level 3 (7 marks)
Uses named example, e.g. River Lyn.
Comprehensive and accurate including some place-specific statements. e.g. thunderstorms associated with frontal depression brought
torrential rain – 229 mm near Longstone Barrow on Exmoor, saturated from previous rainfall as it had rained for 12 of the previous 14
days, impermeable rocks of Exmoor encouraging overland flow and rapidly raising river levels, river had been diverted and its channel
made narrower due to building of hotels in Lynmouth, bridges over river trapped boulders and formed temporary dams etc. (7)

 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 2 The Natural Environment © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 20 Human activity has impacts A 2

Sample question
(a) Study Fig.1, which shows an area of natural environment.

Fig. 1
(i) What is meant by the term ‘natural environment’? (1)
(ii) Describe two features of the natural environment in the photograph. (2)
(iii) Explain how natural environments, such as the one shown in Fig. 1:
A can offer opportunities for people (3)
B can cause difficulties for people. (4)

(b) Study Fig. 2.

N
Road
Town or city

Mobile

Mobile Loxley
Bay
Causeway

Pensacola
Mobile
Ocean Springs Bay Foley
Biloxi
Gulfport Pensacola
Beach
Orange Beach
Dauphin Gulf Shores
Island
Alabama
Intracoastal Waterway 0 10 20 km
(4 m water depth)

Fig. 2
(i) Explain why many settlements have grown up in coastal areas, such as the one shown in Fig. 2. (3)
(ii) Explain how and why coasts should be used in a sustainable way. (5)

(c) Flooding sometimes causes difficulties for people who live on floodplains and deltas.
For a river which you have studied, explain what has been done to reduce flooding. (7)
 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 2 The Natural Environment © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 20 Human activity has impact A 2

Marking scheme
(a) (i) A  rea of landscape/flora/fauna that has not been created by people /
Living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth 1 mark    (1)
(ii) Mountains / steep slopes
Bare rock surfaces / sedimentary rocks / horizontal strata / sandstone
Forest/woodland/bushes on flatter land etc. 2 @ 1 mark    (2)
(iii) A Opportunities such as:
Tourism
Activities such as hiking / mountain sports / sightseeing
For photography/art
Forestry
Nature conservation / environmental education
Generation of wind power / HEP
Quarrying etc. 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
B Difficulties such as:
Access is difficult / few roads or railways
So area is isolated
Few opportunities for employment
Poor soils / agricultural capacity
Harsh climate/aridity etc. 4 @ 1 mark    (4)
(b) (i) Ideas such as:
Growth of fishing ports
Growth of commercial ports/trade
Growth of tourist resorts
Flat/fertile agricultural land therefore growth of market towns
Settlements at lowest bridging points of rivers etc. 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(ii) Ideas such as:
So that the coast can be used now and for future generations
Pollution of seas/estuaries should be avoided
So that living things are not killed
Inland waters should not be overfished
So that stocks are replenished
Tourism/beaches must not exceed carrying capacity
And resorts not over-commercialised
So that they retain their original attractions
Coastal/offshore National Parks can be created
To conserve and enhance scenery/ecosystems etc. 5 @ 1 mark    (5)
(c) Levels marking
Level 1 (1–3 marks)
Statements including limited detail describing what can be done to reduce flooding. e.g. build embankments, plant trees, build dams/
reservoirs, straighten river/cut off meanders etc.
Level 2 (4–6 marks)
Uses named example.
More developed statements describing what can be done to reduce flooding. e.g. build embankments so the river will have a greater
capacity, plant trees in drainage basin so less water will get to river / so more transpiration occurs, build dams to control flow of water,
straighten river so water is removed from river quickly etc.
NB Max. 5 marks if no named example
Level 3 (7 marks)
Uses named example, e.g. River Mississippi.
Comprehensive and accurate statements including some place-specific reference. e.g. high levees built so the river will have a greater
capacity, raised embankments protecting cities like Memphis where river flows at a higher level than floodplain, planting trees in
Tennessee Valley so less water will get to river as more transpiration occurs, meanders cut off between New Orleans and Memphis
etc. (7)

 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 2 The Natural Environment © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 21 Agriculture A 3

Sample question.
(a) Study Fig. 1 which shows a farm in an MEDC.

Fig. 1
(i) Is the farm in the photograph an arable or pastoral farm? (1)
(ii) Is the farm in the photograph an intensive or extensive farm? Give a reason for your answer. (2)
(iii) Describe three processes that the workers will need to carry out on the farm shown on the photograph. (3)
(iv) Explain why a smaller percentage of the total workforce is employed in agriculture in MEDCs than LEDCs. (4)

(b) Study Fig. 2.

Map 1 Distribution of agriculture Map 2 Population density Map 3 Communications

Sea Sea Sea

Vineyards Population per km2 Main roads

Dairying 60+ (cities) Railway
Market gardening 16–20
Beef cattle 11–15
Mixed farming (crops, livestock) 6 –10 Map 6 Frost risk
0–5
0 100 200 km

Map 5 Soil composition

Map 4 Topography

Sea

High risk
Moderate
Sea
Sea Low
Very low
Gravel outcrops
Steep slopes
Thin mountain soils
Moderate slopes
Alluvial river deposits
Gentle slopes
Thick loam (moderate fertility)

Fig. 2
(i) Using Fig. 2, describe three features of the location of the areas used for dairying. (3)
(ii) Using examples of different types of farming from Fig. 2, explain how physical (natural)
factors influence agricultural land use. (5)

(c) For a named area of small-scale subsistence farming, describe the inputs, processes and outputs. (7)
 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 3 Economic Development and the Use of Resources © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 21 Agriculture A 3

Marking scheme
(a) (i) Pastoral 1 mark    (1)
(ii) Intensive (1) as small area of land is being used for high output (1). 2 @ 1 mark    (2)
(iii) Processes such as:
Feeding pigs
Assisting with birth of piglets
Taking pigs to market/for slaughter
Cleaning/upkeep of pig houses/sties 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(iv) Ideas such as:
Less mechanisation in LEDCs
Much food is imported in MEDCs
Many people in LEDCs are subsistence farmers
Many other forms of employment available in MEDCs
Greater proportion of people live in urban areas in MEDCs etc. 4 @ 1 mark    (4)
(b) (i) Ideas such as:
Close to cities
In river valleys
In areas which have between 6 and 15 people per km2
Near railway/roads
Gentle slopes
Alluvial or loam soils
Where frost risk is low etc. 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(ii) Ideas such as:
Steep slopes are used for beef cattle
Thin soils used for cattle
As they can survive on poor soils/slopes (expl)
Gentle slopes used for market gardening
Alluvial soils for market gardening
As fertile soils produce high output of crops (expl)
High risk of frost in cattle rearing areas
As cattle are hardy creatures (expl)
Low frost risk where vines grown/market gardens
As frosts would kill the crops (expl)
Vineyards on slopes of river valley
As soils need to be well drained etc. 5 @ 1 mark or development    (5)
(c) Levels marking
Level 1 (1–3 marks)
Statements including limited description of a small-scale subsistence farming system. e.g. soil, rainfall, land, ploughing, transplanting,
harvesting, rice etc.
Level 2 (4–6 marks)
Uses named example.
More developed statements describing the chosen subsistence farming system. e.g. alluvial soils, ploughing using plough drawn by
water buffalo, harvesting using scythe, rice used to feed family, watered using irrigation channels, bunds built to retain water etc.
NB Max. 5 marks if no named example
Level 3 (7 marks)
Uses named example, e.g. rice growing in Ganges Valley.
Comprehensive and accurate statements including correct reference to a named area. e.g. alluvial soils on floodplain of Ganges river,
ploughing using plough drawn by water buffalo, harvesting using scythe, rice used to feed family, surplus sold in villages and towns of
rural West Bengal, watered using irrigation channels, bunds built to retain water which falls during wet monsoon season when winds
blow from Bay of Bengal etc. (7)

 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 3 Economic Development and the Use of Resources © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 22 Food shortages A 3

Sample question
(a) Study Fig. 1.

EGYPT
Tropic of Cancer

SUDAN
ETHIOPIA

Equator

Percentage of
undernourished people
Over 35
NAMIBIA Tropic of Capricorn
20–35
5–19
Less than 5

Fig. 1
(i) What is meant by ‘undernourished’?  (1)
(ii) List the following countries in rank order according to the proportion of undernourished people.
Rank from highest to lowest.
Egypt     Ethiopia     Namibia     Sudan (2)
(iii) Describe the variation in the proportion of the population who are undernourished in different parts of Africa. (3)
(iv) Suggest reasons for the variation in the proportion of the population who are undernourished in different parts
of Africa. (4)

(b) Study Fig. 2. 15

14 Sub-Saharan
Africa
13 Asia
12 Eastern Europe
Food aid in tonnes of grain equivalent

11 Middle East and

North Africa
10
Latin America
9 and Caribbean
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1999 2007

Fig. 2
(i) Describe the main differences between the amounts of food aid given in 1999 and 2007. (3)
(ii) Explain the advantages and disadvantages of receiving food aid. (5)

(c) For a named country or region where a food shortage has taken place, describe what caused the shortage. (7)
 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 3 Economic Development and the Use of Resources © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 22 Food shortages A 3

Marking scheme
(a) (i) G  etting less than 90 per cent of the minimum food requirement over a long time period /
not eating sufficient food to remain healthy 1 mark    (1)
(ii) Ethiopia    Sudan    Namibia    Egypt
 2 marks for correct rank order; 1 mark if one or two countries are in correct position    2 marks    (2)
(iii) Ideas such as:
Large proportion of undernourished people south of Sahara
In tropical areas / between tropics, e.g. Sahel / East Africa
Small proportion in North Africa/South Africa etc. 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(iv) Ideas such as:
There are variations in the amount of rainfall
Where there is drought it is difficult to produce food
Some parts of Africa will suffer from insect pests, e.g. locusts
Some parts will have wars / civil war / political unrest
Richer parts will be able to import food to reduce proportion of undernourished people
Levels of technology relating to food production will vary / use of fertiliser/insecticide/pesticide etc.
Use of irrigation will vary/presence or absence of rivers etc.  4 @ 1 mark or development    (4)
(b) (i) Ideas such as:
More food aid was given in 1999 / less in 2007
Almost three times more in 1999
Greater proportion of food aid given to sub-Saharan Africa in 2007
Smaller proportion to Asia / Eastern Europe / North Africa / Latin America etc. 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(ii) Advantages such as:
Prevents people starving/dying
Reduces numbers of undernourished people
Therefore reducing levels of deficiency diseases or examples (dev)
Enabling people to be strong enough to work (dev) etc.
Disadvantages such as:
Dependency culture is generated
Leads to migration from rural areas to urban areas / refugee camps
Where food is being distributed (dev)
Money could be better spent improving agriculture
To ensure sustainable food supply (dev)
Aid could be ‘tied’ etc. 5 @ 1 mark or development    (5)
(c) Levels marking
Level 1 (1–3 marks)
Statements including limited detail which explain why there are food shortages. e.g. poverty/lack of investment in agriculture, lack of
fertilisers/pesticides, floods, hurricanes/cyclones/typhoons, insect pests, exhaustion of soils, soil erosion, civil war etc.
Level 2 (4–6 marks)
Uses named example.
More developed statements which explain why there are food shortages. e.g. poverty prevents them buying fertilisers/pesticides/good-
quality seeds, drought reduces amounts of crops produced / kills livestock, overcultivation as fields are not given fallow time / reduces
soil fertility, overgrazing due to keeping too many cattle/goats, still using traditional farming practices such as ploughing up and down
slopes, etc.
NB Max. 5 marks if no named example
Level 3 (7 marks)
Uses named example, e.g. Ethiopia.
Comprehensive and accurate statements explain why there are food shortages, with some place-specific reference. e.g. poverty
prevents them buying fertilisers/pesticides, drought which extended into neighbouring Eritrea reduces amounts of crops produced /
kills livestock, overcultivation as fields are not given fallow time, overgrazing due to keeping too many cattle/goats especially in the
northern region of Tigray, lack of investment in irrigation/fertilisers, still using traditional farming practices such as ploughing up and
down slopes, etc. (7)

 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 3 Economic Development and the Use of Resources © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 23 Work and employment A 3

Sample question
(a) Study Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
(i) In which sector are the women shown in Fig. 1 working? Choose from primary, secondary or tertiary. (1)
(ii) The women in the photograph are working in the informal sector. Give:
A a different example of work in the informal sector
B one example of work in the formal sector. (2)
(iii) Explain why many people who live in cities in LEDCs work in the informal sector to earn money. (3)
(iv) Explain the disadvantages of working in the informal sector. (4)

(b) Study Fig. 2.

