Development of Theater

History of theatre
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Performer playing Sugriva in the Koodiyattam form of Sanskrit theatre
Hannah Pritchard as Lady Macbeth and David Garrick as Macbeth at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane in April

1768
The history of theatre charts the development of theatre over the past 2,500 years.

While performative elements are present in every society, it is customary to
acknowledge a distinction between theatre as an art form and entertainment
and theatrical or performative elements in other activities. The history of theatre is
primarily concerned with the origin and subsequent development of the theatre as
an autonomous activity. Since classical Athens in the 6th century BC, vibrant traditions
of theatre have flourished in cultures across the world. [1]
Origins[edit]
Theatre arose as a performance of ritual activities that did not require initiation on the part of the
spectator. This similarity of early theatre to ritual is negatively attested by Aristotle, who in
his Poetics defined theatre in contrast to the performances of sacred mysteries: theatre did not
require the spectator to fast, drink the kykeon, or march in a procession; however theatre did
resemble the sacred mysteries in the sense that it brought purification and healing to the spectator
by means of a vision, the theama. The physical location of such performances was accordingly
named theatron.[2]
According to the historians Oscar Brockett and Franklin Hildy, rituals typically include elements that
entertain or give pleasure, such as costumes and masks as well as skilled performers. As societies
grew more complex, these spectacular elements began to be acted out under non-ritualistic
conditions. As this occurred, the first steps towards theatre as an autonomous activity were being
taken.[3]
European theatre[edit]
Greek theatre[edit]
The best-preserved example of a classical Greek theatre, the Theatre of Epidaurus, has a
circular orchêstra and probably gives the best idea of the original shape of the Athenian theatre, though it dates
from the 4th century BC.[4]
Main articles: Theatre of Ancient Greece, Ancient Greek comedy, and Satyr play
Greek theatre, most developed in Athens, is the root of the Western tradition; theatre is in origin a
Greek word. It was part of a broader culture of theatricality and performance in classical Greece that
included festivals, religious rituals, politics, law, athletics and gymnastics, music, poetry, weddings,
funerals, and symposia.[5][a] Participation in the city-state's many festivals—and attendance at the City
Dionysia as an audience member (or even as a participant in the theatrical productions) in particular
—was an important part of citizenship.[6] Civic participation also involved the evaluation of
the rhetoric of orators evidenced in performances in the law-court or political assembly, both of
which were understood as analogous to the theatre and increasingly came to absorb its dramatic
vocabulary.[7] The theatre of ancient Greece consisted of three types of drama: tragedy, comedy, and
the satyr play.[8]
Athenian tragedy—the oldest surviving form of tragedy—is a type of dance-drama that formed an
important part of the theatrical culture of the city-state. [9][b] Having emerged sometime during the 6th
century BC, it flowered during the 5th century BC (from the end of which it began to spread
throughout the Greek world) and continued to be popular until the beginning of the Hellenistic period.
[10][c]
No tragedies from the 6th century and only 32 of the more than a thousand that were performed
in during the 5th century have survived.[11][d] We have complete texts extant by Aeschylus, Sophocles,
and Euripides.[12][e] The origins of tragedy remain obscure, though by the 5th century it
was institutionalised in competitions (agon) held as part of festivities
celebrating Dionysos (the god of wine and fertility).[13] As contestants in the City Dionysia's
competition (the most prestigious of the festivals to stage drama), playwrights were required to
present a tetralogy of plays (though the individual works were not necessarily connected by story or
theme), which usually consisted of three tragedies and one satyr play. [14][f] The performance of
tragedies at the City Dionysia may have begun as early as 534 BC; official records (didaskaliai)
begin from 501 BC, when the satyr play was introduced. [15] [g] Most Athenian tragedies dramatise
events from Greek mythology, though The Persians—which stages the Persian response to news of
their military defeat at the Battle of Salamis in 480 BC—is the notable exception in the surviving
drama.[16][h] When Aeschylus won first prize for it at the City Dionysia in 472 BC, he had been writing
tragedies for more than 25 years, yet its tragic treatment of recent history is the earliest example of
drama to survive.[17] More than 130 years later, the philosopher Aristotle analysed 5th-century
Athenian tragedy in the oldest surviving work of dramatic theory—his Poetics (c. 335 BC). Athenian
comedy is conventionally divided into three periods, "Old Comedy", "Middle Comedy", and "New
Comedy". Old Comedy survives today largely in the form of the eleven surviving plays
of Aristophanes, while Middle Comedy is largely lost (preserved only in relatively short fragments in
authors such as Athenaeus of Naucratis). New Comedy is known primarily from the substantial
papyrus fragments of plays by Menander. Aristotle defined comedy as a representation of laughable
people that involves some kind of error or ugliness that does not cause pain or destruction. [18]
Roman theatre[edit]
Main article: Theatre of ancient Rome
Roman theatre in Benevento, Italy
Western theatre developed and expanded considerably under the Romans. The Roman
historian Livy wrote that the Romans first experienced theatre in the 4th century BC, with a
performance by Etruscan actors.[19] Beacham argues that Romans had been familiar with "pre-
theatrical practices" for some time before that recorded contact.[20] The theatre of ancient Rome was
a thriving and diverse art form, ranging from festival performances of street theatre, nude dancing,
and acrobatics, to the staging of Plautus's broadly appealing situation comedies, to the high-style,
verbally elaborate tragedies of Seneca. Although Rome had a native tradition of performance,
the Hellenization of Roman culture in the 3rd century BC had a profound and energizing effect on
Roman theatre and encouraged the development of Latin literature of the highest quality for the
stage.
Following the expansion of the Roman Republic (509–27 BC) into several Greek territories between
270–240 BC, Rome encountered Greek drama.[21] From the later years of the republic and by means
of the Roman Empire (27 BC-476 AD), theatre spread west across Europe, around the
Mediterranean and reached England; Roman theatre was more varied, extensive and sophisticated
than that of any culture before it.[22] While Greek drama continued to be performed throughout the
Roman period, the year 240 BC marks the beginning of regular Roman drama. [21][i] From the
beginning of the empire, however, interest in full-length drama declined in favour of a broader variety
of theatrical entertainments.[23]
The first important works of Roman literature were the tragedies and comedies that Livius
Andronicus wrote from 240 BC.[24] Five years later, Gnaeus Naevius also began to write drama.[24] No
plays from either writer have survived. While both dramatists composed in both genres, Andronicus
was most appreciated for his tragedies and Naevius for his comedies; their successors tended to
specialise in one or the other, which led to a separation of the subsequent development of each type
of drama.[24] By the beginning of the 2nd century BC, drama was firmly established in Rome and
a guild of writers (collegium poetarum) had been formed.[25]
The Roman comedies that have survived are all fabula palliata (comedies based on Greek subjects)
and come from two dramatists: Titus Maccius Plautus (Plautus) and Publius Terentius
Afer (Terence).[26] In re-working the Greek originals, the Roman comic dramatists abolished the role
of the chorus in dividing the drama into episodes and introduced musical accompaniment to
its dialogue (between one-third of the dialogue in the comedies of Plautus and two-thirds in those of
Terence).[27] The action of all scenes is set in the exterior location of a street and its complications
often follow from eavesdropping.[27] Plautus, the more popular of the two, wrote between 205 and 184
BC and twenty of his comedies survive, of which his farces are best known; he was admired for
the wit of his dialogue and his use of a variety of poetic meters.[28] All of the six comedies that
Terence wrote between 166 and 160 BC have survived; the complexity of his plots, in which he often
combined several Greek originals, was sometimes denounced, but his double-plots enabled a
sophisticated presentation of contrasting human behaviour. [28]
No early Roman tragedy survives, though it was highly regarded in its day; historians know of three
early tragedians—Quintus Ennius, Marcus Pacuvius and Lucius Accius.[27] From the time of the
empire, the work of two tragedians survives—one is an unknown author, while the other is the Stoic
philosopher Seneca.[29] Nine of Seneca's tragedies survive, all of which are fabula
crepidata (tragedies adapted from Greek originals); his Phaedra, for example, was based
on Euripides' Hippolytus.[30] Historians do not know who wrote the only extant example of the fabula
praetexta (tragedies based on Roman subjects), Octavia, but in former times it was mistakenly
attributed to Seneca due to his appearance as a character in the tragedy.[29]
In contrast to Ancient Greek theatre, the theatre in Ancient Rome did allow female performers. While
the majority were employed for dancing and singing, a minority of actresses are known to have
performed speaking roles, and there were actresses who achieved wealth, fame and recognition for
their art, such as Eucharis, Dionysia, Galeria Copiola and Fabia Arete: they also formed their own
acting guild, the Sociae Mimae, which was evidently quite wealthy. [31]
Transition and early Medieval theatre, 500–1050[edit]

