Research

A careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern or problem using scientific methods. Research is a
systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control the observed phenomenon.
Characteristics of research
A systematic approach must be followed for accurate data. Rules and procedures are an integral part of the process
that set the objective. Researchers need to practice ethics and a code of conduct while making observations or
drawing conclusions.
2. a research must have clearly stated aims and objectives understudy
3. it must follow a systematic detailed plan of investigation
4 it must clearly define the technique to be selected for data collection and sampling which should be
supported by logical explanation
5. the result of the study should be presented in an unbiased manner or neutral way
Clinical research
 Clinical research is a branch of healthcare science that determines the safety and effectiveness (efficacy)
of medications, devices, diagnostic products and treatment regimens intended for human use. These may be
used for prevention, treatment, diagnosis or for relieving symptoms of a disease.It is what makes the
development of new medicines, new procedures and new tools possible. Without clinical research, we
would not be able to decide if new treatments are better than our current treatments. It is how doctors find
the most effective methods of care for our patients. Clinical research is often conducted at academic
medical centers and affiliated research study sites. The phases of clinical research are the steps in which
scientists do experiments with a health intervention in an attempt to find enough evidence for a process which
would be useful as a medical treatment. Clinical trials involving new drugs are commonly classified into four
phases.
Phases
Testing of drug in non-human subjects, to
Preclinical unrestricted
gather efficacy, toxicity and pharmacokinetic information

Pharmacokinetics; particularly, oral bioavailability and very small,

Phase 0
half-life of the drug subtherapeutic

often
Testing of drug on healthy volunteers for safety; involves subtherapeutic,
Phase I
testing multiple doses (dose-ranging) but with ascending
doses

Testing of
drug on
100–300
patients to
Phase therapeuti patients with determines whether drug can
assess
II c dose specific have any efficacy;
efficacy
diseases
and side
effects

Phase Testing of drug on patients to assess efficacy, effectiveness and therapeutic

III safety dose

Phase therapeutic
Post marketing surveillance – watching drug use in public
IV dose

Importance of research for physiotherapist

Research is the backbone of progress of medicine
1.Advance knowledge
2. Connection globally with scientists in the field
3.Research can also provide clarity on your academic and career interests and goals.
4. Research provides mentorship
5. Research is the lifeline of medical advancement-Essentially every single treatment, diagnostic tool and
medication in Western medicine is a result of research. Without dedicated researchers, there is no way to
develop better ways to prevent, diagnosis and treat disease. 
6.Research is an opportunity to do something novel
The whole point of research is to discover something that has not been previously known. Although other
extracurricular activities are important, they do not provide you the opportunity to take ownership of a project that
may lead to a novel scientific discovery
Research types

Descriptive Vs analytics research

The descriptive research is directed toward studying “what” and how many off this “what”. Thus, it is directed
toward answering questions such as, “What is this? it focuses on expanding knowledge on current issues through a
process of data collection. Descriptive studies are used to describe the behavior of a sample population. 
Surveys
Surveys can be used to describe certain phenomena (descriptive surveys) within a population of interest survwys are
a method of scientific or systematic collection of data compling and presntig in order analysing and evaluating them
Through questionnaires

Analytical study
Case control study
In this subject of interest is the individual within the population unlike in the descriptive study
The purpose is not to test but to formulate hypothesis

Case-control studies are used to look back over time at a

group of people all of whom have been exposed to a risk factor but only some of whom have developed an
impairment. Comparisons are made between the two groups.
Cohort studies prospective cohort study is used to examine the likelihood of developing an impairment when
people are exposed to a risk factor. A group of people will be followed over a period of time with measurements

being taken at regular intervals.

Applied vs fundamental Applied research focuses on analyzing and solving real-life problems. This type refers to the study that helps
solve practical problems using scientific methods. Studies play an important role in solving issues that impact the overall well-being of humans.
For example: finding a specific cure for a disease.