Kenya USA

Primary
Secondary
Tertiary

Fig. 2
(i) Describe the main differences in the employment structures of Kenya (an LEDC) and the USA (an MEDC). (3)
(ii) Suggest reasons for the differences you have described in (i). (5)

(c) For a named country or region you have studied, describe how and why employment structure has changed or is changing. (7)
 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 3 Economic Development and the Use of Resources © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 23 Work and employment A 3

Marking scheme
(a) (i) Tertiary 1 mark    (1)
(ii) A e.g. cleaning shoes / cooking and selling food / prostitution
B e.g. teaching / working in a factory / hotel receptionist 2 @ 1 mark    (2)
(iii) Ideas such as:
They are not educated / are not literate
They lack skills/qualifications required in some formal employment
Taxes do not need to be paid
Overheads are low / does not cost much to set up / can work on street
There is a large market demand etc.  3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(iv) Ideas such as:
There are many people competing for customers
Income is not guaranteed
There are no earnings when sick / no sick pay
Pensions are not available
No employment protection by trade unions
Dangers of working on street/robbery etc.  4 @ 1 mark or development    (4)
(b) (i) Differences such as:
Higher proportion of primary in Kenya
Higher proportion of tertiary in USA
Higher proportion of secondary in USA  3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(ii) Ideas such as:
LEDCs have a greater proportion of people working in agriculture
As many are subsistence farmers (dev)
And farms are less mechanised in MEDCs (dev)
There is a greater demand for services in MEDCS
As there is more wealth (dev)
People have expectation for better health care / education etc.
More money is available to invest in factories in MEDC
M
 ore people are qualified/skilled/educated in MEDCs for work in
secondary/tertiary sector etc. 5 @ 1 mark or development    (5)
(c) Levels marking
Level 1 (1–3 marks)
Statements including limited detail describing how and/or explaining why employment structure has changed. e.g. reduction in
proportion working in primary sector, increase in proportion working in secondary/tertiary sector, the country is becoming richer,
factories built, farms are mechanised, people move to cities etc.
Level 2 (4–6 marks)
Uses named example.
More developed statements describing how and/or explaining why employment structure has changed. e.g. reduction in proportion
working in primary sector as farms are mechanised / food is imported rather than home-produced, increase in proportion working
in secondary sector as factories are built by MNCs, the country is becoming richer so people can afford services such as health care /
education, people move to cities to work in factories and shops as they are becoming better educated/skilled etc.
NB Max. 5 marks if no named example
Level 3 (7 marks)
Uses named example, e.g. South Korea.
Comprehensive and accurate statements, including some place-specific reference. e.g. reduction in proportion working in primary
sector as farms are mechanised / food is imported from China rather than home-produced, increase in proportion working in secondary
sector as factories are built by MNCs such as Sony, the country is becoming richer so people can afford services such as health care /
education, people move to cities like Seoul to work in factories and shops as they are becoming better educated/skilled etc. (7)

 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 3 Economic Development and the Use of Resources © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 24 Manufacturing industry A 3

Sample question
(a) Study Fig. 1.
Flow diagram for manufacturing industry

Inputs

Labour
Land Outputs

Machinery Finished goods

Manufacturing processes
Raw materials Waste products
and components
Fuel and power

Fig. 1
For a manufacturing industry you have studied:
(i) State the main output. (1)
(ii) List two raw materials or components that are used. (2)
(iii) Describe three processes which are carried out in the factory. (3)
(iv) Explain the benefits of the industry to the people who live in the area. (4)

(b) Study Fig. 2.

Port

Quarry

Industrial
town

Main road Water (sea/river/etc.)

Motorway Coalfield
Railway Urban areas
Hydro-electric power dam Limestone hills

Fig. 2
(i) Identify three different attractions of the area shown in Fig. 2 for manufacturing industry. (3)
(ii) Manufacturing industries may remain important in an area even though the original advantages of that
location no longer exist. Suggest reasons for this. (5)

(c) Name an area you have studied where manufacturing industry is carried out. Describe the impacts of this industry
on the natural environment. (7)
 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 3 Economic Development and the Use of Resources © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 24 Manufacturing industry A 3

Marking scheme
(a) Answers for (i) – (iii) will vary according to industry chosen, e.g. jam manufacture.
(i) Jam 1 mark    (1)
(ii) Fruit, sugar, water, jam jars 2 @ 1 mark    (2)
(iii) Washing fruit, boiling fruit, adding sugar, putting jam in containers etc. 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(iv) Ideas such as:
Employment
People are able to earn a regular income (dev)
And develop skills (dev)
Business created for suppliers of raw materials / components
And haulage companies (dev)
Multiplier effect
As when people earn money spending is increased locally (dev)
Availability of product locally (if appropriate) etc.  4 @ 1 mark or development    (4)
(b) (i) Ideas such as:
Port for export
Road/rail communications
Raw materials available, e.g. limestone/coal
Energy supply/HEP/coal etc. 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(ii) Ideas such as:
Area has established reputation/name for that product
So products produced there are easily marketed (dev)
Skilled workforce available in the area
Infrastructure exists in area for that industry, e.g. training establishments
Cost of moving to another location may be too great
As new buildings will be required / cost of moving machinery (dev)
Reduced significance of original factors due to government policy etc.  5 @ 1 mark or development/exemplification    (5)
(c) Levels marking
Level 1 (1–3 marks)
Statements including limited detail describing impacts on natural environment of manufacturing industry. e.g causes air pollution,
pollutes rivers, causes more traffic etc.
Level 2 (4–6 marks)
Uses named example.
More developed statements describing impacts on natural environment of manufacturing industry. e.g. causes air pollution by smelting
raw materials thus releasing toxic fumes, causes more traffic which releases exhaust fumes into atmosphere, pollutes rivers by disposal
of toxic waste products etc.
NB Max. 5 marks if no named example
Level 3 (7 marks)
Uses named example, e.g. manufacturing industry in Cubatao in Brazil.
Comprehensive and accurate statements including some place-specific reference. e.g. Latin America’s biggest petrochemical complex
– heavy lorries cause oxides of nitrogen and sulphur in atmosphere to increase, fumes from industries such as a fertiliser factory /
cement works / there are about 30 major industrial facilities in the vicinity, 473 tonnes a day of carbon monoxide released from them
into atmosphere and trapped by Serra do Mar mountains, 182 tonnes a day of sulphur / 148 tonnes of polluted dust and particles / 41
tonnes of nitrogen oxide released into atmosphere, pollutes Cubatao river by disposal of arsenic and poisons fish etc. (7)

 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 3 Economic Development and the Use of Resources © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 25 Hi-tech industry A 3

Sample question
(a) Study Fig. 1 which shows an area where hi-tech industry has developed.

Fig. 1
(i) Define the term ‘hi-tech industry’. (1)
(ii) Describe two features of the environment in the photograph. (2)
(iii) Describe three features of the factory buildings shown. (3)
(iv) Suggest the likely features of the location of the area shown in the photograph. (4)

(b) Study Fig. 2.

More incentives for hi-tech sector

By Jerry Lin and Kevin Chen
STAFF REPORTER
Thursday, June 12, 2008
The government must provide incentives to the nation’s hi-tech manufacturing industries
to encourage companies to deepen their roots in Taiwan, the Taiwan Semiconductor
Industry Association said yesterday.
‘The government should provide more incentives to hi-tech manufacturing industries –
such as semiconductor, liquid crystal display (LCD), light-emitting diode and solar energy
– so that they will stay in Taiwan,’ TSIA chairman Frank Huang said during an opening
speech at the 2008 SemiTech Taipei yesterday.
Adapted from www.taipeitimes.com/News/biz/archives/2008/06/12/2003414494

Fig. 2
(i) Describe three incentives that a government could use to attract hi-tech industries to an area. (3)
(ii) Describe the likely benefits to and problems for the people who live in an area where hi-tech industry has developed. (5)

(c) For a country or area you have studied, explain the factors that have encouraged the growth of hi-tech industries. (7)
 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 3 Economic Development and the Use of Resources © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 25 Hi-tech industry A 3

Marking scheme
(a) (i) Industries that make/use silicon chips/use micro-electronics 1 mark    (1)
(ii) Ideas such as:
Lots of vegetation/trees/grassland
Landscaped
Lake/fountain etc.  2 @ 1 mark    (2)
(iii) Ideas such as:
Modern
Two-storey
Brick/tile
Large windows etc. 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(iv) Ideas such as:
Rural–urban fringe / edge of urban area Close to motorway network
Greenfield site / countryside Within easy access of a junction
Adjacent to a ring road / by-pass Close to an airport
On a science park Close to a motorway etc. 4 @ 1 mark    (4)
(b) (i) Ideas such as:
Improve transport infrastructure (or examples)
Establishment of free trade zones
Tax concessions
Low-interest loans
Development/Assisted Area status
Readily constructed factory buildings
With developed infrastructure/electricity
Rent-free buildings etc. 3 @ 1 mark or development    (3)
(ii) Ideas such as:
Advantages:
Employment
High pay/skilled jobs (dev)
Multiplier effect
More money circulating in area (dev)
Improvements to quality of life or examples, e.g. afford more food/education/health care etc.
Development of transport network
Development of infrastructure/electricity/water supply etc.
Disadvantages:
Increase in traffic
Which may increase noise/atmospheric pollution (dev)
Loss of rural land/amenity value
Loss of farmland/food production etc. Max. 3 marks on advantages/disadvantages    5 @ 1 mark or development    (5)
(c) Levels marking
Level 1 (1–3 marks)
Statements including limited detail explaining why hi-tech industries were located there. e.g. lots of workers available, good transport
network, cheap land, attractive landscape, near universities etc.
Level 2 (4–6 marks)
Uses named example.
More developed statements explaining why hi-tech industries were located there. e.g. skilled, highly qualified workforce, good motorway
links for transport of products to market, proximity to international airport for international business links, large areas of attractive,
greenfield sites, near universities so plentiful supply of qualified graduates etc.
NB Max. 5 marks if no named example
Level 3 (7 marks)
Uses named example, e.g. Malaysia.
Comprehensive and accurate statements including some place-specific reference. e.g. skilled, highly qualified workforce, good motorway
links, proximity to Kuala Lumpur international airport for international business links, government investment into planned hi-tech
industrial areas such as at Penang (Silicon Island), government ‘technology action plan’ put emphasis on technology, many universities
and FE colleges in large cities like Kuala Lumpur for plentiful supply of qualified graduates etc. (7)

 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 3 Economic Development and the Use of Resources © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 26 Tourism A 3

Sample question
(a) Study Fig. 1.
500

1980
450
2005

400

350
Number of tourists (millions)

300

250

200

150

100

50

0
Africa Americas Asia/Pacific Europe Middle East

Fig. 1
(i) What is a ‘tourist’? (1)
(ii) State the two regions that attracted most tourists in 2005. (2)
(iii) Using Fig. 1, compare the change in importance of tourism in Asia/Pacific and the Americas between 1980 and 2005.
You should use statistics in your answer. (3)
(iv) Explain why world tourism is increasing. (4)

(b) Study Fig. 2.