Main article: Medieval theatre
As the Western Roman Empire fell into decay through the 4th and 5th centuries, the seat of Roman
power shifted to Constantinople and the Eastern Roman Empire, today called the Byzantine Empire.
While surviving evidence about Byzantine theatre is slight, existing records show
that mime, pantomime, scenes or recitations from tragedies and comedies, dances, and other
entertainments were very popular. Constantinople had two theatres that were in use as late as the
5th century.[32] However, the true importance of the Byzantines in theatrical history is their
preservation of many classical Greek texts and the compilation of a massive encyclopedia called
the Suda, from which is derived a large amount of contemporary information on Greek theatre.
From the 5th century, Western Europe was plunged into a period of general disorder that lasted
(with a brief period of stability under the Carolingian Empire in the 9th century) until the 10th century.
As such, most organized theatrical activities disappeared in Western Europe. While it seems that
small nomadic bands travelled around Europe throughout the period, performing wherever they
could find an audience, there is no evidence that they produced anything but crude scenes. [33] These
performers were denounced by the Church during the Dark Ages as they were viewed as dangerous
and pagan.
Hrosvitha of Gandersheim, the first dramatist of the post-classical era.
By the Early Middle Ages, churches in Europe began staging dramatized versions of particular

biblical events on specific days of the year. These dramatizations were included in order to vivify
annual celebrations.[34] Symbolic objects and actions – vestments, altars, censers,
and pantomime performed by priests – recalled the events which Christian ritual celebrates. These
were extensive sets of visual signs that could be used to communicate with a largely illiterate
audience. These performances developed into liturgical dramas, the earliest of which is the Whom
do you Seek (Quem-Quaeritis) Easter trope, dating from ca. 925.[34] Liturgical drama was sung
responsively by two groups and did not involve actors impersonating characters. However,
sometime between 965 and 975, Æthelwold of Winchester composed the Regularis Concordia
(Monastic Agreement) which contains a playlet complete with directions for performance. [35]
Hrosvitha (c. 935 – 973), a canoness in northern Germany, wrote six plays modeled on Terence's
comedies but using religious subjects. These six plays – Abraham, Callimachus, Dulcitius,
Gallicanus, Paphnutius, and Sapientia – are the first known plays composed by a female dramatist
and the first identifiable Western dramatic works of the post-classical era. [35] They were first published
in 1501 and had considerable influence on religious and didactic plays of the sixteenth century.
Hrosvitha was followed by Hildegard of Bingen (d. 1179), a Benedictine abbess, who wrote
a Latin musical drama called Ordo Virtutum in 1155.
High and late Medieval theatre, 1050–1500[edit]
Stage drawing from 15th-century vernacular morality play The Castle of Perseverance (as found in the Macro

Manuscript).
Main article: Medieval theatre
As the Viking invasions ceased in the middle of the 11th century, liturgical drama had spread

from Russia to Scandinavia to Italy. Only in Muslim-occupied Iberian Peninsula were liturgical
dramas not presented at all. Despite the large number of liturgical dramas that have survived from
the period, many churches would have only performed one or two per year and a larger number
never performed any at all.[36]
The Feast of Fools was especially important in the development of comedy. The festival inverted the
status of the lesser clergy and allowed them to ridicule their superiors and the routine of church life.
Sometimes plays were staged as part of the occasion and a certain amount
of burlesque and comedy crept into these performances. Although comic episodes had to truly wait
until the separation of drama from the liturgy, the Feast of Fools undoubtedly had a profound effect
on the development of comedy in both religious and secular plays.[37]
Performance of religious plays outside of the church began sometime in the 12th century through a
traditionally accepted process of merging shorter liturgical dramas into longer plays which were then
translated into vernacular and performed by laymen. The Mystery of Adam (1150) gives credence to
this theory as its detailed stage direction suggest that it was staged outdoors. A number of other
plays from the period survive, including La Seinte Resurrection (Norman), The Play of the Magi
Kings (Spanish), and Sponsus (French).
The importance of the High Middle Ages in the development of theatre was
the economic and political changes that led to the formation of guilds and the growth of towns. This
would lead to significant changes in the Late Middle Ages. In the British Isles, plays were produced
in some 127 different towns during the Middle Ages. These vernacular Mystery plays were written in
cycles of a large number of plays: York (48 plays), Chester (24), Wakefield (32) and Unknown (42).
A larger number of plays survive from France and Germany in this period and some type of religious
dramas were performed in nearly every European country in the Late Middle Ages. Many of these
plays contained comedy, devils, villains and clowns.[38]
The majority of actors in these plays were drawn from the local population. For example,
at Valenciennes in 1547, more than 100 roles were assigned to 72 actors.[39] Plays were staged
on pageant wagon stages, which were platforms mounted on wheels used to move scenery. Often
providing their own costumes, amateur performers in England were exclusively male, but other
countries had female performers. The platform stage, which was an unidentified space and not a
specific locale, allowed for abrupt changes in location.
Morality plays emerged as a distinct dramatic form around 1400 and flourished until 1550. The most
interesting morality play is The Castle of Perseverance which depicts mankind's progress from birth
to death. However, the most famous morality play and perhaps best known medieval drama
is Everyman. Everyman receives Death's summons, struggles to escape and finally resigns himself
to necessity. Along the way, he is deserted by Kindred, Goods, and Fellowship – only Good
Deeds goes with him to the grave.
There were also a number of secular performances staged in the Middle Ages, the earliest of which
is The Play of the Greenwood by Adam de la Halle in 1276. It contains satirical scenes
and folk material such as faeries and other supernatural occurrences. Farces also rose dramatically
in popularity after the 13th century. The majority of these plays come from France and Germany and
are similar in tone and form, emphasizing sex and bodily excretions.[40] The best known playwright of
farces is Hans Sachs (1494–1576) who wrote 198 dramatic works. In England, The Second
Shepherds' Play of the Wakefield Cycle is the best known early farce. However, farce did not appear
independently in England until the 16th century with the work of John Heywood (1497–1580).
A significant forerunner of the development of Elizabethan drama was the Chambers of Rhetoric in
the Low Countries.[41] These societies were concerned with poetry, music and drama and held
contests to see which society could compose the best drama in relation to a question posed.
At the end of the Late Middle Ages, professional actors began to appear
in England and Europe. Richard III and Henry VII both maintained small companies of professional
actors. Their plays were performed in the Great Hall of a nobleman's residence, often with a raised
platform at one end for the audience and a "screen" at the other for the actors. Also important
were Mummers' plays, performed during the Christmas season, and court masques. These masques
were especially popular during the reign of Henry VIII who had a House of Revels built and an Office
of Revels established in 1545.[42]
The end of medieval drama came about due to a number of factors, including the weakening power
of the Catholic Church, the Protestant Reformation and the banning of religious plays in many
countries. Elizabeth I forbid all religious plays in 1558 and the great cycle plays had been silenced
by the 1580s. Similarly, religious plays were banned in the Netherlands in 1539, the Papal States in
1547 and in Paris in 1548. The abandonment of these plays destroyed the international theatre that
had thereto existed and forced each country to develop its own form of drama. It also allowed
dramatists to turn to secular subjects and the reviving interest in Greek and Roman theatre provided
them with the perfect opportunity.[42]
Commedia dell'arte & Renaissance[edit]
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The greedy, high-status Pantalone commedia dell'arte masked character.
Main article: Commedia dell'arte
Commedia dell'arte troupes performed lively improvisational playlets across Europe for centuries. It
originated in Italy in the 1560s. Commedia dell'arte was an actor-centred theatre, requiring little
scenery and very few props. Plays did not originate from written drama but from scenarios
called lazzi, which were loose frameworks that provided the situations, complications, and outcome
of the action, around which the actors would improvise. The plays utilised stock characters, which
could be divided into three groups: the lovers, the masters, and the servants. The lovers had
different names and characteristics in most plays and often were the children of the master. The role
of master was normally based on one of three stereotypes: Pantalone, an elderly Venetian
merchant; Dottore, Pantalone's friend or rival, a pedantic doctor or lawyer who acted far more
intelligent than he really was; and Capitano, who was once a lover character, but evolved into
a braggart who boasted of his exploits in love and war, but was often terrifically unskilled in both. He
normally carried a sword and wore a cape and feathered headdress. The servant character
(called zanni) had only one recurring role: Arlecchino (also called Harlequin). He was both cunning
and ignorant, but an accomplished dancer and acrobat. He typically carried a wooden stick with a
split in the middle so it made a loud noise when striking something. This "weapon" gave us the term
"slapstick".
A troupe typically consisted of 13 to 14 members. Most actors were paid by taking a share of the
play's profits roughly equivalent to the size of their role. The style of theatre was in its peak from
1575 to 1650, but even after that time new scenarios were written and performed. The Venetian
playwright Carlo Goldoni wrote a few scenarios starting in 1734, but since he considered the genre
too vulgar, he refined the topics of his own to be more sophisticated. He also wrote several plays
based on real events, in which he included commedia characters.
The commedia dell’arte allowed professional women to perform early on: Lucrezia Di Siena, whose
name is on a contract of actors from 10 October 1564, has been referred to as the first Italian
actress known by name, with Vincenza Armani and Barbara Flaminia as the first primadonna's and
the first well documented actresses in Italy (and Europe). [43]
English Elizabethan theatre[edit]
A 1596 sketch of a performance in progress on the thrust stage of The Swan, a typical Elizabethan open-roof