Qualitative research
s a process that is about inquiry. It helps create in-depth understanding of problems or issues in their natural settings. This is a non-statistical
method.
Qualitative research is heavily dependent on the experience of the researchers and the questions used to probe the sample. The sample size is
usually restricted to 6-10 people. Open-ended questions are asked in a manner that encourages answers that lead to another question or
group of questions. The purpose of asking open-ended questions is to gather as much information as possible from the sample.
The following are the methods used for qualitative research:
One-to-one interview
Focus groups
Ethnographic research
Content/Text Analysis
Case study research
Learn more: Qualitative Research Methods
Quantitative research: Qualitative research is a structured way of collecting data and analyzing it to draw conclusions. Unlike qualitative
methods, this method uses a computational and statistical process to collect and analyze data. Quantitative data is all about numbers.
Quantitative research involves a larger population — more people means more data. With more data to analyze, you can obtain more accurate
results. This method uses close-ended questions because the researchers are typically looking to gather statistical data.
Online surveys, questionnaires, and polls are preferable data collection tools used in quantitative research. There are various methods of
deploying surveys or questionnaires.
Online surveys allow survey creators to reach large amounts of people or smaller focus groups for different types of research that meet
different goals. Survey respondents can receive surveys on mobile phones, in emails, or can simply use the internet to access surveys.

Experimental vs explanatory :Explanatory research or causal research is conducted to understand the impact of certain changes in existing
standard procedures. Conducting experiments is the most popular form of casual research. For example, a study conducted to understand the
effect of rebranding on customer loyalty.
Problems faced by researchers in india
Lack of Scientific Training: The research methodology is not systematic. Many researchers undertake research work without having actual knowledge of
the research methods. They just look for similar studies and copy the methodologies listed in it. Even the research guides do not have a thorough knowledge of
the various methodologies. This scenario warrants the need for some sort of short-term training to be imparted to researchers prior to undertaking research
activities.
Insufficient Interaction: There is no proper interaction between researchers and the business establishments, government institutions, etc. This leads to a
great deal of data going untapped. Interaction programs should be organized between researchers and other institutions on a regular basis. This will highlight
what issues need to be researched, what data is required for conducting research, and how the study will be useful.
Lack of Confidence: Most of the business establishments are of the opinion that, researchers can misuse the data provided by them. As such, they are
reluctant to divulge details of their company. This affects the research studies for which that particular data may be of utmost importance. Thus, confidence-
building measures should be adopted, which will convince the business units that their data will be put to productive purposes, and will not be misused in any
manner by the researcher.
Lack of Code of Conduct: No specific code of conduct exists for the researchers, which leads to inter-departmental and inter-university rivalries.
Inadequate Assistance: Researchers in India have to cope with the non-availability of adequate and timely secretarial assistance, which affects the schedule
of their research study.
Improper Library Management: The libraries are not managed systematically. Much of the precious time of the researchers is spent in looking for books,
reports, newspapers, etc. rather than searching relevant information from them.
High Cost of Publishing: Once their research is completed, the researchers have to look for a means to publish it. Publishing in international journals is
highly expensive. This discourages most of the researchers from taking up research work.
Evidence based practice
An evidence-based practice is any practice that relies on scientific evidence for guidance and decision-making. Practices that are not evidence-based may
rely on tradition, intuition, or other unproven methods.

is 'the integration of best research evidence with clinical expertise and patient
values'[1] which when applied by practitioners will ultimately lead to improved patient outcome. One of its main features is the reliance on the
partnership among hard scientific evidence, clinical expertise, and individual patient needs and choices. 
Steps and level of ebp