Fig. 2
(i) S uggest two different types of job that would be available in the area shown on the photo and explain why these
jobs might be seasonal. (3)
(ii) Suggest how tourism might cause problems for people and the natural environment in the area shown by the photo. (5)

(c) Explain why the tourist industry has developed at a named location which you have studied. (7)
 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 3 Economic Development and the Use of Resources © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 26 Tourism A 3

Marking scheme
(a) (i) A person who travels and stays away from their home area for recreation/leisure 1 mark    (1)
(ii) Asia/Pacific; Europe  2 @ 1 mark    (2)
(iii) Ideas such as:
Both increased in importance
Asia increased more rapidly than Americas
Americas more important than Asia in 1980 but situation reversed by 2005
Asia increased by 127 million, Americas by 65 million etc. 1 mark reserved for use of statistics    3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(iv) Ideas such as:
People have more disposable income
And receive longer paid holidays / increased leisure time
Developments in air travel
Low-cost airlines (dev)
Investment in larger aircraft (dev)
Development of tourist facilities or examples
Growth of advertising of holidays / increasing awareness
Easier to book through Internet
Increase in ‘grey’ market etc.  4 @ 1 mark or development    (4)
(b) (i) Jobs such as:
Hotel work
Working in restaurant/cafe/bar
Construction work
Driving, e.g. taxis/coaches etc.
J obs may be seasonal as there may be a period of the year when tourist numbers are low
 2 marks for jobs and 1 mark for reasoning    3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(ii) Ideas such as:
Increase in local traffic/congestion Maybe kill marine species (dev) etc.
Causes danger/inconvenience to residents (dev) Low-paid jobs
Atmospheric pollution from traffic Shortage of water supplies
Loss of local culture May disrupt ecosystems/food chains (dev)
Adverse visual impact of hotel/apartment development Litter on beach
Impact of behaviour of tourists/drunkenness etc. Pollution of sea
Noise from tourists/construction Increased prices in local shops
Loss of natural vegetation on cliff tops / where hotels/apartments are built 5 @ 1 mark or development    (5)
(c) Levels marking
Level 1 (1–3 marks)
Statements including limited detail which explain why tourist industry developed, e.g. high temperatures, lots of sunshine, low rainfall,
attractive scenery, beaches, local culture, easy access etc.
Level 2 (4–6 marks)
Uses named example.
More developed statements which explain why tourist industry developed. e.g. long hours of sunshine especially May to September,
mild winters with temperatures which do not fall below zero, high average temperatures during summer months, low rainfall April to
October, clean blue seas, waterfront restaurants/bars, attractive headlands with coves/bays which are safe for swimming, sheltered
sandy beaches ideal for sunbathing, ease of access via airports within 3 hours etc.
NB Max. 5 marks if no named example
Level 3 (7 marks)
Uses named example, e.g. Majorca.
Comprehensive and accurate statements, which explain why tourist industry developed, with some place-specific reference. e.g.
long hours of sunshine especially May to September, average temperatures of over 21°C during summer months, low rainfall April
to October, clean blue seas, waterfront restaurants/bars in resorts like C’an Picafort, attractive headlands with cliffs at Formentor,
sheltered sandy bays such as Cala d’Or ideal for sunbathing, ease of access via good roads and Palma airport, historic buildings including
cathedral in Palma etc. (7)

 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 3 Economic Development and the Use of Resources © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 27 Energy supply and demand A 3

Sample question
(a) Study Fig. 1.

World energy consumption

Projections
250
Oil
Coal
200 Natural gas
Renewables
Nuclear
Quadrillion Btu

150

100

50

0
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
Year

Fig. 1
(i) Name a fossil fuel shown on Fig. 1. (1)
(ii) State the amount (in quadrillion Btu’s):
A of oil consumption in 2010
B by which renewable energy consumption is projected to increase between 1970 and 2020. (2)
(iii) Compare the likely changes in natural gas and coal consumption between 1970 and 2020.
You should use statistics in your answer. (3)
(iv) Explain why total energy consumption is increasing. (4)

(b) Study Fig. 2.

Scotland awards wave and tidal energy grants

Renewable Energy Today
8 March 2007
The Scottish Executive recently awarded more than $25 million in grants to support the development
of wave and tidal energy power. Most of the projects involve test installations at the European Marine
Energy Centre in Orkney, which aims to be a world-leader test facility for wave and tidal energy
projects.

Fig. 2
(i) Suggest three benefits for Scotland of developing wave and tidal energy power. (3)
(ii) Explain why renewable energy only provides a small proportion of the world’s energy supply. (5)

(c) For a named country you have studied, describe the main types of energy resources used. (7)
 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 3 Economic Development and the Use of Resources © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 27 Energy supply and demand A 3

Marking scheme
(a) (i) Coal/oil/natural gas 1 mark    (1)
(ii) A Accept within range between 170 and 180
B Accept within range between 30 and 40 2 @ 1 mark    (2)
(iii) Ideas such as:
Both will increase
Natural gas will increase more rapidly than coal
Coal more important than natural gas in 1970 but situation likely to be reversed after 2010
Natural gas will increase by about 110 Btu, coal by about 70 etc. 1 mark reserved for use of statistics    3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(iv) Ideas such as:
More transport is being used
Especially air transport (dev)
Due to more global trade/tourism/business trips etc. (dev)
Growth of manufacturing
Especially in countries like China/India etc. (dev)
Greater affluence
Thus more use of air conditioning/refrigerators/ PCs (dev) etc. 4 @ 1 or development    (4)
(b) (i) Ideas such as:
Low running costs
Waves/tides are readily available
Saves fossil fuels
Reduces cost of importing e.g. oil
Supplies will be sustainable / will not run out
No atmospheric pollution will be caused etc. 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(ii) Ideas such as:
Renewable energy supplies cannot yet meet demand
As many are in early stages of development (dev)
And many current projects are small-scale (dev)
Limited technology available in many parts of world
Development is expensive
Technology/expense a limited factor especially in LEDCs (dev)
HEP limited by siting factors / limited high land / few appropriate sites for dams
Wave/tidal can only develop in coastal/offshore locations
Geothermal limited to volcanic regions
Wind power limited to upland/exposed regions
Much of industry/transport geared up to using fossil fuels etc. 5 @ 1 or development    (5)
(c) Levels marking
Level 1 (1–3 marks)
Statements including limited detail describing the main types of energy used. e.g. coal, oil, natural gas, HEP, wind power, nuclear power
etc.
Level 2 (4–6 marks)
Uses named example.
More developed statements describing the main types of energy used, e.g. coal/natural gas is used to generate electricity in thermal
power stations, oil is used for many forms of transport, HEP is used in mountainous areas with high precipitation, wind power is being
developed offshore and in mountainous areas, increasing amounts of nuclear power are being used etc.
NB Max. 5 marks if no named example
Level 3 (7 marks)
Uses named example, e.g. UK.
Comprehensive and accurate statements describing how renewable energy supplies are being developed including some place-specific
reference. e.g. coal/natural gas is used to generate electricity in thermal power stations such as those in the Trent Valley, oil/natural
gas from North Sea is used for many forms of transport, HEP is being developed in mountainous areas with high precipitation such as
the pumped storage scheme at Dinorwic in Snowdonia, wind power is being developed off the coast of East Anglia and in Morecambe
Bay and in mountainous areas such as the Pennines, increasing amounts of nuclear power are being generated at power stations such
as Sizewell etc. (7)

 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 3 Economic Development and the Use of Resources © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 28 Generating electricity A 3

Sample question
(a) Study Fig. 1.

Proportion of electricity generated by different types of

power station in Armenia
0%

75% 25%
Thermal
power
Nuclear
power
Hydro-electric
power
50%

Fig. 1
(i) P  ut the following types of power station into order of importance from the most to the least important according to
electricity generated in Armenia:
Hydro-electric power    Nuclear power    Thermal power (1)
(ii) State two fuels used to generate thermal power. (2)
(iii) Describe how electricity is generated by hydro-electric power.  (3)
(iv) Explain why methods of generating electricity differ in importance from country to country. (4)

(b) Study Fig. 2.

N GEORGIA

ARMENIA
Medzamor AZERBAIJAN
nuclear power
station
Yerevan
(capital city)
TURKEY

AZERBAIJAN

IRAN
0 50 100 km

Fig. 2
(i) Describe the location of Medzamor nuclear power station shown on Fig. 2. (3)
(ii) Explain the advantages and disadvantages of nuclear power stations to generate electricity. (5)

(c) For a named power station you have studied, describe and explain its location. (7)
 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 3 Economic Development and the Use of Resources © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 28 Generating electricity A 3

Marking scheme
(a) (i) Nuclear    Hydro-electric    Thermal 1 mark    (1)
(ii) Coal, oil, natural gas 2 @ 1 mark    (2)
(iii) Ideas such as:
Fast-flowing river dammed
Lake created by dam
Water passes through turbines / turns turbines
Operates generator
Water pumped back into lake at night/pump storage scheme etc. 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(iv) Ideas such as:
Availability of reserves of fossil fuels/coal/oil/natural gas
Level of development/finance available
Technology available
Government policy/attitude towards the environment, e.g. nuclear power
E nvironmental conditions or examples, e.g. opportunity to use HEP,
wind power etc.     4 @ 1 mark or development    (4)
(b) (i) Ideas such as:
Western part of Armenia
Close to border with Turkey
About 10 km from border
West/west-north-west of Yerevan/capital city
About 50 km from Yerevan/capital city etc. 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(ii) Ideas such as:
Advantages:
It produces large amounts of electricity from small quantities of raw materials
It does not waste/use resources (uranium) which have other uses
Production cost per unit is low
It does not cause much atmospheric pollution / does not release greenhouse gases
Disadvantages:
It can be dangerous as the materials/waste are radioactive
Difficulty/cost of disposing of waste
Worries about safety/explosion/radioactive leaks
Construction costs are high etc. 5 @ 1 mark or development    (5)
(c) Levels marking
Level 1 (1–3 marks)
Statements including limited detail describing and/or explaining location of chosen power station. e.g. raw materials nearby, good
transport links, flat land, plenty of space, water supplies etc.
Level 2 (4–6 marks)
Uses named example.
More developed statements describing and/or explaining factors in location of chosen power station. e.g. coal (the main raw material)
is mined nearby, good transport by rail and road from coalfields, flat land on floodplain of river, river provides water supplies for cooling
etc.
NB Max. 5 marks if no named example
Level 3 (7 marks)
Uses named example, e.g. Coal Creek power station.
Comprehensive and accurate statements describing and explaining location of chosen power station, including some place-specific
reference. e.g. located in McLean County of North Dakota, between Underwood and Washburn, 80 km north of Bismarck, easy to
transport the 80 million tonnes of lignite needed each year; from nearby Falkirk mine, flat land on floodplain of Missouri River, water
supplies from Missouri River for cooling, large market for electricity in nearby towns of North Dakota etc. (7)

 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 3 Economic Development and the Use of Resources © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 29 Water A 3

Sample question (1 of 2)
(a) Study Fig. 1.
The hydrological cycle
Precipitation

Condensation
Clouds

Infiltration

Transpiration Evaporation
Percolation

Run-off Rivers and lakes

Sea
Groundwater

Fig. 1
(i) Why is the flow of water shown on Fig. 1 referred to as a ‘cycle’? (1)
(ii) State two processes that supply water vapour to the atmosphere. (2)
(iii) What is meant by the following terms?
A Precipitation
B Groundwater
C Run-off (3)

(b) Study Fig. 2.