playhouse.
Main article: English Renaissance theatre
Renaissance theatre derived from several medieval theatre traditions, such as, the mystery plays
that formed a part of religious festivals in England and other parts of Europe during the Middle Ages.
Other sources include the "morality plays" and the "University drama" that attempted to recreate
Athenian tragedy. The Italian tradition of Commedia dell'arte, as well as the
elaborate masques frequently presented at court, also contributed to the shaping of public theatre.
Since before the reign of Elizabeth I, companies of players were attached to households of leading
aristocrats and performed seasonally in various locations. These became the foundation for the
professional players that performed on the Elizabethan stage. The tours of these players gradually
replaced the performances of the mystery and morality plays by local players, and a 1572 law
eliminated the remaining companies lacking formal patronage by labelling them vagabonds.
The City of London authorities were generally hostile to public performances, but its hostility was
overmatched by the Queen's taste for plays and the Privy Council's support. Theatres sprang up in
suburbs, especially in the liberty of Southwark, accessible across the Thames to city dwellers but
beyond the authority's control. The companies maintained the pretence that their public
performances were mere rehearsals for the frequent performances before the Queen, but while the
latter did grant prestige, the former were the real source of the income for the professional players.
Along with the economics of the profession, the character of the drama changed toward the end of
the period. Under Elizabeth, the drama was a unified expression as far as social class was
concerned: the Court watched the same plays the commoners saw in the public playhouses. With
the development of the private theatres, drama became more oriented toward the tastes and values
of an upper-class audience. By the later part of the reign of Charles I, few new plays were being
written for the public theatres, which sustained themselves on the accumulated works of the
previous decades.[44]
Puritan opposition to the stage (informed by the arguments of the early Church Fathers who had
written screeds against the decadent and violent entertainments of the Romans) argued not only that
the stage in general was pagan, but that any play that represented a religious figure was
inherently idolatrous. In 1642, at the outbreak of the English Civil War, the Puritan authorities
banned the performance of all plays within the city limits of London. A sweeping assault against the
alleged immoralities of the theatre crushed whatever remained in England of the dramatic tradition.
Spanish Golden age theatre[edit]

Main article: Spanish Golden Age theatre
Calderon de la Barca, a key figure in the theatre of the Spanish Golden Age
During its Golden Age, roughly from 1590 to 1681, [45] Spain saw a monumental increase in the
production of live theatre as well as in the importance of theatre within Spanish society. It was an
accessible art form for all participants in Renaissance Spain, being both highly sponsored by the
aristocratic class and highly attended by the lower classes.[46] The volume and variety of Spanish
plays during the Golden Age was unprecedented in the history of world theatre, surpassing, for
example, the dramatic production of the English Renaissance by a factor of at least four.[45][46]
[47]
Although this volume has been as much a source of criticism as praise for Spanish Golden Age
theatre, for emphasizing quantity before quality,[48] a large number of the 10,000[46] to 30,000[48] plays
of this period are still considered masterpieces.[49][50]
Major artists of the period included Lope de Vega, a contemporary of Shakespeare, often, and
contemporaneously, seen his parallel for the Spanish stage, [51] and Calderon de la Barca, inventor of
the zarzuela[52] and Lope's successor as the preeminent Spanish dramatist. [53] Gil Vicente, Lope de
Rueda, and Juan del Encina helped to establish the foundations of Spanish theatre in the mid-
sixteenth centuries,[54][55][56] while Francisco de Rojas Zorrilla and Tirso de Molina made significant
contributions in the latter half of the Golden Age. [57][58] Important performers included Lope de Rueda
(previously mentioned among the playwrights) and later Juan Rana.[59][60]
The sources of influence for the emerging national theatre of Spain were as diverse as the theatre
that nation ended up producing. Storytelling traditions originating in Italian Commedia dell'arte[61] and
the uniquely Spanish expression of Western Europe's traveling minstrel entertainments[62]
contributed a populist influence on the narratives and the music, respectively, of early Spanish
[63]
theatre. Neo-Aristotelian criticism and liturgical dramas, on the other hand, contributed literary and
moralistic perspectives.[64][65] In turn, Spanish Golden Age theatre has dramatically influenced the
theatre of later generations in Europe and throughout the world. Spanish drama had an immediate
and significant impact on the contemporary developments in English Renaissance theatre.[49] It has
also had a lasting impact on theatre throughout the Spanish speaking world. [66] Additionally, a
growing number of works are being translated, increasing the reach of Spanish Golden Age theatre
and strengthening its reputation among critics and theatre patrons. [67]
French Baroque theatre[edit]

Notable playwrights:
 Pierre Corneille (1606–84)
 Molière (1622–73)
 Jean Racine (1639–99)
Restoration comedy[edit]
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Main article: Restoration comedy
Refinement meets burlesque in Restoration comedy. In this scene from George Etherege's Love in a

Tub (1664), musicians and well-bred ladies surround a man who is wearing a tub because he has lost
his trousers.
After public stage performances had been banned for 18 years by the Puritan regime, the re-opening
of the theatres in 1660 signalled a renaissance of English drama. With the restoration of the
monarch in 1660 came the restoration of and the reopening of the theatre. English comedies written
and performed in the Restoration period from 1660 to 1710 are collectively called "Restoration
comedy". Restoration comedy is notorious for its sexual explicitness, a quality encouraged
by Charles II (1660–1685) personally and by the rakish aristocratic ethos of his court. For the first
time women were allowed to act, putting an end to the practice of the boy-player taking the parts of
women. Socially diverse audiences included both aristocrats, their servants and hangers-on, and a
substantial middle-class segment. Restoration audiences liked to see good triumph in their tragedies
and rightful government restored. In comedy they liked to see the love-lives of the young and
fashionable, with a central couple bringing their courtship to a successful conclusion (often
overcoming the opposition of the elders to do so). Heroines had to be chaste, but were independent-
minded and outspoken; now that they were played by women, there was more mileage for the
playwright in disguising them in men's clothes or giving them narrow escape from rape. These
playgoers were attracted to the comedies by up-to-the-minute topical writing, by crowded and
bustling plots, by the introduction of the first professional actresses, and by the rise of the first
celebrity actors. To non-theatre-goers these comedies were widely seen as licentious and morally
suspect, holding up the antics of a small, privileged, and decadent class for admiration. This same
class dominated the audiences of the Restoration theatre. This period saw the first professional
woman playwright, Aphra Behn.
As a reaction to the decadence of Charles II era productions, sentimental comedy grew in popularity.
This genre focused on encouraging virtuous behavior by showing middle class characters
overcoming a series of moral trials. Playwrights like Colley Cibber and Richard Steele believed that
humans were inherently good but capable of being led astray. Through plays such as The
Conscious Lovers and Love's Last Shift they strove to appeal to an audience's noble sentiments in
order that viewers could be reformed. [68][69]
Restoration spectacular[edit]
Main article: Restoration spectacular
The Restoration spectacular, or elaborately staged "machine play", hit the London public stage in

the late 17th-century Restoration period, enthralling audiences with action, music, dance,
moveable scenery, baroque illusionistic painting, gorgeous costumes, and special effects such
as trapdoor tricks, "flying" actors, and fireworks. These shows have always had a bad reputation as
a vulgar and commercial threat to the witty, "legitimate" Restoration drama; however, they drew
Londoners in unprecedented numbers and left them dazzled and delighted.
Basically home-grown and with roots in the early 17th-century court masque, though never ashamed
of borrowing ideas and stage technology from French opera, the spectaculars are sometimes called
"English opera". However, the variety of them is so untidy that most theatre historians despair of
defining them as a genre at all.[70] Only a handful of works of this period are usually accorded the
term "opera", as the musical dimension of most of them is subordinate to the visual. It was spectacle
and scenery that drew in the crowds, as shown by many comments in the diary of the theatre-
lover Samuel Pepys.[71] The expense of mounting ever more elaborate scenic productions drove the
two competing theatre companies into a dangerous spiral of huge expenditure and correspondingly
huge losses or profits. A fiasco such as John Dryden's Albion and Albanius would leave a company
in serious debt, while blockbusters like Thomas Shadwell's Psyche or Dryden's King Arthur would
put it comfortably in the black for a long time.[72]
Neoclassical theatre[edit]
Further information: Neoclassicism
An 18th-century Neoclassical theatre in Ostankino, Moscow
Neoclassicism was the dominant form of theatre in the 18th century. It demanded decorum and