World access to drinking
water, 2004

Tropic of Cancer

Equator

Tropic of Capricorn

% of population
More than 95
83–95
World average
65–82
Less than 65
Data not available

0 2000 4000 km

Fig. 2

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 3 Economic Development and the Use of Resources © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Topic 29 Sample question  Water

Sample question (continued 2 of 2)

(i) D  escribe the differences in the access to drinking water between MEDCs and LEDCs.
Use examples of continents or countries, and statistics, in your answer. (3)
(ii) Explain why there are differences in access to drinking water between MEDCs and LEDCs. (4)
(iii) Explain why it is important for people to have a plentiful supply of safe, clean water. (5)

(c) Choose a country where a water transfer scheme or a large dam has been (or is being) created.
Explain the advantages and disadvantages the scheme has brought, or will bring, to the country. (7)
 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 3 Economic Development and the Use of Resources © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 29 Water A 3

Marking scheme
(a) (i) T  he water forms a closed system / continually moves from store to store, eventually returning
to where it started. 1 mark    (1)
(ii) Evaporation, transpiration 2 @ 1 mark    (2)
(iii) Precipitation = moisture that falls from the atmosphere / rain and snow etc.
Groundwater = water stored in the rocks
Run-off = water flowing over the surface of the earth 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(b) (i) Ideas such as:
People in MEDCs have greater access to drinking water
In Europe/North Africa (or example of appropriate country) over 95% of population have access
Many African/south Asian countries (or example of appropriate country) have less than 65% 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(ii) Ideas such as:
MEDCs have more money to invest in water storage schemes
Such as reservoirs/aquifers (dev)
And water supply infrastructures/pipelines
LEDCs have poorer sewerage/sanitation infrastructure
Many LEDCs have lower amount of precipitation
High evaporation levels/temperatures in many LEDCs
Levels of river/lake pollution higher in many LEDCs
As in many LEDCs people use rivers for washing and drinking (dev) etc. 4 @ 1 mark or development    (4)
(iii) Ideas such as:
The body needs water / people cannot survive without water
Otherwise they suffer dehydration (dev)
Reduction in likelihood of water-borne diseases
Such as typhoid, cholera etc (dev)
Without water the body becomes weak
Therefore people cannot work to produce food / earn money (dev)
or walk long distances for fuel (dev)
More water for irrigation for use in agriculture
Is likely to increase yields of crops/produce more food (dev) etc. 5 @ 1 mark or development    (5)
(c) Levels marking
Level 1 (1–3 marks)
Statements including limited detail which attempt to explain the advantages and/or disadvantages of a water transfer scheme or a
large dam. e.g. more water supply, jobs created, land is flooded, expensive to construct, people have to move homes, power generated,
fishing in lake, tourists attracted etc.
Level 2 (4–6 marks)
Uses named example.
More developed statements that explain the advantages and/or disadvantages of a water transfer scheme or a large dam. e.g.
increased water supply for domestic use, water supply created for irrigation increases crop yields, jobs created in construction of dam,
best agricultural land on valley floor is flooded, relocation of villagers onto steep slopes, expensive to construct and tied loans are
obtained, hydro-electric power attracts industrial development, fishing in lake provides people with an alternative source of protein,
tourists attracted generating income/diversifying economy etc.
NB Max. 5 marks if no named example
Level 3 (7 marks)
Uses named example, e.g. Lesotho Highlands Water Project.
Comprehensive and accurate statements, which explain the advantages and disadvantages of a water transfer scheme or a large dam,
including some place-specific reference. e.g. water sold to South Africa for income, increased water supply for domestic use, water supply
created for irrigation increases crop yields, jobs created in construction of Katse dam, best agricultural land on valley floor is flooded,
expensive to construct and tied loans from South Africa are obtained increasing dependency etc. (7)

 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 3 Economic Development and the Use of Resources © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 30 Damaging the environment A 3

Sample question
(a) Study Fig. 1.

Rivers, seas
and lakes

Natural
Atmosphere environment Vegetation

Soil Wildlife

Fig. 1
(i) What is meant by term ‘atmosphere’? (1)
(ii) State two global problems caused by atmospheric pollution. (2)
(iii) Explain how the natural environment may be affected by:
A farming (3)
B transport (4)

(b) Study Fig. 2.

Fig. 2
(i) Describe three different ways in which the human activities in Fig. 2 may have affected the natural environment. (3)
(ii) Suggest how the natural environment could be restored after quarrying (opencast mining). (5)

(c) Name an area you have studied where the environment is at risk from water pollution. Describe the human activities
causing the risk and explain how they have affected the people and natural environment of your chosen area. (7)
 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 3 Economic Development and the Use of Resources © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 30 Damaging the environment A 3

Marking scheme
(a) (i) The air surrounding the Earth 1 mark    (1)
(ii) Global problems such as:
Global warming
Acid rain
Ozone depletion etc.  2 @ 1 mark    (2)
(iii) A Ideas such as:
Destruction of vegetation/deforestation
Loss of habitats
Disruption of ecosystems/food chains
Eutrophication/algal growth
Poisoning of insects/use of pesticides etc.  3 @ 1 mark    (3)
B Ideas such as:
Exhaust fumes pollute atmosphere
With oxides of sulphur/nitrogen (dev)
Causing acid rain
Which damages vegetation (dev)
Acidification of lakes
Killing aquatic life (dev)
And carbon monoxide/dioxide
Build-up of greenhouse gases/increases temperatures
Melting of ice caps (dev)
Destroying habitats (dev) etc.  4 @ 1 mark or development    (4)
(b) (i) Ideas such as:
Removal of vegetation/deforestation
Removing of soil cover
Digging out of rock layers
Pollution of atmosphere from chimney
Creation of dust from blasting
Disruption of water courses/groundwater flows etc.  3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(ii) Ideas such as:
Filling in of quarry/opencast mine Stocking with fish (dev)
By replacing overburden (dev) Filling with water/creation of lake
Replacing soil Reintroduction of fauna
Replanting natural vegetation
Establishment of nature reserve etc. 5 @ 1 mark or development    (5)
(c) Levels marking
Level 1 (1–3 marks)
Statements including limited detail describing causes and effects of water pollution. e.g. kills fish, waste from factories, chemicals from
farms, pollutes drinking water, oil spillages etc.
Level 2 (4–6 marks)
Uses named example.
More developed statements describing causes and effects of water pollution. e.g. kills fish by removing oxygen from water, toxic waste
from factories disposed of through pipes into rivers, leaching of nitrates from farmland, build-up of nitrates leads to algal growth/
eutrophication, arsenic in water from mining waste pollutes drinking water, oil tankers pollute seas by washing out tanks/crashing on
rocks etc.
NB Max. 5 marks if no named example
Level 3 (7 marks)
Uses named example, e.g. Exxon Valdez – Prince William Sound.
Comprehensive and accurate statements including some place-specific reference. e.g. oil tanker Exxon Valdez ran aground on rocks in
Prince William Sound, within six hours of the grounding the tanker spilled 49.5 million litres of its 241 million litre cargo of crude oil,
beaches/rocks polluted by oil, 250 000 seabirds killed by oil getting on feathers / poisoned, thousands of marine mammals killed and
food chains disrupted, fishing communities put out of business as fish killed etc. (7)

 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 3 Economic Development and the Use of Resources © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 31 Conservation and management A 3

Sample question
(a) Study Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
(i) In which country has the association shown in Fig. 1 been set up? (1)
(ii) What is meant by:
A ‘conservation’
B ‘sustainability’? (2)
(iii) Identify three environmental issues shown by Fig. 1 that need management. (3)
(iv) Explain why it is important to conserve the natural environment.  (4)

(b) Study Fig. 2.

Kenya: Five elephants poached in Kenya

NAIROBI, Kenya – Poachers seeking ivory have killed five elephants in south-eastern
Kenya in the past six weeks, a government wildlife official said.
‘The elephants were killed in the Tsavo East National Park and its surrounding areas in
south eastern Kenya’, said Jonathan Kirui, an assistant director of the Kenya Wildlife
Service.
‘This is the highest number elephants killed at this park in recent times for their tusks in
such a short period.’ Kirui, whose area of responsibility includes the park, said informers
have told the wildlife agency that the price of a kilogram of ivory in Kenya rose to
between 3000 and 4000 shillings ($37 and $50) in 2008. A year earlier a kilogram of
ivory sold for 1000–2000 shillings.

Fig. 2
(i) Use your own words to explain why five elephants were killed in Kenya. (3)
(ii) Explain why it is difficult in many LEDCs to conserve the natural environment. (5)

(c) For a named area of natural environment that is threatened by human activity, describe how it is being conserved and
managed. (7)
 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 3 Economic Development and the Use of Resources © Cambridge University Press 2010
 Part Theme

Topic 31 Conservation and management A 3

Marking scheme
(a) (i) Pakistan 1 mark    (1)
(ii) Conservation = protection/preservation
S ustainability = meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs 2 @ 1 mark    (2)
(iii) Ideas such as:
Global warming / atmospheric pollution
Chopping down trees / deforestation
Water pollution / extinction of species 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(iv) Ideas such as:
To prevent loss of species/extinction
So future generations will be able to see them (dev)
And ensure biodiversity
Because plants provide oxygen / use carbon dioxide
Which is vital to human survival (dev)
Educational value of natural environment
Which may provide potential cures for diseases etc. 4 @ 1 mark or development    (4)
(b) (i) Ideas such as:
They were killed by poachers
Who wanted them for their tusks/for ivory
As the price of ivory had increased 3 @ 1 mark    (3)
(ii) Ideas such as:
Many people are desperate for food/money
Therefore have other priorities rather than conservation (dev)
Corruption by officials
Industrial development taking place with few regulations
Thus water/atmospheric pollution is normal (dev)
Many governments are reluctant to pass legislation
As it may put off potential investors by increasing production costs (dev)
Authorities do not have sufficient funds to police environmental regulations
Significance of traditional practices, e.g. hunting
Lack of knowledge of alternative environmentally friendly procedures etc. 5 @ 1 mark or development    (5)
(c) Levels marking
Level 1 (1–3 marks)
Statements including limited detail describing what has been done to maintain, improve or conserve the quality of the environment.
e.g. conserving wildlife, ensuring vegetation/habitat is not cleared for development, setting up National Parks/conservation areas,
employing people to clear up regularly, more litter bins, restricting access etc.
Level 2 (4–6 marks)
Uses named example.
More developed statements describing what has been done to maintain, improve or conserve the quality of the environment. e.g.
ensuring wildlife is conserved by setting up National Parks/conservation areas, refusing planning permission for development of
tourist facilities/factories/mines which would destroy vegetation/habitat, encouragement of environmentally friendly initiatives
by government incentives, education of tourists regarding environmental issues by guided walks/visitor centres, restricting access to
sensitive areas by fencing them off etc.
NB Max. 5 marks if no named example
Level 3 (7 marks)
Uses named example, e.g. Menorca.
Comprehensive and accurate statements describing what has been done to maintain, improve or conserve the quality of the
environment, including some place-specific reference. e.g. restricting numbers of tourists by dealing with a limited number of tourist
companies, refusing planning permission for buildings over two storeys within 250 metres of coast, eco-tax established to raise money
for environmental protection, creation of Biosphere Reserve, creation of the Parc Natural de S’Albufera des Grau, a wetland reserve
area; restricting access to sensitive areas by fencing them off, creation of marked paths such as those in S’Albufera des Grau etc. (7)

 (Total 25)

Cambridge IGCSE Geography     Part A Theme 3 Economic Development and the Use of Resources © Cambridge University Press 2010
Map 1  The world

Tropic of Cancer

Equator

Tropic of Capricorn

0 2000 4000 km

Cambridge IGCSE Geography      © Cambridge University Press 2010

Map 2  The countries of the world

More Economically Developed

Countries (MEDCs)
129

128 B
C
A
1 P 100
D Q
NORTH AMERICA G R
F H
E N O
I d c
W S T 97
EUROPE J V U
101
M ab 81
j eZ
h 121
2 X 96 98
L K Y i 79 78 95 99 ASIA
g 80
f 82 122 123
33 103 102
32 83 86 94 107 108
84 92
29 31 85 104
34 30 93
Tropic of Cancer 3 91 105 120
4 44 87 90 110
5 8
59 109 124
9 43 45 88 89 112
13 7 6 47 52 111 119
37 64 113
14 36 35 58
12 18 40 63 114
20 19 17 39 41 46 51 60 106
11 10
48 66 118
15 16 50 115
Equator 42 38 49 55 62 61
22 56 54 116
53 65 117 125
SOUTH AMERICA 57
23
24 67 70
21 75
Tropic of Capricorn AFRICA 76 71 77 126
72 68
28
27 AUSTRALASIA
73 74
25 69
26
Less Economically Developed 127
Countries (LEDCs)