rigorous adherence to the classical unities. Neoclassical theatre as well as the time period is
characterized by its grandiosity. The costumes and scenery were intricate and elaborate. The acting
is characterized by large gestures and melodrama. Neoclassical theatre encompasses the
Restoration, Augustan, and Johnstinian Ages. In one sense, the neo-classical age directly follows
the time of the Renaissance.
Theatres of the early 18th century – sexual farces of the Restoration were superseded by politically
satirical comedies, 1737 Parliament passed the Stage Licensing Act which introduced state
censorship of public performances and limited the number of theatres in London to two.
Nineteenth-century theatre[edit]
Main article: Nineteenth-century theatre
Theatre in the 19th century is divided into two parts: early and late. The early period was dominated
by melodrama and Romanticism.
Beginning in France, melodrama became the most popular theatrical form. August von
Kotzebue's Misanthropy and Repentance (1789) is often considered the first melodramatic play. The
plays of Kotzebue and René Charles Guilbert de Pixérécourt established melodrama as the
dominant dramatic form of the early 19th century.[73]
In Germany, there was a trend toward historic accuracy in costumes and settings, a revolution in
theatre architecture, and the introduction of the theatrical form of German Romanticism. Influenced
by trends in 19th-century philosophy and the visual arts, German writers were increasingly
fascinated with their Teutonic past and had a growing sense of nationalism. The plays of Gotthold
Ephraim Lessing, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Friedrich Schiller, and other Sturm und
Drang playwrights, inspired a growing faith in feeling and instinct as guides to moral behavior.
Edward Bulwer-Lytton.
In Britain, Percy Bysshe Shelley and Lord Byron were the most important dramatists of their time
(although Shelley's plays were not performed until later in the century). In the minor
theatres, burletta and melodrama were the most popular. Kotzebue's plays were translated into
English and Thomas Holcroft's A Tale of Mystery was the first of many English melodramas. Pierce
Egan, Douglas William Jerrold, Edward Fitzball, and John Baldwin Buckstone initiated a trend
towards more contemporary and rural stories in preference to the usual historical or fantastical
melodramas. James Sheridan Knowles and Edward Bulwer-Lytton established a "gentlemanly"
drama that began to re-establish the former prestige of the theatre with the aristocracy.[74]
The later period of the 19th century saw the rise of two conflicting types of drama: realism and non-
realism, such as Symbolism and precursors of Expressionism.
Realism began earlier in the 19th century in Russia than elsewhere in Europe and took a more
uncompromising form.[75] Beginning with the plays of Ivan Turgenev (who used "domestic detail to
reveal inner turmoil"), Aleksandr Ostrovsky (who was Russia's first professional playwright), Aleksey
Pisemsky (whose A Bitter Fate (1859) anticipated Naturalism), and Leo Tolstoy (whose The Power
of Darkness (1886) is "one of the most effective of naturalistic plays"), a tradition of psychological
realism in Russia culminated with the establishment of the Moscow Art Theatre by Konstantin
Stanislavski and Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko.[76]
The most important theatrical force in later 19th-century Germany was that of Georg II, Duke of
Saxe-Meiningen and his Meiningen Ensemble, under the direction of Ludwig Chronegk. The
Ensemble's productions are often considered the most historically accurate of the 19th century,
although his primary goal was to serve the interests of the playwright. The Meiningen Ensemble
stands at the beginning of the new movement toward unified production (or what Richard
Wagner would call the Gesamtkunstwerk) and the rise of the director (at the expense of the actor) as
the dominant artist in theatre-making.[77]
Richard Wagner's Bayreuth Festival Theatre.

Naturalism, a theatrical movement born out of Charles Darwin's The Origin of Species (1859) and
contemporary political and economic conditions, found its main proponent in Émile Zola. The
realisation of Zola's ideas was hindered by a lack of capable dramatists writing naturalist
drama. André Antoine emerged in the 1880s with his Théâtre Libre that was only open to members
and therefore was exempt from censorship. He quickly won the approval of Zola and began to stage
Naturalistic works and other foreign realistic pieces. [78]
In Britain, melodramas, light comedies, operas, Shakespeare and classic English drama, Victorian
burlesque, pantomimes, translations of French farces and, from the 1860s, French operettas,
continued to be popular. So successful were the comic operas of Gilbert and Sullivan, such
as H.M.S. Pinafore (1878) and The Mikado (1885), that they greatly expanded the audience for
musical theatre.[79] This, together with much improved street lighting and transportation in London
and New York led to a late Victorian and Edwardian theatre building boom in the West End and on
Broadway. Later, the work of Henry Arthur Jones and Arthur Wing Pinero initiated a new direction on
the English stage.
Henrik Ibsen
While their work paved the way, the development of more significant drama owes itself most to the
playwright Henrik Ibsen. Ibsen was born in Norway in 1828. He wrote twenty-five plays, the most
famous of which are A Doll's House (1879), Ghosts (1881), The Wild Duck (1884), and Hedda
Gabler (1890). In addition, his works Rosmersholm (1886) and When We Dead Awaken (1899)
evoke a sense of mysterious forces at work in human destiny, which was to be a major theme
of symbolism and the so-called "Theatre of the Absurd".[citation needed]
After Ibsen, British theatre experienced revitalization with the work of George Bernard Shaw, Oscar
Wilde, John Galsworthy, William Butler Yeats, and Harley Granville Barker. Unlike most of the
gloomy and intensely serious work of their contemporaries, Shaw and Wilde wrote primarily in
the comic form. Edwardian musical comedies were extremely popular, appealing to the tastes of the
middle class in the Gay Nineties[80] and catering to the public's preference for escapist entertainment
during World War 1.
Twentieth-century theatre[edit]
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See also: Twentieth-century theatre, Timeline of twentieth-century theatre, and Musical theatre
While much 20th-century theatre continued and extended the projects of realism and Naturalism,

there was also a great deal of experimental theatre that rejected those conventions. These
experiments form part of the modernist and postmodernist movements and included forms
of political theatre as well as more aesthetically orientated work. Examples include: Epic theatre,
the Theatre of Cruelty, and the so-called "Theatre of the Absurd".
The term theatre practitioner came to be used to describe someone who both
creates theatrical performances and who produces a theoretical discourse that informs their practical
work.[81] A theatre practitioner may be a director, a dramatist, an actor, or—characteristically—often a
combination of these traditionally separate roles. "Theatre practice" describes the collective work
that various theatre practitioners do.[82] It is used to describe theatre praxis from Konstantin
Stanislavski's development of his 'system', through Vsevolod Meyerhold's biomechanics, Bertolt
Brecht's epic and Jerzy Grotowski's poor theatre, down to the present day, with contemporary
theatre practitioners including Augusto Boal with his Theatre of the Oppressed, Dario Fo's popular
theatre, Eugenio Barba's theatre anthropology and Anne Bogart's viewpoints.[83]
Other key figures of 20th-century theatre include: Antonin Artaud, August Strindberg, Anton
Chekhov, Frank Wedekind, Maurice Maeterlinck, Federico García Lorca, Eugene O'Neill, Luigi
Pirandello, George Bernard Shaw, Gertrude Stein, Ernst Toller, Vladimir Mayakovsky, Arthur
Miller, Tennessee Williams, Jean Genet, Eugène Ionesco, Samuel Beckett, Harold Pinter, Friedrich
Dürrenmatt, Heiner Müller, and Caryl Churchill.
A number of aesthetic movements continued or emerged in the 20th century, including:
 Naturalism
 Realism
 Dadaism
 Expressionism
 Surrealism and the Theatre of Cruelty
 Theatre of the Absurd
 Postmodernism
 Agitprop
After the great popularity of the British Edwardian musical comedies, the American musical
theatre came to dominate the musical stage, beginning with the Princess Theatre musicals, followed
by the works of the Gershwin brothers, Cole Porter, Jerome Kern, Rodgers and Hart, and
later Rodgers and Hammerstein.
American theatre[edit]
1752 to 1895 Romanticism[edit]
Throughout most of history, English belles lettres and theatre have been separated, but these two
art forms are interconnected.[84] However, if they do not learn how to work hand-in-hand, it can be
detrimental to the art form.[85] The prose of English literature and the stories it tells needs to be
performed and theatre has that capacity.[86] From the start American theatre has been unique and
diverse, reflecting society as America chased after its National identity.[87] The very first play
performed, in 1752 in Williamsburg Virginia, was Shakespeare's "The Merchant of Venice."[88] Due to
a strong Christian society, theatre was banned from 1774 until 1789. [89] This societal standard was
due to the Bible being sacred and any other diversions (entertainment) were seen as inappropriate,
frivolous (without purpose), and sensual (pleasurable). [90] During the ban, theatre often hid by titling
itself as moral lectures.[91] Theatre took a brief pause because of the revolutionary war, but quickly
resumed after the war ended in 1781.[89] Theatre began to spread west, and often towns had theatres
before they had sidewalks or sewers.[92] There were several leading professional theatre companies
early on, but one of the most influential was in Philadelphia (1794–1815); however, the company had
shaky roots because of the ban on theatre.[89]
As the country expanded so did theatre; following the war of 1812 theatre headed west.[89] Many of
the new theatres were community run, but in New Orleans a professional theatre had been started
by the French in 1791.[89] Several troupes broke off and established a theatre in Cincinnati, Ohio.
[89]
The first official west theatre came in 1815 when Samuel Drake (1769–1854) took his professional
theatre company from Albany to Pittsburgh to the Ohio River and Kentucky.[89] Along with this circuit
he would sometimes take the troupe to Lexington, Louisville, and Frankfort.[89] At times, he would
lead the troupe to Ohio, Indiana, Tennessee, and Missouri.[89] While there were circuit riding troupes,
more permanent theatre communities out west often sat on rivers so there would be easy boat
access.[89] During this time period very few theatres were above the Ohio River, and in
fact Chicago did not have a permanent theatre until 1833.[89] Because of the turbulent times in
America and the economic crisis happening due to wars, theatre during its most expansive time,
experienced bankruptcy and change of management.[89] Also most early American theatre had
great European influence because many of the actors had been English born and trained.[89] Between
1800 and 1850 neoclassical philosophy almost completely passed away under romanticism which
was a great influence of 19th century American theatre that idolized the "noble savage."[89] Due to
new psychological discoveries and acting methods, eventually romanticism would give birth
to realism.[89] This trend toward realism occurred between 1870 and 1895. [89]
1895 to 1945 Realism[edit]

In this era of theatre, the moral hero shifts to the modern man who is a product of his environment.
[93]
This major shift is due in part to the civil war because America was now stained with its own
blood, having lost its innocence.[94]
1945 to 1990 Modernism[edit]

During this period of theatre, Hollywood emerged and threatened American theatre. [95] However
theatre during this time didn't decline but in fact was renowned and noticed worldwide. [95]
African theatre[edit]
North African theatre[edit]
Ancient Egyptian quasi-theatrical events[edit]
The earliest recorded quasi-theatrical event dates back to 2000 BC with the "passion plays"
of Ancient Egypt. The story of the god Osiris was performed annually at festivals throughout the
civilization.[96]
West African theatre[edit]

Ghanaian theatre[edit]
Modern theatre in Ghana emerged in the early 20th century.[97] It emerged first as literary comment
on the colonization of Africa by Europe. [97] Among the earliest work in which this can be seen is The
Blinkards written by Kobina Sekyi in 1915. The Blinkards is a blatant satire about the Africans who
embraced the European culture that was brought to them. In it Sekyi demeans three groups of
individuals: anyone European, anyone who imitates the Europeans, and the rich African cocoa
farmer. This sudden rebellion though was just the beginning spark of Ghanaian literary theatre. [97]
A play that has similarity in its satirical view is Anowa. Written by Ghanaian author Ama Ata Aidoo, it
begins with its eponymous heroine Anowa rejecting her many arranged suitors' marriage proposals.
She insists on making her own decisions as to whom she is going to marry. The play stresses the
need for gender equality, and respect for women. [97] This ideal of independence, as well as equality
leads Anowa down a winding path of both happiness and misery. Anowa chooses a man of her own
to marry. Anowa supports her husband Kofi both physically and emotionally. Through her support
Kofi does prosper in wealth, but becomes poor as a spiritual being. Through his accumulation of
wealth Kofi loses himself in it. His once happy marriage with Anowa becomes changed when he
begins to hire slaves rather than doing any labor himself. This to Anowa does not make sense
because it makes Kofi no better than the European colonists whom she detests for the way that she
feels they have used the people of Africa. Their marriage is childless, which is presumed to have
been caused by a ritual that Kofi has done trading his manhood for wealth. Anowa's viewing Kofi's
slave-gotten wealth and inability to have a child leads to her committing suicide. [97] The name Anowa
means "Superior moral force" while Kofi's means only "Born on Friday". This difference in even the
basis of their names seems to implicate the moral superiority of women in a male run society. [97]
Another play of significance is The Marriage of Anansewa, written in 1975 by Efua Sutherland. The
entire play is based upon an Akan oral tradition called Anansesem(folk tales). The main character of
the play is Ananse (the spider). The qualities of Ananse are one of the most prevalent parts of the
play. Ananse is cunning, selfish, has great insight into human and animal nature, is ambitious,
eloquent, and resourceful. By putting too much of himself into everything that he does Ananse ruins
each of his schemes and ends up poor. [97] Ananse is used in the play as a kind of Everyman. He is
written in an exaggerated sense in order to force the process of self-examination. Ananse is used as
a way to spark a conversation for change in the society of anyone reading. The play tells of Ananse
attempting to marry off his daughter Anansewa off to any of a selection of rich chiefs, or another sort
of wealthy suitor simultaneously, in order to raise money. Eventually all the suitors come to his
house at once, and he has to use all of his cunning to defuse the situation. [97] The storyteller not only
narrates but also enacts, reacts to, and comments on the action of the tale. Along with this,
Mbuguous is used, Mbuguous is the name given to very specialized sect of Ghanaian theatre
technique that allows for audience participation. The Mbuguous of this tale are songs that embellish
the tale or comment on it. Spontaneity through this technique as well as improvisation are used
enough to meet any standard of modern theatre.[97]
Yoruba theatre[edit]
See also: Yoruba literature
In his pioneering study of Yoruba theatre, Joel Adedeji traced its origins to the masquerade of
the Egungun (the "cult of the ancestor").[98] The traditional ceremony culminates in the essence of the
masquerade where it is deemed that ancestors return to the world of the living to visit their
descendants.[99] In addition to its origin in ritual, Yoruba theatre can be "traced to the 'theatrogenic'
nature of a number of the deities in the Yoruba pantheon, such as Obatala the arch
divinity, Ogun the divinity of creativeness, as well as Iron and technology, [100] and Sango the divinity
of the storm", whose reverence is imbued "with drama and theatre and the symbolic overall
relevance in terms of its relative interpretation." [101]
The Aláàrìnjó theatrical tradition sprang from the Egungun masquerade in the 16th century. The
Aláàrìnjó was a troupe of traveling performers whose masked forms carried an air of mystique. They
created short, satirical scenes that drew on a number of established stereotypical characters. Their
performances utilised mime, music and acrobatics. The Aláàrìnjó tradition influenced the popular
traveling theatre, which was the most prevalent and highly developed form of theatre in Nigeria from
the 1950s to the 1980s. In the 1990s, the popular traveling theatre moved into television and film
and now gives live performances only rarely.[102][103]
"Total theatre" also developed in Nigeria in the 1950s. It utilised non-Naturalistic
techniques, surrealistic physical imagery, and exercised a flexible use of language. Playwrights
writing in the mid-1970s made use of some of these techniques, but articulated them with "a radical
appreciation of the problems of society."[104]
Traditional performance modes have strongly influenced the major figures in contemporary Nigerian
theatre. The work of Hubert Ogunde (sometimes referred to as the "father of contemporary Yoruban
theatre") was informed by the Aláàrìnjó tradition and Egungun masquerades. [105] Wole Soyinka, who
is "generally recognized as Africa's greatest living playwright", gives the divinity Ogun a
complex metaphysical significance in his work.[106] In his essay "The Fourth Stage" (1973), [107] Soyinka
contrasts Yoruba drama with classical Athenian drama, relating both to the 19th-century German
philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche's analysis of the latter in The Birth of Tragedy (1872). Ogun, he
argues, is "a totality of the Dionysian, Apollonian and Promethean virtues."[108]
The proponents of the travelling theatre in Nigeria include Duro Ladipo and Moses Olaiya (a popular
comic act). These practitioners contributed much to the field of African theatre during the period of
mixture and experimentation of the indigenous with the Western theatre.
African Diaspora theatre[edit]

African-American theatre[edit]
The history of African-American theatre has a dual origin. The first is rooted in local theatre where
African Americans performed in cabins and parks. Their performances (folk tales, songs, music, and
dance) were rooted in the African culture before being influenced by the American
environment. African Grove Theatre was the first African-American theatre established in 1821 by
William Henry Brown ISBN 0521465850
Asian theatre[edit]
Mani Damodara Chakyar as King Udayana in Bhasa's Swapnavasavadattam Koodiyattam-the only surviving