0 2000 4000 km

EUROPE U Hungary THE CARIBBEAN 20 Venezuela 39 Guinea 60 Ethiopia ASIA 98 Kyrgyzstan 119 Philippines
A Norway V Austria 4 Cuba 21 Bolivia 40 Guinea-Bissau 61 Kenya 78 Armenia 99 Tajikistan 120 Taiwan
B Sweden W Slovenia 5 Dominican Republic 22 Ecuador 41 Ivory Coast 62 Rwanda 79 Turkey 100 Russia 121 North Korea
C Finland X Croatia 6 Haiti 23 Peru 42 Liberia 63 Somalia 80 Azerbaijan 101 Mongolia 122 South Korea
D Denmark Y Montenegro 7 Jamaica 24 Brazil 43 Mali 64 Sudan 81 Georgia 102 China 123 Japan
E United Kingdom (UK) Z Serbia 8 Puerto Rico 25 Uruguay 44 Mauritania 65 Tanzania 82 Syria 103 Afghanistan 124 Hong Kong
F Ireland a Kosovo 26 Argentina 45 Niger 66 Uganda 83 Lebanon 104 Pakistan
G The Netherlands b Romania CENTRAL AMERICA 27 Chile 46 Nigeria 67 Angola 84 Israel 105 India AUSTRALASIA
H Belgium c Ukraine 9 Belize 28 Paraguay 47 Senegal 68 Botswana 85 Jordan 106 Sri Lanka 125 Papua New Guinea
I Luxembourg d Moldavia 10 Costa Rica 48 Sierra Leone 69 Lesotho 86 Iraq 107 Nepal 126 Australia
J France e Bosnia & Herzegovina 11 El Salvador AFRICA 49 Togo 70 Malawi 87 Saudi Arabia 108 Bhutan 127 New Zealand
K Spain f Albania 12 Guatemala 29 Algeria 50 Cameroon 71 Mozambique 88 Yemen 109 Bangladesh
L Portugal g Macedonia 13 Honduras 30 Egypt 51 Central African Republic 72 Namibia 89 Oman 110 Myanmar OTHERS
M Switzerland h Bulgaria 14 Nicaragua 31 Libya 52 Chad 73 South Africa 90 United Arab Emirates (UAE) 111 Thailand 128 Iceland
N Germany i Greece 15 Panama 32 Morocco 53 Congo 74 Swaziland 91 Qatar 112 Laos 129 Greenland
O Poland j Italy 33 Tunisia 54 Dem. Rep. Congo 75 Zambia 92 Bahrain 113 Vietnam
P Latvia SOUTH AMERICA 34 Western Sahara 55 Equatorial Guinea 76 Zimbabwe 93 Kuwait 114 Cambodia
Q Lithuania NORTH AMERICA 16 Colombia 35 Benin 56 Gabon 77 Madagascar 94 Iran 115 Malaysia
R Estonia 1 Canada 17 French Guiana 36 Burkina Faso 57 Burundi 95 Turkmenistan 116 Singapore
S Czech Republic 2 United States of America (USA) 18 Guyana 37 Gambia 58 Djibouti 96 Uzbekistan 117 Indonesia
T Slovakia 3 Mexico 19 Surinam 38 Ghana 59 Eritrea 97 Kazakhstan 118 Brunei

Cambridge IGCSE Geography      © Cambridge University Press 2010

Map 3  The United States of America (USA)

Alaska

Washington North Dakota

Montana New
Minnesota Hampshire
Vermont
Maine
South Dakota Wisconsin
Oregon
Idaho
Wyoming Michigan
New York
Iowa Massachusetts
Nebraska
Pennsylvania Rhode Island
Illinois Indiana Ohio Connecticut
Nevada New
Utah Colorado Jersey
Kansas West Delaware
Missouri Virginia Maryland
Kentucky Virginia
California
Oklahoma Tennessee North
Arkansas Carolina
Arizona New Mexico South
Carolina
Alabama
Mississippi Georgia
Texas
Louisiana
Florida

0 500 1000 km

Cambridge IGCSE Geography      © Cambridge University Press 2010

Map 4  The countries of South America

VENEZUELA
GUYANA

COLOMBIA SURINAM
GUYANA

Equator
ECUADOR

PERU
BRAZIL

BOLIVIA

Tropic of Capricorn PARAGUAY

URUGUAY
ARGENTINA

CHILE

0 500 1000 km

Cambridge IGCSE Geography      © Cambridge University Press 2010

Map 5  The countries of Africa

TUNISIA

MOROCCO

ALGERIA
LIBYA EGYPT
WESTERN
SAHARA
Tropic of Cancer

MAURITANIA
MALI NIGER
CHAD ERITREA
SENEGAL SUDAN
GAMBIA
BURKINA
GUINEA FASO DJIBOUTI
BISSAU GUINEA
BENIN
NIGERIA SOMALIA
SIERRA IVORY GHANA ETHIOPIA
LEONE LIBERIA COAST CENTRAL
AFRICAN REPUBLIC
TOGO CAMEROON

EQUATORIAL UGANDA
Equator GUINEA REP. OF KENYA
GABON CONGO
RWANDA
DEMOCRATIC BURUNDI
REPUBLIC OF CONGO
TANZANIA

MALAWI
ANGOLA

ZAMBIA

MOZAMBIQUE
ZIMBABWE
MADAGASCAR

NAMIBIA BOTSWANA
Tropic of Capricorn

SWAZILAND

LESOTHO
SOUTH
AFRICA

0 500 1000 km

Cambridge IGCSE Geography      © Cambridge University Press 2010

Map 6  The countries of Europe

0 200 400 km

FINLAND
SWEDEN

NORWAY

ESTONIA

LATVIA
DENMARK RUSSIA
LITHUANIA
RUSSIA

REPUBLIC BELARUS
OF IRELAND UNITED
KINGDOM
NETHERLANDS POLAND
GERMANY
BELGIUM
CZECH
REPUBLIC UKRAINE
LUXEMBOURG SLOVAKIA

AUSTRIA MOLDOVA
FRANCE SWITZERLAND HUNGARY
SLOVENIA ROMANIA
CROATIA

BOSNIA SERBIA
ITALY KOSOVO
BULGARIA
TURKEY
MONTENEGRO MACEDONIA
SPAIN
PORTUGAL
ALBANIA GREECE
TURKEY

Cambridge IGCSE Geography      © Cambridge University Press 2010

Map 7  The Mediterranean region

SLOVENIA ROMANIA
FRANCE
CROATIA

BOSNIA SERBIA

ITALY
KOSOVO BULGARIA
Corsica
(Fr.)
MONTENEGRO MACEDONIA
TURKEY
ALBANIA
SPAIN Balearic Is. Sardinia
(Sp.) (It.) GREECE
TURKEY

Sicily
(It.)

MALTA
M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a
TUNISIA Crete CYPRUS
(Gr.)
ALGERIA
MOROCCO

0 200 400 km

EGYPT
LIBYA

Cambridge IGCSE Geography      © Cambridge University Press 2010

Map 8  The countries of Asia

0 2000 4000 km

RUSSIA

KAZAKHSTAN
MONGOLIA
GEORGIA UZBEKISTAN
AZERBAIJAN
ARMENIA KYRGYZSTAN NORTH JAPAN
KOREA
TAJIKISTAN
TURKMENISTAN CHINA
AFGHANISTAN
NEPAL BHUTAN SOUTH
IRAN
PAKISTAN KOREA

MYANMAR TAIWAN Tropic of Cancer

INDIA

BANGLADESH LAOS

THAILAND VIETNAM
PHILIPPINES
SRI CAMBODIA
LANKA BRUNEI
MALAYSIA PAPUA NEW Equator
INDONESIA GUINEA

Cambridge IGCSE Geography      © Cambridge University Press 2010

Map 9  Australia, New Zealand and nearby islands

Vanuatu
Fiji

NORTHERN
TERRITORY
New
Caledonia
QUEENSLAND Tropic of Capricorn

AUSTRALIA
WESTERN
AUSTRALIA

SOUTH
AUSTRALIA

Lord Howe
NEW SOUTH Island
WALES

AUSTRALIAN
CAPITAL
VICTORIA TERRITORY
North
Island

NEW
TASMANIA ZEALAND

South
Island

0 500 1000 km

Cambridge IGCSE Geography      © Cambridge University Press 2010

Map 10  India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka

Northern
North Areas
West
Frontier
Province Jammu
FATA and Kashmir

Himachal
Pradesh
Punjab Punjab
Uttarakhand
PA K I S TA N
Haryana
Delhi Arunachal
Baluchistan Pradesh
Sikkim
Uttar
Rajasthan Pradesh
Assam Nagaland
Sindh Rajshahi
Bihar Meghalaya
Sylhet
BANGLADESH Manipur
Jharkhand Dhaka
Mizoram
Gujarat Madhya Pradesh West Tripura
Bengal
I N D I A Chhattisgarh Chittagong
Khulna Barisal
Orissa

Maharashtra

Andhra
Pradesh

Goa
Karnataka

Tamil
Nadu 0 250 500 km
Kerala

SRI
LANKA

Cambridge IGCSE Geography      © Cambridge University Press 2010

Map 11  The United Kingdom (UK)

Shetland
Islands

Scotland
Orkney
Islands

Scotland

0 100 200 km

Northern
Ireland

England

Wales

Cambridge IGCSE Geography      © Cambridge University Press 2010

 Triangular graph paper

0 100

10 90

20 80

30 70

40 60

50 50

60 40

70 30

80 20

90 10

100 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Cambridge IGCSE Geography      © Cambridge University Press 2010

Resources
World map
Glossary
Index
Acknowledgements

243
 © Collins Bartholomew Ltd 2009

244 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

245
GLOSSARY
Access How easy it is to obtain a
good or service. It can be measured in
terms of cost, time or distance.
African Union (AU) Created in
2002, this organisation brings together
the governments of 53 African states.
The AU aims to develop peace, unity
and integration within the African
continent.
Afrikaners People in South Africa
who speak Afrikaans and who are
descended from settlers from north-
west Europe – mainly Dutch people
from the Netherlands.
Algae Small plants that live in or
near water and have no true stem,
leaves or roots.
Apartheid The word means
‘separateness’ in Dutch. In South
Africa it was a system of legal racial
segregation which was enforced by the
National Party government from 1948
to 1994. The legacy of apartheid still
influences politics and society in South
Africa.
Arable The growing of crops, e.g.
wheat.
Barrage A low dam built across a
wide stretch of water such as a large
estuary in order to use the water held
behind it to make electricity.
Bay Part of the sea that fills a wide-
mouthed opening in the coastline.
Birth rate The number of births per
year per 1000 population.
Bush meat The meat of wild animals
that are killed for subsistence or
commercial reasons, mainly in tropical
areas and LEDCs.
Capitalism An economic system
in which the majority of goods and
services are owned and managed by
individuals and companies rather than
by the state.
Cash crop A crop grown for sale
rather than for subsistence.
Census An official count of the
population carried out at regular
intervals.
246 Cambridge IGCSE Geography
Colony A country that has been
taken over and ruled by another
country.
Communism A system of
government where most goods and
services are owned and managed by
the state and little private enterprise is
allowed.
Commuting The process of
travelling some distance to work,
usually from villages and suburbs into
the central areas of a town or city.
Comparison goods High order
goods that, due to their high price,
purchasers wish to compare. People
are willing to travel long distances to
buy them.
Comprehensive redevelopment
A housing policy that involves the
clearing of areas of low-quality
buildings and replacing them with a
new higher-quality environment.
Conservation The care of species,
resources and environments so
that they will survive for future
generations.
Convection currents Differences
in temperature of material beneath
the plates of the Earth’s crust leads to
the creation of currents to transfer the
heat. These currents move the plates
above them. The term also applies
when air is heated and rises in the
atmosphere.
Convenience goods Low order
goods and services that are cheap and
bought often. People are not willing to
travel far to buy them.
Converging When plates are
moving towards each other at a plate
boundary.
Counter-urbanisation The process
by which an increasing number of
people within a country live in the
countryside instead of in towns and
cities. This could be the result of
natural increase and/or migration.
Cyclone An area of low atmospheric
pressure, e.g. below 980 mb. A tropical
cyclone, with pressure often below 970
mb, is also known as a hurricane in
North America and the Caribbean.
Death rate The number of deaths
per year per 1000 population.
Decomposition The changing of
rocks by chemical action causing a
change in composition.
Deforestation Cutting down trees
without replacing them.
Delta A landform, often triangular
in shape, that develops where a river
meets a slow-moving body of water
such as a lake or ocean. Sediment
builds up above the water level, forcing
the river to split into distributaries to
form a delta.
Demography The study of human
populations – their size, distribution
and composition.
Desalination The extraction of fresh
water from salty sea water.
Desert A dry area, hot or cold,
where total annual precipitation is less
than 250 mm.
Disintegration Physical breaking
down of rocks into smaller fragments
with no change in their chemical
composition.
Distributary A stream channel
resulting from the division of a larger
stream channel.
Diverging When plates are moving
away from each other at a plate
boundary.
Ecosystem A system of links
between plants and animals (the living
community) and the habitats where
they live, including the non-living
environment.
Emigrants People who permanently
leave one country to live in another.
Emigration The permanent
movement of people outward from a
country.