ancient Sanskrit theatre.
Indian theatre[edit]
Overview of Indian theatre[edit]
Main article: Theatre of India
The earliest form of Indian theatre was the Sanskrit theatre.[109] It emerged sometime between the
15th century BC and the 1st century and flourished between the 1st century and the 10th, which was
a period of relative peace in the history of India during which hundreds of plays were written.[110] Vedic
text such as Rigveda provides evidences of drama plays being enacted during Yajna ceremonies.
The dialogues mentioned in the texts range from one person monologue to three person dialogue for
instance the dialogue between Indra, Indrani and Vrishakapi. The dialogues are not only religious in
their context but also secular for instance one rigvedic monologue is about a gambler who's life is
ruined because of it and has estranged his wife and his parents also hate him. Panini in 5th century
BC mentions a dramatic text Natasutra written by two Indian dramatists Shilalin and Krishashva.
Patanjali also mentions the name of plays which have been lost such as kemsavadha and
Balibandha. Sitabenga caves dating back to 3rd century BC and Khandagiri caves from 2nd century
BC are the earliest examples of theatre architecture in India. [111] With the Islamic conquests that
began in the 10th and 11th centuries, theatre was discouraged or forbidden entirely. [112] Later, in an
attempt to re-assert indigenous values and ideas, village theatre was encouraged across the
subcontinent, developing in a large number of regional languages from the 15th to the 19th
centuries.[113] Modern Indian theatre developed during the period of colonial rule under the British
Empire, from the mid-19th century until the mid-20th. [114]
Sanskrit theatre[edit]
Main article: Sanskrit drama
See also: Koodiyattam
The earliest-surviving fragments of Sanskrit drama date from the 1st century.[115] The wealth of
archaeological evidence from earlier periods offers no indication of the existence of a tradition of
theatre.[116] The Vedas (the earliest Indian literature, from between 1500 and 600 BC) contain no hint
of it; although a small number of hymns are composed in a form of dialogue), the rituals of the Vedic
period do not appear to have developed into theatre. [116] The Mahābhāṣya by Patañjali contains the
earliest reference to what may have been the seeds of Sanskrit drama. [117] This treatise
on grammar from 140 BC provides a feasible date for the beginnings of theatre in India.[117]
However, although there are no surviving fragments of any drama prior to this date, it is possible that
early Buddhist literature provides the earliest evidence for the existence of Indian theatre.
The Pali suttas (ranging in date from the 5th to 3rd centuries BCE) refer to the existence of troupes
of actors (led by a chief actor), who performed dramas on a stage. It is indicated that these dramas
incorporated dance, but were listed as a distinct form of performance, alongside dancing, singing,
and story recitations.[118] (According to later Buddhist texts, King Bimbisara, a contemporary
of Gautama Buddha, had a drama performed for another king. This would be as early as the 5th
century BCE, but the event is only described in much later texts, from the 3rd-4th centuries CE.) [119]
The major source of evidence for Sanskrit theatre is A Treatise on Theatre (Nātyaśāstra), a
compendium whose date of composition is uncertain (estimates range from 200 BC to 200 AD) and
whose authorship is attributed to Bharata Muni. The Treatise is the most complete work of
dramaturgy in the ancient world. It addresses acting, dance, music, dramatic
construction, architecture, costuming, make-up, props, the organisation of companies, the audience,
competitions, and offers a mythological account of the origin of theatre. [117] In doing so, it provides
indications about the nature of actual theatrical practices. Sanskrit theatre was performed on sacred
ground by priests who had been trained in the necessary skills (dance, music, and recitation) in a
[hereditary process]. Its aim was both to educate and to entertain.
Under the patronage of royal courts, performers belonged to professional companies that were
directed by a stage manager (sutradhara), who may also have acted.[120] This task was thought of as
being analogous to that of a puppeteer—the literal meaning of "sutradhara" is "holder of the strings
or threads".[117] The performers were trained rigorously in vocal and physical technique. [121] There were
no prohibitions against female performers; companies were all-male, all-female, and of mixed
gender. Certain sentiments were considered inappropriate for men to enact, however, and were
thought better suited to women. Some performers played character their own age, while others
played those different from their own (whether younger or older). Of all the elements of theatre,
the Treatise gives most attention to acting (abhinaya), which consists of two styles: realistic
(lokadharmi) and conventional (natyadharmi), though the major focus is on the latter. [122]
Its drama is regarded as the highest achievement of Sanskrit literature.[123] It utilised stock characters,
such as the hero (nayaka), heroine (nayika), or clown (vidusaka). Actors may have specialised in a
particular type. Kālidāsa in the 1st century BC, is arguably considered to be ancient India's greatest
Sanskrit dramatist. Three famous romantic plays written by Kālidāsa are
the Mālavikāgnimitram (Mālavikā and Agnimitra), Vikramuurvashiiya (Pertaining to Vikrama and
Urvashi), and Abhijñānaśākuntala (The Recognition of Shakuntala). The last was inspired by a story
in the Mahabharata and is the most famous. It was the first to be translated
into English and German. Śakuntalā (in English translation) influenced Goethe's Faust (1808–1832).
[123]
The next great Indian dramatist was Bhavabhuti (c. 7th century). He is said to have written the
following three plays: Malati-Madhava, Mahaviracharita and Uttar Ramacharita. Among these three,
the last two cover between them the entire epic of Ramayana. The powerful Indian
emperor Harsha (606–648) is credited with having written three plays: the
comedy Ratnavali, Priyadarsika, and the Buddhist drama Nagananda.
Traditional Indian theatre[edit]
This section needs
expansion. You can help
by adding to it. (May 2011)
Kathakali[edit]
Main article: Kathakali
Kathakali is a highly stylised classical Indian dance-drama noted for the attractive make-up of

characters, elaborate costumes, detailed gestures, and well-defined body movements presented in
tune with the anchor playback music and complementary percussion. It originated in the country's
present-day state of Kerala during the 17th century[124] and has developed over the years with
improved looks, refined gestures and added themes besides more ornate singing and precise
drumming.
Modern Indian theatre[edit]
Rabindranath Tagore was a pioneering modern playwright who wrote plays noted for their
exploration and questioning of nationalism, identity, spiritualism and material greed. [125] His plays are
written in Bengali and include Chitra (Chitrangada, 1892), The King of the Dark Chamber (Raja,
1910), The Post Office (Dakghar, 1913), and Red Oleander (Raktakarabi, 1924).[125]
Chinese theatre[edit]
Main article: Theatre of China
Shang theatre[edit]
There are references to theatrical entertainments in China as early as 1500 BC during the Shang
Dynasty; they often involved music, clowning and acrobatic displays.
Han and Tang theatre[edit]
During the Han Dynasty, shadow puppetry first emerged as a recognized form of theatre in China.
There were two distinct forms of shadow puppetry, Cantonese southern and Pekingese northern.
The two styles were differentiated by the method of making the puppets and the positioning of the
rods on the puppets, as opposed to the type of play performed by the puppets. Both styles generally
performed plays depicting great adventure and fantasy, rarely was this very stylized form of theatre
used for political propaganda. Cantonese shadow puppets were the larger of the two. They were
built using thick leather which created more substantial shadows. Symbolic color was also very
prevalent; a black face represented honesty, a red one bravery. The rods used to control Cantonese
puppets were attached perpendicular to the puppets' heads. Thus, they were not seen by the
audience when the shadow was created. Pekingese puppets were more delicate and smaller. They
were created out of thin, translucent leather usually taken from the belly of a donkey. They were
painted with vibrant paints, thus they cast a very colorful shadow. The thin rods which controlled
their movements were attached to a leather collar at the neck of the puppet. The rods ran parallel to
the bodies of the puppet then turned at a ninety degree angle to connect to the neck. While these
rods were visible when the shadow was cast, they laid outside the shadow of the puppet; thus they
did not interfere with the appearance of the figure. The rods attached at the necks to facilitate the
use of multiple heads with one body. When the heads were not being used, they were stored in a
muslin book or fabric lined box. The heads were always removed at night. This was in keeping with
the old superstition that if left intact, the puppets would come to life at night. Some puppeteers went
so far as to store the heads in one book and the bodies in another, to further reduce the possibility of
reanimating puppets. Shadow puppetry is said to have reached its highest point of artistic
development in the 11th century before becoming a tool of the government.
The Tang Dynasty is sometimes known as 'The Age of 1000 Entertainments'. During this
era, Emperor Xuanzong formed an acting school known as the Children of the Pear Garden to
produce a form of drama that was primarily musical.
Song and Yuan theatre[edit]
Further information: Zaju
In the Song dynasty, there were many popular plays involving acrobatics and music. These

developed in the Yuan dynasty into a more sophisticated form with a four- or five-act structure.
Yuan drama spread across China and diversified into numerous regional forms, the best known of
which is Beijing Opera, which is still popular today.
Philippine theatre[edit]
During the 333-year reign of the Spanish government, they introduced into the islands the Catholic
religion and the Spanish way of life, which gradually merged with the indigenous culture to form the
“lowland folk culture” now shared by the major ethnolinguistic groups. Today, the dramatic forms
introduced or influenced by Spain continue to live in rural areas all over the archipelago. These
forms include the komedya, the playlets, the sinakulo, the sarswela, and the drama. In recent years,
some of these forms have been revitalized to make them more responsive to the conditions and
needs of a developing nation.
Thai theatre[edit]
Further information: Ramakien
In Thailand, it has been a tradition from the Middle Ages to stage plays based on plots drawn from
Indian epics. In particular, the theatrical version of Thailand's national epic Ramakien, a version of
the Indian Ramayana, remains popular in Thailand even today.
Khmer and Malay theatre[edit]

In Cambodia, at the ancient capital Angkor Wat, stories from the Indian
epics Ramayana and Mahabharata have been carved on the walls of temples and palaces. Similar
reliefs are found at Borobudur in Indonesia.
Japanese theatre[edit]
Further information: Theatre of Japan
Noh[edit]
Main article: Noh
During the 14th century, there were small companies of actors in Japan who performed short,
sometimes vulgar comedies. A director of one of these companies, Kan'ami (1333–1384), had a
son, Zeami Motokiyo (1363–1443) who was considered one of the finest child actors in Japan. When
Kan'ami's company performed for Ashikaga Yoshimitsu (1358–1408), the Shōgun of Japan, he
implored Zeami to have a court education for his arts. After Zeami succeeded his father, he
continued to perform and adapt his style into what is today Noh. A mixture of pantomime and vocal
acrobatics, this style has fascinated the Japanese for hundreds of years.
Bunraku[edit]
Main article: Bunraku
Japan, after a long period of civil wars and political disarray, was unified and at peace primarily due
to shōgun Tokugawa Ieyasu (1543–1616). However, alarmed at increasing Christian growth, he cut
off contact from Japan to Europe and China and outlawed Christianity. When peace did come, a
flourish of cultural influence and growing merchant class demanded its own entertainment. The first
form of theatre to flourish was Ningyō jōruri (commonly referred to as Bunraku). The founder of and
main contributor to Ningyō jōruri, Chikamatsu Monzaemon (1653–1725), turned his form of theatre
into a true art form. Ningyō jōruri is a highly stylized form of theatre using puppets, today about 1/3d
the size of a human. The men who control the puppets train their entire lives to become master
puppeteers, when they can then operate the puppet's head and right arm and choose to show their
faces during the performance. The other puppeteers, controlling the less important limbs of the
puppet, cover themselves and their faces in a black suit, to imply their invisibility. The dialogue is
handled by a single person, who uses varied tones of voice and speaking manners to simulate
different characters. Chikamatsu wrote thousands of plays during his career, most of which are still
used today. They wore masks instead of elaborate makeup. Masks define their gender, personality,
and moods the actor is in.
Kabuki[edit]
Main article: Kabuki
Kabuki began shortly after Bunraku, legend has it by an actress named Okuni, who lived around the
end of the 16th century. Most of Kabuki's material came from Nõ and Bunraku, and its erratic dance-
type movements are also an effect of Bunraku. However, Kabuki is less formal and more distant
than Nõ, yet very popular among the Japanese public. Actors are trained in many varied things
including dancing, singing, pantomime, and even acrobatics. Kabuki was first performed by young
girls, then by young boys, and by the end of the 16th century, Kabuki companies consisted of all
men. The men who portrayed women on stage were specifically trained to elicit the essence of a
woman in their subtle movements and gestures.
Butoh[edit]
Gyohei Zaitsu performing Butoh
Main article: Butoh
Butoh is the collective name for a diverse range of activities, techniques and motivations for dance,
performance, or movement inspired by the Ankoku-Butoh (暗黒舞踏, ankoku butō) movement. It
typically involves playful and grotesque imagery, taboo topics, extreme or absurd environments, and
is traditionally performed in white body makeup with slow hyper-controlled motion, with or without an
audience. There is no set style, and it may be purely conceptual with no movement at all. Its origins
have been attributed to Japanese dance legends Tatsumi Hijikata and Kazuo Ohno. Butoh appeared
first in Japan following World War II and specifically after student riots. The roles of authority were
now subject to challenge and subversion. It also appeared as a reaction against the contemporary
dance scene in Japan, which Hijikata felt was based on the one hand on imitating the West and on
the other on imitating the Noh. He critiqued the current state of dance as overly superficial.
Turkish theatre[edit]
1st mention of theatre plays in Ottoman empire connected with appear of Spanish Jews there in the
end of fifteenth - sixteenth centuries. Later other minorities, like Roma, Greeks, and Armenian
became involved in the field. Afterwards Turkish equivalent of commedia dell'arte - the Orta oyunu
became very popular all over the Empire [126].
Persian theatre[edit]
Main article: Persian theatre
Medieval Islamic theatre[edit]

The most popular forms of theatre in the medieval Islamic world were puppet theatre (which
included hand puppets, shadow plays and marionette productions) and live passion plays known
as ta'ziya, in which actors re-enact episodes from Muslim history. In particular, Shia Islamic plays
revolved around the shaheed (martyrdom) of Ali's sons Hasan ibn Ali and Husayn ibn Ali. Secular
plays known as akhraja were recorded in medieval adab literature, though they were less common
than puppetry and ta'ziya theatre.[127]
A Brief History of Theater
By Carina J. Last Updated: June 24, 2020 Movies
Theater is arguably the most expressive storytelling medium, and is constantly adapting
to the shifting times. Although audiences today generally experience live-action
storytelling from the comfort of our living rooms, purely for leisure, this wasn’t always
the case. Theater troupes of the past went to great lengths to tell their stories, and
audiences had a much different experience than those today do.

The Origins of Theater
While humanity has been passing down stories orally since we developed the use of
language, the institution of the theater did not begin until much later. Ultimately, early
versions of theater were wildly different than a theater performance we might attend
today.
Plays of the past had a stronger basis in religion and tradition. Early Greek and Chinese
performances are especially rich with religious dedications and community traditions.
Ancient Greek Theater

Ancient Greek history is intimately tied with theater . Early plays were performed in
tribute to the god Dionysus, the god of wine, fertility, and, later, theater itself. Choruses
began performing hymns written in his honor, which were dubbed dithyrambs. These
choruses gradually began dressing up in costume or masks, but still did not resemble
theater as we know it today. It wasn’t until the 6th century BC , under Athenian ruler
Pisistratus, that “acting” as we know it came to be. Pisistratus instituted a number of
public festivals, one of which was dedicated to Dionysus. The day centered around music,
dance, and poetry. One man, Thespis, is reported to have burst from carts to recite poetry
in-character; and this is where the word “thespian” comes from. His audiences weren’t
even seeking out entertainment, they were just wandering through the festival. Setting an
important precedent in history, wealthy citizens donated money to the arts in hopes of
becoming influential in politics and society. This process would change throughout
history, but wealthy Greeks sponsored plays through a special tax called a choregia . This
tax enabled the creation of recognizable theaters, complete with stone benches situated
outdoors. While such conditions may have been tolerable for a short period of time,
Greek playwrights soon began writing much longer plays, adding additional characters
and prologues to fully flesh out a character-driven story. Stories like Oedipus Rex are
much closer to modern theater than poetry recitals, but this came at a price. Sitting or
standing on stone benches for hours at a time would have been painful, and audiences
would have been at the mercy of the elements. However, what the stadiums and
amphitheaters sacrificed in comfort they made up for in acoustics. While moviegoing
audiences today are used to a surround sound experience , ancient Greeks did not have
that luxury, but still had an impressive, advanced audio system built right into the theater .
Greek architects deliberately raised seating to provide a better view for audiences, as well
as designed the seats to reflect and amplify the sounds from the theater. As a result,
thousands of people attended these performances, and most were able to not only see, but
also hear, the action on the stage. The Greek classics were ultimately spread throughout
multiple cultures and civilizations as a result of the conquests and formation of the
Roman Empire. Apart from adopting many Greek gods and customs, the Roman Empire
also continued to perform many of their plays.