Epicentre The point on the surface
directly above where an earthquake
has taken place.
Erosion The wearing away and
removal of rocks by the action of the
agents of erosion – wind, water, ice,
gravity.
Escarpment A long ridge of high
ground, often with a scarp (steep) and
dip (gentle) slope.
Extensive farming Where there
are small inputs of capital and labour
compared with the large amount of
land used, e.g. cattle-rearing. Yields per
hectare are low.
Fauna Animals (including birds and
insects) of an area.
Fertility rate In a country or region
the average number of children a
woman will have in her lifetime.
Flora Plants of an area.
Food & Agricultural Organisation
(FAO) The FAO, based in Rome,
Italy, is part of the United Nations.
The organisation was created in 1945
to lead UN efforts to defeat hunger in
both LEDCs and MEDCs.
Formal employment Official jobs
with set hours and rates of pay. People
who are formally employed pay direct
taxes to the government.
Fossil fuel Any fuel found
underground that is made up of the
remains of plants and/or animals. Oil,
natural gas, coal, brown coal and peat
are all fossil fuels.
GDP (Gross Domestic Product)
per person The total value of all
the goods and services produced in a
country in one year by all the people
living in that country, divided by the
population. It is used as a measure of
wealth.
Geothermal power Energy
gathered from the natural heat
produced by rocks deep underground.
Glacial To do with ice, its
movements and the features formed
by it.
Headland A point of higher land
jutting out into the sea, usually made
of a resistant rock such as granite.
Hierarchy Any kind of organisation
based on rank, class and order, e.g.
a settlement hierarchy places cities,
towns and villages in order of size or
status.
High order Goods or services that
are bought infrequently and are often
expensive.
Hydro-electric power (HEP)
Electricity generated by using moving
water to turn turbines.
Immigration The permanent
movement of people inward to a
country.
Independence When a government
takes on sole responsibility for making
decisions about how to run the
country it governs.
Industrial Revolution The period
of time in a country or region’s
development when it changes from
being mainly a rural agricultural
society with small-scale cottage
industries to one that is based on large-
scale manufacturing industry in urban
areas.
Informal employment Unofficial
jobs that have no set hours or rates
of pay. People who are informally
employed may avoid paying tax and
are usually self-employed.
Infrastructure The pattern of
communication and transport links,
power supplies, administrative, health,
education and other services necessary
for economic development.
Insolation The amount of sun’s
energy reaching the Earth’s surface.
Intensive farming Where there
are large inputs of capital and labour
compared with the small amount of
land used, e.g. battery hen farming.
Yields per hectare are high.
Glossary
Internally displaced people
(IDPs) People who are forced to
leave their homes but who are not
refugees because they stay within the
country’s borders.
International migration The
movement of people on a permanent
basis between countries.
Irrigated Land that has water
added to it for farming purposes. This
can involve sprinklers, canals, lifting
devices. It is usually required where
rainfall is below 500 mm per year.
Lagoon A bay or sea inlet that is
partly enclosed by a spit or wholly
enclosed by a sand bar.
Lateral erosion Where a stream or
river wears away the sides and banks
on each side of the channel.
Lava Magma that has escaped from
beneath the Earth’s crust and has
flowed onto the surface.
LEDC A less economically developed
country as defined by the Brandt
Report (1980).
Low order Goods or services that
are bought frequently and which are
usually cheap.
Magma Molten rock found beneath
the Earth’s crust.
Margin of cultivation Land towards
the edge of a cultivable area on which
it is just possible to farm economically.
MEDC A more economically
developed country as defined by the
Brandt Report (1980).
Metropolitan Refers to a single
urban settlement of outstanding size
and importance which has absorbed
other urban areas. It is often the
capital city of the country. The Greater
Tokyo Metropolitan area is the largest,
containing about 35 million people.
Migration The permanent, seasonal
or temporary movement of people.
247
 Glossary
Monsoon   Derived from the Arabic
word mawsam, meaning season. It is
a seasonal change of wind direction.
The monsoon refers to both dry and
wet seasons, although its common use
refers to the wet season only.
National Park   Area of such
outstanding scenery that the
government has put in place very strict
checks on any new development.
Natural population change   tissue.
Change in population caused by birth
and death rates only.
Newly industrialised countries
(NICs)   These countries, mostly
based in south-east Asia, showed rapid
growth in the late 20th century, largely
through the creation and expansion
of multinational companies based on
modern technology and IT.
Nomadic   People, usually farmers,
who move from place to place
seasonally to find good land or pasture.
Non-renewable   Energy sources that
are limited and finite. Once used up
there are no future supplies available,
e.g. oil, coal, natural gas.
Nutrients   Proteins, carbohydrates,
fats, vitamins and minerals provided by
food and necessary for growth and the
maintenance of life.
Overall population change   Change
in population caused by births, deaths
and migration.
Overpopulated   When a country or
region does not have enough resources
to keep its people at a reasonable
standard of living.
Pass laws   Introduced in 1923,
the pass laws were designed by the
South African government to prevent
freedom of movement of non-whites
who had to carry pass books at all
times to prove they were authorised to
live and work in ‘white’ South Africa.
Passport   An official document that
certifies a person’s identity, nationality
and citizenship of a country. It enables
travel between countries and entitles
the holder to protection overseas.
248 Cambridge IGCSE Geography
Pastoral   The raising of animals on
grass, e.g. cattle, sheep, goats.
Pastoralists   Farmers whose main
concern is the raising of animals using
grass and pasture, e.g. cattle, sheep,
goats.
Photosynthesis   The process
whereby plants take in the sun’s
energy with carbon dioxide and water
to produce energy, oxygen and plant
Plateau   Large area of relatively flat
upland.
Population density   The average
number of people in a given area,
e.g. per km2.
Population pyramid   A diagram
showing the ages and gender of the
population of an area.
Prevailing wind   The direction from
which the wind blows into an area for
most of the year.
Range   The distance people are
prepared to travel to buy a good or
a service, e.g. low order goods and
services have a small range; high order
goods and services have a large range.
Rapid transit system   A railway
system for passengers that is run by
electricity both over- and underground
and has high capacity and frequency.
London’s underground system was the
first rapid-transit system, built in 1863.
More than 160 cities now have them.
Reclamation   To use or re-
use resources that are serving no
worthwhile purpose at present, e.g.
derelict sites in inner-city areas,
marshy land.
Renewable    Resources that can
be used without endangering future
supplies, e.g. solar energy.
Rural   To do with villages and the
countryside.
Rural–urban fringe   The area on the
very edge of a town or city where it
meets the countryside.
Savanna   Tropical grasslands that lie
between tropical rainforests where it is
wetter and hot desert where it is drier.
Sedentary   Farmers who are settled
in one particular place.
Sedimentary rock   Material that
has been deposited by the force which
originally carried it from elsewhere,
e.g. wind, water or ice. It can also
consist of the accumulated remains of
dead sea animals, e.g. limestone.
Shifting cultivation   A farming
system often found in rainforests in
LEDCs where a patch of land is cleared,
crops are grown, then the patch is
deserted until it regains its fertility.
Sphere of influence   The area
surrounding an activity that is
influenced by it, e.g. a sports centre
or a local park. It is also called the
catchment area.
Spit   A sand ridge, usually curving,
that is joined to the land at one end
and juts out into the sea at the other.
Standard of living   The factors
that affect a person’s quality of life
and which can be measured. Many
measures to do with a person’s
standard of living are to do with
material possessions.
Subsistence agriculture   A means
of supporting life by being able to meet
one’s own basic needs of food, water
and shelter.
Sub-tropical   Referring to those
areas of the Earth that lie between the
Tropic of Cancer (231/2°N) and 40°N
and the Tropic of Capricorn (231/2°S)
and 40°S.
Sustainable   Capable, by careful use
and management, of being maintained
over time for future generations to use
or enjoy whilst meeting the needs of
the present.
Tectonic plates   Rigid segments of
rock that make up the Earth’s crust.
They meet at plate boundaries where
earthquakes, volcanoes and fold
mountains are created.

Temperate   Areas that do not
experience great extremes of heat or
cold. They are in the mid-latitudes
between the hot tropics and cold polar
regions both in the northern and
southern hemispheres.
Tenement   A building that is split up
into several apartments or flats.
Thermal power   Energy generated
by heating water to make steam which
then turns turbines to create electricity.
The heat source can be coal, oil, gas,
geothermal or nuclear.
Threshold population   The
number of people needed to justify the
provision of a good or service.
Tidal power   Energy based on the
movements of the tide. This works best
where there is a large tidal range – that
is, a large difference between the high-
tide and low-tide levels.
Townships   Urban living areas built
on the edges of towns and cities that,
under apartheid in South Africa,
were reserved for non-whites (mainly
black Africans, coloureds* and some
working-class Indians). [*See note on
page 122]
Transmigration   The relocation of a
large number of people as a result of a
government plan.
Tropical   Parts of the Earth that lie
between the Tropic of Cancer (231/2°N)
and the Tropic of Capricorn (231/2°S).
Tundra   Areas in Alaska, northern
Canada, northern Europe and Asia
where the ground is permanently
frozen for most of the year. Only
lichen, moss, grasses and dwarf shrubs
and trees can grow here.
Underpopulated   When a country
or region has more resources available
than are being used by the people
living there.
Glossary
United Nations (UN)   An World Bank   An organisation
organisation made up of delegates set up by MEDCs in 1944 with its
from almost all countries of the world, headquarters in Washington DC, USA.
created in 1945. The UN headquarters It contributes funds to be loaned to
are in New York. It deals with issues LEDCs for development projects.
of global importance including those
related to global development.
Urban   To do with towns and cities.
Urbanisation   The process by which
an increasing proportion of people
live in towns and cities instead of the
countryside. This could be the result of
natural increase and/or migration.
Urban regeneration   The renewal
of a declining part of a town or city by
removing existing houses and buildings
as well as redeveloping the area.
Urban renewal   The process
whereby the derelict areas of a town
or city are improved by upgrading
existing buildings. This process is
sometimes known as gentrification.
Urban sprawl   The expansion of the
city into its surrounding rural area.
Vertical erosion   Where a stream
or river flowing quickly down a steep
gradient in an upland area wears away
the bed at a faster rate than the valley
sides, leading to a narrow V-shaped
valley.
Visa   An additional requirement to a
passport, usually given by endorsing
the passport, allowing entry into some
countries.
Weathering   The breakdown of
rocks by elements of the weather or
biological influences but not their
physical removal, e.g. frost, alternate
heat and cold, tree roots, burrowing
animals.
Workforce   That part of the
population of a country that is
employed. In MEDCs this is usually
those aged between 16 and 65; in
LEDCs this often starts at a lower age.
249
INDEX

agriculture 110–115 cacti 93

in Indonesia 198 Cairo, Egypt 52–53
urban 180–181 caldera volcanoes 64
AIDS 9, 60 camels 93–94
airports 191–193 capitalism, in Russia 124
Amazon Basin 112–113, 162–163 carbon dioxide emissions 108, 161
anemometers 234 censuses 16
Antarctic 168–169 central business districts (CBDs) 210–217
apartheid 122 chemical weathering 68
arches (landforms) 77–79 Chile, volcanoes 64–65
Arctic 166–167 China
asylum seekers 28 earthquakes in 66–67
Atlanta, USA 58–59 population control in 17–19
atolls 82 cities and towns 38–43
Australia central business districts 210–217
coastal landforms of 78–79 farming in 180–181
droughts in 100–101 problems in 50–55
Great Barrier Reef 84–85 urban sprawl 56–59
underpopulation of 14–15 climate 86–87
coasts 76–81
Baltic Sea 102–103 cols 187
Baltimore, USA 54–55 communism, in Russia 124
Bangalore, India 132–133 compass bearings 179
Bangladesh, Ganges delta 74–75 Congo, Democratic Republic of, fuelwood use 142–143
Barcelona, Spain 42–43 conservation 164–165
barrier islands 77 constructive waves 76
barrier reefs 82 contours 185, 187
bays 77 coral reefs 82–85
bearings, compass 179 Costa Rica, national parks 106–107
biogas 141 cow dung, used as fuel 141
biological weathering 69 cross-sections 189
Brazil cruise holidays 206–207
deforestation in 162–163 cyclones 75, 98–99, 117
subsistence agriculture in 112–113
Burgess land use model 43