Early Chinese Theater

There is some debate about how far back Chinese theater really goes. This is not due to a
lack of evidence, as ancient Chinese culture developed writing very early. Instead, it has
more to do with what qualifies as “theater.” As early as 2205 BC, there are records of
various ceremonial dances representing and depicting animals or occupations. Like the
ancient Greeks, early Chinese civilizations held festivals that consisted of dancing,
music, and even a chorus. Some of them celebrated military victories, others honored
religious spirits, but this version of theater had a much stronger hold in China than in
Greece. Audiences also wouldn’t have had any seating during these festivals, so they
would either have to stand or sit throughout the performances. There wasn’t any
semblance of a real theater site yet, so performances were scattered throughout the
festivals. Eventually, that changed. In 1122 BC certain performances were
forbidden from being associated with religion. The dances and costumes grew more
lavish, and the performers danced upon a stage built for that specific purpose. This
allowed people to congregate in a certain area for a performance, but these performances
didn’t consists of a narrative. There were acrobats or dancers, but audiences could leave
in between acts. It didn’t require hours of their concentration.A more familiar version of
theater appeared in China in the 6th century with Daimain (Mask) . It told the story of a
prince with such soft features that he required a mask to frighten his enemies. A few
other classics appeared around this time, employing now-familiar martial art scenes and
women with long, flowing sleeves, which would later become popular in Chinese opera.
Theater in Medieval Europe
Medieval Europe had a low literacy rate, so records are few and far between.
Additionally, the church opposed certain performances, so some plays were either lost to
time or performed in secret. Throughout the Middle Ages, the church’s grip gradually
loosened on the arts, so record-keeping concerning plays eventually improved.
Sacred Drama
The church did approve of some performances however, and more specifically, those
related to the Bible. In order to spread their gospel to an illiterate population, the church
performed stories directly from the Bible or based on the lives of saints. Though they had
plenty of material to work with, most churches only performed these plays for specific
religious occasions, possibly only once or twice a year. Audiences watched these
performances in church, so their accommodations wouldn’t have been much better than
their Greek predecessors. Sermons could go on for hours and audience’s only comfort
would have been a rigid wooden bench. There was no consideration for comfort, in deep
contrast to our view of theater today. Religious plays were in service to God, so if the
seating was sufficient for sermons, it was sufficient enough for theater as well.
Secular Drama
One of the most important developments in comedy was the Feast of Fools , a popular
medieval festival, particularly in France. This festival had dance, song, minstrels, and
mimes, but it also allowed for lower clergy to mock their superiors as well as church life.
So it wasn’t completely separated from the church, but it was certainly a rare opportunity
to criticize holy men and texts. This represented a huge step forward for comedic
theater.Around the 12th century, truly secular plays began. Actors were typically normal
citizens, and stages were usually outdoors. Set pieces could be transported with a cart, but
there were no theater houses or troupes. As such, audiences would have stood or sat on
the ground, but at least now it was for leisure purposes again.
Renaissance Theater
Medieval Europe had a low literacy rate, so records are few and far between.
Additionally, the church opposed certain performances, so some plays were either lost to
time or performed in secret. Throughout the Middle Ages, the church’s grip gradually
loosened on the arts, so record-keeping concerning plays eventually improved.
William Shakespeare
The church did approve of some performances however, and more specifically, those
related to the Bible. In order to spread their gospel to an illiterate population, the church
performed stories directly from the Bible or based on the lives of saints. Though they had
plenty of material to work with, most churches only performed these plays for specific
religious occasions, possibly only once or twice a year. Audiences watched these
performances in church, so their accommodations wouldn’t have been much better than
their Greek predecessors. Sermons could go on for hours and audience’s only comfort
would have been a rigid wooden bench. There was no consideration for comfort, in deep
contrast to our view of theater today. Religious plays were in service to God, so if the
seating was sufficient for sermons, it was sufficient enough for theater as well.
French Theater
The Renaissance was a new era for science, philosophy, and art. During this time, theater
as we know it today came to be, complete with widespread professional acting troupes
and playhouses. Many Renaissance plays are still performed and taught today.
Italian Theater
One of the most important developments in comedy was the Feast of Fools , a popular
medieval festival, particularly in France. This festival had dance, song, minstrels, and
mimes, but it also allowed for lower clergy to mock their superiors as well as church life.
So it wasn’t completely separated from the church, but it was certainly a rare opportunity
to criticize holy men and texts. This represented a huge step forward for comedic
theater.Around the 12th century, truly secular plays began. Actors were typically normal
citizens, and stages were usually outdoors. Set pieces could be transported with a cart, but
there were no theater houses or troupes. As such, audiences would have stood or sat on
the ground, but at least now it was for leisure purposes again.
Modern Theater
The theater that we experience today differs vastly than the theater of the past — not only
in comfort and environment, but also in the material that we consume.

American Theater

Melodrama was particularly popular in 19th century America. Melodramatic plays
usually included music, a clear good-and-evil dichotomy, and a happy ending. The most
popular melodrama was Uncle Tom’s Cabin— 500 companies were producing it in 1899 .

Broadway theater also started in New York City during the 19th century. It became so
successful that these theaters have their own awards — the Tony Awards. Even when film
came around, Broadway persevered, as it does today. Broadway plays always took
intermission into account, since it gave audiences a break from the performance and
increased bar and food sales for the theater.
Additionally, Broadway theaters are required to have at least 500 seats , but that is still a
far cry from the thousands in the Globe Theater or Greek amphitheaters. Indeed, Off-
Broadway theaters can have even less than 500 seats. The Renaissance added comfort for
those who could afford theater, and Broadway wasn’t exactly cheap either. However, both
offered limited seating, creating an exclusive event for the express purpose of leisure and
luxury.
The Rise of Film

With the advent of film in the early 20th century, many theater companies felt threatened.
At first, when they only had silent films to contend with, there was a clear advantage to
seeing a play. However, theater enthusiasts worried when sound came to film in 1927 .
Movie theaters exploded across the country. They offered the same plush seating as
Broadway, concessions, an immersive story, and culture that a theater did. However,
movie theaters also offered financial accessibility and the chance to see a technological
marvel.
As time went on, movies moved from the theater into our homes. No longer did people
have to go out to witness these stories, but instead they could stay in the comfort of their
own home . Nowadays, movies play on television channels, through consoles, on
streaming services, and more. Audiences can construct their own viewing experience
within their home, whether they want to watch a film alone or with friends, with drinks or
without, or lights on or lights off. In this modern age, it’s all up to the audience.
The Future of Theater

Although television is now the most prominent way that we consume stories, theater has
maintained popularity. Movies and plays often inspire each other, borrowing from one
another or outright creating their own version of the same stories. This only benefits
audiences, as these stories spread through theater, television,or internet-streaming
services.
Furthermore, audiences can now enjoy epic tales from comfortable seating in
temperature-controlled environments. This is leaps and bounds from the stone benches
used in ancient Greece.
More and more people are also creating their own home theaters . This allows audiences
to stay in the comfort of their own homes, a definite convenience, and the profound
intimacy of witnessing a story alone. On top of that, as virtual reality becomes more and
more advanced, perhaps we’ll be able to experience these stories as a character, or right
up on the stage with the world’s best.
The medium of storytelling has evolved with each era, but, ultimately, the tradition of
theater is safe. We might tweak the methods over time, but we have been performing for
each other for millennia, and technology is not about to change that.

Development of Theater

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Development of Theater

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History of theatre

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Hannah Pritchard as Lady Macbeth and David Garrick as Macbeth at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane in April

The history of theatre charts the development of theatre over the past 2,500 years.

Main articles: Theatre of Ancient Greece, Ancient Greek comedy, and Satyr play

Roman theatre in Benevento, Italy

Transition and early Medieval theatre, 500–1050[edit]

By the Early Middle Ages, churches in Europe began staging dramatized versions of particular

Stage drawing from 15th-century vernacular morality play The Castle of Perseverance (as found in the Macro

Main article: Medieval theatre

As the Viking invasions ceased in the middle of the 11th century, liturgical drama had spread

The greedy, high-status Pantalone commedia dell'arte masked character.

Main article: Commedia dell'arte

A 1596 sketch of a performance in progress on the thrust stage of The Swan, a typical Elizabethan open-roof

Main article: English Renaissance theatre

Spanish Golden age theatre[edit]

French Baroque theatre[edit]

Main article: Restoration comedy

Refinement meets burlesque in Restoration comedy. In this scene from George Etherege's Love in a

The Restoration spectacular, or elaborately staged "machine play", hit the London public stage in

An 18th-century Neoclassical theatre in Ostankino, Moscow

Neoclassicism was the dominant form of theatre in the 18th century. It demanded decorum and

Richard Wagner's Bayreuth Festival Theatre.

This section needs additional citations for verification. (April 2011)

See also: Twentieth-century theatre, Timeline of twentieth-century theatre, and Musical theatre

While much 20th-century theatre continued and extended the projects of realism and Naturalism,

1895 to 1945 Realism[edit]

1945 to 1990 Modernism[edit]

West African theatre[edit]

African Diaspora theatre[edit]

Mani Damodara Chakyar as King Udayana in Bhasa's Swapnavasavadattam Koodiyattam-the only surviving

Kathakali is a highly stylised classical Indian dance-drama noted for the attractive make-up of

Main article: Theatre of China

In the Song dynasty, there were many popular plays involving acrobatics and music. These

Khmer and Malay theatre[edit]

Gyohei Zaitsu performing Butoh

Medieval Islamic theatre[edit]

to the shifting times. Although audiences today generally experience live-action

audiences had a much different experience than those today do.

Ancient Greek Theater

Pisistratus, that “acting” as we know it came to be. Pisistratus instituted a number of

amphitheaters sacrificed in comfort they made up for in acoustics. While moviegoing

also continued to perform many of their plays.

various ceremonial dances representing and depicting animals or occupations. Like the

festivals. Eventually, that changed. In 1122 BC certain performances were

loosened on the arts, so record-keeping concerning plays eventually improved.

religious occasions, possibly only once or twice a year. Audiences watched these

loosened on the arts, so record-keeping concerning plays eventually improved.

religious occasions, possibly only once or twice a year. Audiences watched these

in comfort and environment, but also in the material that we consume.

Melodrama was particularly popular in 19th century America. Melodramatic plays

popular melodrama was Uncle Tom’s Cabin— 500 companies were producing it in 1899 .

increased bar and food sales for the theater.

The Rise of Film

own home . Nowadays, movies play on television channels, through consoles, on

The Future of Theater

audiences, as these stories spread through theater, television,or internet-streaming

used in ancient Greece.

up on the stage with the world’s best.

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