250 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Index

death rates 7 flooding 97, 104–105

deforestation 88–91, 143, 158–159, 162–163 floodplains 71, 104–105
deltas 71, 74–75 fold mountains 63
Democratic Republic of Congo, fuelwood use 142–143 food shortages 116–119
Demographic Transition Model 5 food webs
demography 17 Antarctic 169
dengue fever 200–201 Arctic 167
deposition fossil fuels 140, 149
on coasts 76–77, 80–81 France
in rivers 71, 74–75 electricity generation 150–151
depressions (weather) 98–99 rural settlements 36–37
deserts 92–95 fringing reefs 82
destructive waves 76 fuelwood 142–143, 159
disasters, natural 96–101
drainage 186 G8 countries, population 9
droughts 97, 100–101, 117 Ganges delta, Bangladesh 74–75
Dubai, tourism 138–139 GDP (gross domestic product) 183
geothermal energy 141, 146, 148
earthquakes 63, 66–67, 97 global warming 108, 160–161
Egypt, urban problems 52–53 gorillas 165
electricity generation 148–151 gradients 188
emigration 28 Great Barrier Reef, Australia 84–85
employment 120–125 (see also work) greenhouse effect 161
energy 140–147, 183 grid references 173
environment, human impact on 102–108, 156–169
environmental management 165 Harare, Zimbabwe 178–183
erosion headlands 77
and weathering 68 hills 187
of coasts 76–79 hi-tech industry 130–133
by rivers 70–73 HIV infection 9, 60
Ethiopia, rural settlement 34–35 hot deserts 92–95
European Union, migration within 29–31 Hoyt land use model 43
Everest, Mount 63 human impact on the environment 102–108, 156–169
extensive farming 110 hunger 116–119
hurricanes 97–99
famines 118–119 hydro-electric power 147–148
farming 110–115 hygrometers 234
in Indonesia 198
urban 180–181

251
 Index

Iceland, renewable energy 146–147 migration

illegal immigrants 28 international 28–31
immigration 28 rural to urban 44–49
India modal age-groups 16
hi-tech industry in 132–133 monsoons 75
urbanisation of 48–49 Mount Everest 63
Indonesia 195–201 mountains, fold 63
population distribution of 11 Mozambique, flooding 104–105
industrial towns 39 multinational companies 125
industry 126–133 Mumbai, India 48–49
intensive farming 110 Myanmar, cyclone in 98–99
international migration 28–31
Namibia, population density 24–25
Jamaica, Montego Bay 190–195 national migrants 28
Japan, population density 26–27 national parks 106–107, 195
natural hazards 96–101
Kenya, Ewaso Kedong valley 184–189 Nepal, soil erosion 158–159
Kyoto Protocol 108 New Zealand, agriculture 114–115
Niagara Falls 72–73
land degradation 158–159 Niger, population growth 6–7
land use models 43 Nigeria, overpopulation 12–13
Lesotho, water transfer 154–155 non-renewable energy resources 140–141
levées 71 nuclear power stations 148, 150
Lima, Peru 46–47 nutrient recycling 89
locusts 117
longshore drift 77, 80 oil (energy resource) 144–145
oil-producing countries 144
Madagascar, rainforests 89–91 overpopulation 10–13
Maldives, effects of global warming on 160–161 ox-bow lakes 71
Mali 95
manufacturing industry 126–129 Pakistan, steel manufacturing 128–129
marine ecosystems 82–83 pastoral farming, New Zealand 114
market towns 39 Peru
meanders 71 Monsefu 172–177
mechanical weathering 68 urbanisation of 46–47
mesas 92 photosynthesis 164
Middle East, oil production 144–145 plate tectonics 62–67

252 Cambridge IGCSE Geography

 Index

plateaux 187 ridges 187

Poland rivers 70–75, 218–225
coastal landforms of 80–81 rural settlements 32–37
Trojmiasto conurbation 102 Russia
Polish workers, in UK 30–31 employment in 124–125
pollution 157 population decline in 8–9
population
and resources 10–15 saddles (landforms) 187
control of 16–21 Sahara Desert 94–95
decline 8–9 Sahel 94
density 22–27 saltation load 71
growth 4–9 saltmarshes 77
population explosion 4 sampling 227
population pyramids 17 sand bars 77
ports 39 sand dunes 77, 176–177
potholes 71 sand spits 77, 80–81
poverty, world 32 Sardinia, urban settlements 40–41
power stations 148–151 Saudi Arabia, oil production 145
primary industry 120–121 scale, of maps 173
secondary industry 120–121, 126
quality of life indicators 182–183 settlement hierarchies 38
questionnaires 227 Seychelles, tourism 136–137
shifting cultivation 112–113
rain gauges 234 Silicon Valley, California 131
rainfall, global 153 Singapore, population control 20–21
rainforests 88–91, 112–113, 162–163 site and situation 191
rapids 71 slums 45, 48
recycling 170 soil erosion 158–159
redevelopment, urban 51 solution load 71
reefs 82–85 South Africa, employment 122–123
refugees 28 Spain, urban land use 42–43
regeneration, urban 51 spits (landforms) 77, 80–81
relief (landscape) 186 spot heights 185
renewable energy resources 140–141, 146–147, 205 sprawl, urban 56–59
Reunion Island 202–207 spurs (landforms) 187
rice 198–199 stacks (landforms) 77–79
Richter scale 66 steel manufacturing 128–129

253
 Index

Stevenson screens 86, 234 underpopulation 10, 14–15

storms, tropical 97–99 United Kingdom
sub-Saharan Africa 33 climate of 87
subsistence agriculture 112–113 Polish workers in 30–31
Sudan, famine 118–119 urban sprawl 56
suspension load 71 United States of America
sustainability 165 hi-tech industry in 131
urban problems in 54–55
TB infection 9 urban sprawl 58–59
thermal power stations 148–149 urban areas 38–43
thermometers 234 central business districts 210–217
tidal power stations 151 farming in 180–181
tombolos 77 problems in 50–55
tourism 134–139, 226–233 urban sprawl 56–59
in Antarctica 168 urbanisation 44–49
on coral reefs 85
in Jamaica 194 valleys 70, 187
in national parks 107 volcanoes 63, 64–65, 146
on Reunion Island 206–207 eruption of 97
tourist resorts 39, 134
towns and cities 38–43 waste disposal 170
central business districts 210–217 water 152–155, 182, 185
farming in 180–181 water cycle 70
problems in 50–55 waterfalls 72–73
urban sprawl 56–59 waves 76
traction load 71 weather 86–87
traffic 51, 211 recording of 234–241
transport, and carbon emissions 108 weathering 68–69
trends 192 wood, used as fuel 142–143, 159
tropical rainforests 88–91, 112–113, 162–163 work 28–31, 120–125
tropical storms 97–99
tsunamis 97 Zimbabwe, Harare 178–183
tundra 166

254 Cambridge IGCSE Geography


The author and publishers are grateful for the permissions
granted to reproduce materials in either the original or adapted
form. While every effort has been made, it has not always
been possible to identify the sources of all the materials used,
or to trace all copyright holders. If any omissions are brought
to our notice, we will be happy to include the appropriate
acknowledgements on reprinting.
Texts
p. 7 adapted from ‘Population explosion’ (2007); p.117 ‘Access
a problem in Afghanistan’ (2008); p.181 ‘Harare’s middle-class
residents’: IRIN News Service.
p. 9 ‘A second baby?’ by Fred Weir, excerpted with permission
from 19 May 2006 issue of The Christian Science Monitor
(www.CSMonitor.com): © 2006 The Christian Science Monitor.
p. 13 ‘Nigerian polls bring hope to chaotic Lagos’ by Tume
Ahemba and Daniel Flynn, April 2007: Reuters.
p. 28 adapted from ‘Holiday island spoilt by seaborne immigrant
invasion’, The Times, August 2008; p. 31 adapted from ‘The
boomerang immigrants who chase their dreams to Britain’
(Roger Boyes), The Times, April 2005; p. 62 adapted from
‘Force of nature parts Red Sea’ (Mark Henderson), The Times,
July 2006; p. 75 adapted from ‘Cyclone death toll may rise to
8000’ (Dean Nelson), The Times, November 2007; p. 85 adapted
from ‘The Barrier reef under threat’, The Times, February 2008;
p. 89 adapted from ‘Why a cup of coffee could spell doom for
the last hairy rhino’ (Nick Meo), The Times, January 2007; p.
89 adapted from ‘Loggers go deeper into the Amazon jungle in
Brazil’, The Times, November 2002; p. 96 adapted from ‘Mega
cities add to perils’ (Nick Nuttall), The Times, December 1999;
p. 99 adapted from ‘The coast of Myanmar suffered long term
and short term damage’ (Kenneth Denby), The Times, May 2008;
p. 108 adapted from ‘Electric cars put Hawaii on the road to
independence’ (Chris Ayres), The Times, December 2008; p. 117
adapted from ‘The carpet of jaws that threatens to devour West
Africa’ (Jonathan Clayton), The Times, October 2004; p. 117
adapted from ‘Starvation grips east Africa’, The Times, August
2008; p. 125 adapted from ‘Winners abound on football’s big
night’ (Adam Sherwin), The Times, May 2008; p. 141 adapted
from ‘Australia looks for power from hot rocks’ (Paul Larter),
The Times, May 2008; p. 141 adapted from ‘Cattle have power
too’, The Times, March 2008; p. 141 adapted from ‘Solar city
sets sights on ending pollution’ (Thomas Catán), The Times,
June 2007; p. 153 adapted from ‘Disease and disputes spread
as provinces start water fight’ (Graham Keeley), The Times, July
2005; p. 153 adapted from ‘Water shortages are likely to be
trigger for wars’ (Leo Lewis), The Times, December 2007;
p. 167 adapted from ‘Russia stakes its claim on the North Pole in
underwater search for oil’ (Tony Halpin), The Times, July 2007;
p.168 adapted from ‘The power games that threaten the world’s
last pristine wilderness’ (James Bones), The Times, November
2007: © NI Syndication.
p. 30 adapted from ‘Workers of the world’ (2005); p. 89 ‘Forest
felled to feed demand for lipstick’ (Juliet Jowit, 2004); p. 104
‘Living on the floodplain’ (Joseph Hanlon, 2001): copyright
Guardian News & Media Ltd 2005.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
p. 35 information and map adapted from Ethiopian Village
Studies document ‘Korodegaga, Dodota, Arssi’, June 1996:
researched by Assefa Tolera and Mesfin Tadesse, designed and
edited by Philippa Bevan and Alula Pankhurst.
p. 45 adapted from ‘Slumdog Millionaire highlights impending
global crisis’: Indo Asian News Service.
p. 57 Lyrics of ‘Little Boxes’ – words and music by Malvina
Reynolds, copyright 1962 Schroder Music Co. (ASCAP) renewed
1990, used by permission, all rights reserved.
p. 79 ‘Collapse of Apostle’ published by the Australian
Broadcasting Corporation (ABC), July 2005.
p. 103 ‘Polluting the Baltic Sea’ Salla Korpela/thisisFINLAND.fi
pp. 114-115 data and information about New Zealand used by
permission: Meat & Wool New Zealand.
p. 117 adapted from ‘Food shortage threatens millions in
Bangladesh’, Andrew Buncombe, first published 25 November
2007: © Independent News & Media Limited.
p. 135 from ‘The Final Call – In Search of the True Cost of our
Holidays’ by Leo Hickman: reprinted by permission of The
Random House Group Ltd.
p. 137 adapted from ‘Water shortages’: Seychelles Weekly.
p. 148 adapted from ‘India swelters as more power outages
loom’: Oman Daily Observer.
p. 150 ‘Nuclear power in France’:NPR.org
p. 153 ‘Burmese dam will displace thousands’: The Associated
Press, 13 April 2007.
p. 165 ‘Burkina Faso protects its fragile soils’: Africa Recovery,
United Nations.
p. 205 Reunion looks to renewable energy’ Ed Harris, August
2008: Reuters.
p. 207 ‘The impact of cruising’ by M.T. Schwarzman.
Part C – examination questions reproduced by permission of
the University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate. The
University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate bears no
responsibility for the example answers to questions taken from
its past question papers which are contained in this publication.
Maps
p. 4 map created with data from the US Census Bureau; p. 37
extracts from maps 1710E Séries Bleue Etratat Cap d’Antifer,
O818O Série Bleue Guémené-sue-Scoff © IGN – Paris – 2009
Authorisation no. 80-9047; p. 56 Leicester 1992 & 2007
reproduced by permission of Ordnance Survey on behalf of
MHSO © Crown copyright 2009, all rights reserved, Ordnance
Survey Licence No. 100001679; p. 58 map of the US – U.S.
Gov’T Commerce Noaa Nat’L Geophysical Data Centre/National
Geographic Image Collection; p. 66 map based on an original
by the British Geographic Survey, reproduced by permission of
the British Geological Survey © NERC 2008, all rights reserved,
IPR/119-17CT; p. 73 © Department of Natural Resources
Canada, all rights reserved; p. 133 TTK Healthcare Ltd India;
p. 172 Monsferu, Peru 1:50000 (Chiclayo) prepared by Army
Map Service (SX), Corps of Engineers, US Army, Washington
DC 1967; p. 178 Harare, Zimbabwe 1:50000 (Lake Chivero)
published by the Surveyor General, Zimbabwe 1994; p. 184
Ewaso Kedong, Kenya 1:50000 (Lumuru) published for the
255
 Acknowledgements
Kenyan Government by the British Government’s Ministry of
Overseas Surveys, copyright 1976 Kenyan Government; p. 190
Montego Bay, Jamaica 1:25000 National Land Agency, Survey
& Mapping Division, Jamaica; p. 196 Negara, Indonesia 1:25000
BAKOSURNATAL, the Indonesian National Coordinating
Agency for Surveys and Mapping; p. 202 4401RT St-Paul le
Port © IGN – Paris – 2009 Authorisation no. 80-9047; p. 208
Mauritius 1:25000 (Extract No 1220/Port Louis) map printed by
Ordnance Survey 2000 © Government of Mauritius 1989;
p. 211 © AA Media Limited 2009, cartographic data © Tele Atlas
N.V. 2009; p. 244 map © Collins Bartholomew Ltd 2009
Images and photographs
(Key: t = top, b = bottom, c = centre, l = left, r = right,
(all) = all photos on page)
pp. 1l, 3 James Marshall/Corbis; pp. 1c, 61 Michael Amendolia;
pp.1r, 109 © G.M.B. Akash/Panos Pictures; p. 7 Boureima
HAMA/AFP/Getty Images; p. 8 Hasan Doganturk/Alamy;
p. 11 frans lemmens/Alamy; p. 16 UK Census form and logo
source: National Statistics website www.statistics.gov.uk Crown
copyright material is reproduced with the permission of the
Controller Office of Public Sector Information (OPSI); p. 16 US
Census logo from the US Census Bureau; p. 18t Keren Su/Getty
Images; p. 18b EIGHTFISH/Getty Images; p. 26 Chad Ehlers/
Alamy; p. 27t Tohoku Color Agency/Getty Images; p. 27c DAJ/
Getty Images; p. 27b Shogoro/amana images/Getty Images;
p. 28b Mauro Seminara/AFP/Getty Images; p. 30 Martin
Godwin; p. 31 Profimedia International s.r.o./Alamy; p. 32
René Mansi/iStockphoto; p. 34 Adrian Arbib/Still Pictures;
p. 35 Ariadne Van Zandbergen/Alamy; p. 36 Travel Ink/Alamy;
p. 45 Film 4/Celador Films/Pathe International/The Kobal
Collection; p. 46 Anja Kessler/Das Fotoarchiv/Still Pictures;
p. 47 Arco Images GmbH/Alamy; p. 55 logo courtesy of Visit
Baltimore; p. 57t Max Whittaker; p. 57b David R. Frazier/
Science Photo Library; p. 58 Bildarchiv Monheim GmbH/Alamy;
p. 59 David R. Frazier Photolibrary; Inc./Alamy; p. 60 Mike
Goldwater/Alamy; p. 62 NASA/ MODIS/Science Photo Library;
p. 63 Horizon International Images Limited/Alamy; p. 65l
imagebroker/Alamy; p. 65r Christian Brown/AFP/Getty Images;
p. 67 Sipa Press/Rex Features; p. 69bl Islandstock/Alamy;
p. 69br WoodyStock/Alamy; p. 72t Worldsat International/
Science Photo Library; p. 75t Earth Satellite Corporation/
Science Photo Library; p. 75b Shafiqul Islam Kajol/Majority/Still
Pictures; p. 78 Thomas Enguehard/Wikimedia public domain;
p. 79 John Quixley/Alamy; p. 80t NASA/Wikipedia public
domain; p. 82t Stuart Chape/Still Pictures; p. 82tc David Ball/
Alamy; p. 82bc Ron Watts/Photolibrary.com; p. 82b Tetyana
Kochneva/iStockphoto; p. 84 Jurgen Freund/naturepl.com;
p. 85 Bruce Miller/Alamy; p. 88 Robbie Shone/Alamy; p. 91l
Michael Fay/ National Geographic/Getty Images; p. 91r
Jean-Leo Dugast/Still Pictures; p. 92 Huebi/Wikimedia; p. 93l
Werner Bollmann/Photolibrary.com; p. 94t NASA; p. 94b Stuart
Redler/Getty Images; p. 95t blickwinkel/Alamy; p. 95b Jon
Arnold Images Ltd/Alamy; p. 97tl Claire Freebairn/iStockphoto;
p. 97tr Caro/Alamy; p. 97bl NASA; p. 97br UNICEF; p. 99 NASA
image courtesy Jeff Schmaltz, MODIS Rapid Response team,
256 Cambridge IGCSE Geography
caption by Michon Scott.Instrument: Terra - MODIS;
p. 101 Photolibrary/Alamy; p. 102cl Caro/Alamy; p. 102cr
Tim E White/Alamy; p. 104 Yoav Lemmer/AFP/Getty Images;
p. 105 Piero Pomponi/Liaison/Getty Images; p. 106 R1/Alamy;
p. 113t Luiz C. Marigo/Still Pictures; p. 113b Hervé Collart/
Sygma/Corbis; p. 114 David Wall/Alamy; p. 115 Art Directors
& TRIP/Alamy; p. 116l Ilene MacDonald/Alamy; p. 116r
Borderlands/Alamy; p. 117 Eckstein Eckstein/Photolibrary.
com; p. 119t Boris Heger/Das Fotoarchiv/Still Pictures; p. 119b
Antony Njuguna/Reuters/Corbis; p. 123t Matt-80/Wikimedia;
p. 123b Peter Titmuss/Alamy; p. 125tl Peter Turnley/Corbis;
p. 125tr PCL/Alamy; p. 129 James L. Stanfield/National
Geographic/Getty Images; p. 131 Map used by permission of
Silicon Valley Map www.siliconvalleymap.com; p. 138 Peter
Bowater/Alamy; p. 139tl Kumar Sriskandan/Alamy; p. 139tr
Fabrice Bettex/Alamy; p. 139tcl Nicholas Pitt/Alamy; p. 139bl
NASA; p. 139br NASA; p. 140cl Sinopix/Rex Features; p. 140r
Alex Bartel/Science Photo Library; p. 142 Peter Treanor/Alamy;
p. 143 Eitan Simanor/Alamy; p. 145l William S. Stevens/U.S.
Navy/Getty Images; p. 145r Tom Hanley/Alamy; p. 147 Emil
Thor Sigurdsson; p. 148bl SCPhotos/Alamy; p. 151 Sipa Press/
Rex Features; p. 152tl WaterAid/Marco Betti; p. 155 used by
permission of George van der Merwe, TCTA; p. 157 Michel
Setboun/Corbis; p. 158t John & Lisa Merrill/Getty Images;
p. 158b Jorgen Schytte/Still Pictures; p. 159t James Green/
Robert Harding/Rex Features; p. 159b Photoshot Holdings Ltd/
Alamy; p. 160 MARKA/Alamy; p. 165tl Lisa Frias/iStockphoto;
p. 165c logo used by permission of the Gorilla Organization;
p. 165b John Isaac/UN Photo Library; p. 168 oversnap/
iStockphoto; p. 170l Frederic Soreau/Photolibrary.com; p. 177tr
Paul Kingsley/Alamy; p. 182 Tsvangirayi Mukwazhi/AP/PA
Photos; p. 191 Lew Robertson/iStockphoto; p. 195t Phil Kelly/
Alamy; p. 195 www.mbmp.org; p. 203 imagery © 2009 Digital
Globe, GeoEye, Google Earth; p208l c./Shutterstock; p. 208r
kaarsten/Shutterstock; p. 209t Andrew Fox/Alamy; p. 211 Phil
Degginger/Alamy; p. 234tr Art Directors & TRIP/Alamy; p. 234bc
Mark Boulton/Alamy; p. 234c Scott Bowman/Alamy; p. 234bl
Brian Cosgrove/Dorling Kindersley Images; p. 234br GH Zeal
Ltd; p. 235 Dorling Kindersley Images
The following photographs are used by kind permission of the
authors, Steve Sibley and Gary Cambers, and colleagues:
p. 5, p. 10l, p. 10r, p. 13tl, p. 13tr, p. 13b, p. 15l & 15r (photos
by Mrs. C.R. Jones), p. 17r, p. 22l, p. 22r, p. 24tl, p. 24tr, p. 24b,
p. 28t, p. 38(all), p. 39 (all), p. 41(all), p. 49tl, p. 49tr, p. 49bl,
p. 51(all), p. 54, p. 55l, p. 55r, p. 56 (all), p. 69tl, p. 69tr, p. 70l,
p. 70r, p. 72b (photo by Stuart Currie), p. 76t, p. 76b, p. 80b,
p. 81tl, p. 81tr, p. 81b, p. 86tl, p. 86tr, p. 86b, p. 93r, p. 95c,
p. 102(all except 102cl & 102cr), p. 108t, p. 108b, p. 110l,
p. 110r, p. 120tl, p. 120tr, p. 120b, p. 121, p. 122, p. 124,
p. 125tc, p. 125b, p. 127, p. 130(all), p.132, p. 135 (all), p. 136
(all), p. 137, p. 139bcl, p. 139bcr, p. 140l, p. 140cr, p. 148tl,
p. 148tr, p. 148br, p. 149, p. 152tl, p. 152bl, p. 152br, p. 156t,
p. 156c, p. 156b, p. 161t, p. 161b, p. 165tr, p. 170r, p. 171l,
p. 171r, p. 176, p. 177l, p. 177br, p. 179, p. 183t, p. 183b, p. 185,
p. 188l, p. 188tr, p. 188br, p. 197l, p. 197r, p. 198, p. 206,
pp. 209b & 242 (photos by Mark Birkenshaw), p. 210, p. 218,
p. 219tl, p. 219tr, p. 219b, p. 226, p. 234tl, p. 234cr