Meta-Analysis  A systematic review that uses quantitative methods to summarize the results.
Systematic Review    An article in which the authors have systematically searched for, appraised, and summarised all of the medical literature for a specific topic.
Critically Appraised Topic     Authors of critically-appraised topics evaluate and synthesize multiple research studies.
Critically Appraised Articles  Authors of critically-appraised individual articles evaluate and synopsize individual research studies.
Randomized Controlled Trials  RCT's include a randomized group of patients in an experimental group and a control group. These groups are followed up for the
variables/outcomes of interest.
Cohort Study  Identifies two groups (cohorts) of patients, one which did receive the exposure of interest, and one which did not, and following these cohorts
forward for the outcome of interest.
Case-Control Study  Involves identifying patients who have the outcome of interest (cases) and control patients without the same outcome, and looking to see if
they had the exposure of interest.
Background Information / Expert Opinion   Handbooks, encyclopedias, and textbooks often provide a good foundation or introduction and often include
generalized information about a condition.  While background information presents a convenient summary, often it takes about three years for this type of
literature to be published.
Animal Research / Lab Studies  Information begins at the bottom of the pyramid: this is where ideas and laboratory
research takes place. Ideas turn into therapies and diagnostic tools, which then are tested with lab models and
animals.
Research design
Research design is defined as a framework of methods and techniques chosen by a researcher to combine various components of research in a
reasonably logical manner so that the research problem is efficiently handled. It provides insights about “how” to conduct research using a
particular methodology. Every researcher has a list of research questions which need to be assessed – this can be done with research design.
the sketch of how research should be conducted can be prepared using research design Research Design Characteristics
There are four key characteristics of research design:
Neutrality: The results projected in research design should be free from bias and neutral. Understand opinions about the final evaluated
scores and conclusion from multiple individuals and consider those who agree with the derived results.
Reliability: If a research is conducted on a regular basis, the researcher involved expects similar results to be calculated every time. Research
design should indicate how the research questions can be formed to ensure the standard of obtained results and this can happen only when
the research design is reliable.
Validity: There are multiple measuring tools available for research design but valid measuring tools are those which help a researcher in
gauging results according to the objective of research and nothing else. The questionnaire developed from this research design will be then
valid.
Generalization: The outcome of research design should be applicable to a population and not just a restricted sample. Generalization is one of
the key characteristics of research design.

Types of Research Design

A researcher must have a clear understanding of the various types of research design to select which type of research design to implement for
a study. Research design can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative research design.
Qualitative Research Design: Qualitative research is implemented in cases where a relationship between collected data and observation is
established on the basis of mathematical calculations. Theories related to a naturally existing phenomenon can be proved or disproved using
mathematical calculations. Researchers rely on qualitative research design where they are expected to conclude “why” a particular theory
exists along with “what” respondents have to say about it.
Quantitative Research Design: Quantitative research is implemented in cases where it is important for a researcher to have statistical
conclusions to collect actionable insights. Numbers provide a better perspective to make important business decisions. Quantitative research
design is important for the growth of any organization because any conclusion drawn on the basis of numbers and analysis will only prove to
be effective for the business.  
Further, research design can be divided into five types –
1. Descriptive Research Design: In a descriptive research design, a researcher is solely interested in describing the situation or case under
his/her research study. It is a theory-based research design which is created by gather, analyze and presents collected data. By implementing
an in-depth research design such as this, a researcher can provide insights into the why and how of research.  
2. Experimental Research Design: Experimental research design is used to establish a relationship between the cause and effect of a situation.
It is a causal research design where the effect caused by the independent variable on the dependent variable is observed. For example, the
effect of an independent variable such as price on a dependent variable such as customer satisfaction or brand loyalty is monitored. It is a
highly practical research design method as it contributes towards solving a problem at hand. The independent variables are manipulated to
monitor the change it has on the dependent variable. It is often used in social sciences to observe human behavior by analyzing two groups –
affect of one group on the other.
3. Correlational Research Design: Correlational research is a non-experimental research design technique which helps researchers to establish
a relationship between two closely connected variables. Two different groups are required to conduct this research design method. There is no
assumption while evaluating a relationship between two different variables and statistical analysis techniques are used to calculate the
relationship between them.
Correlation between two variables is concluded using a correlation coefficient, whose value ranges between -1 and +1. If the correlation
coefficient is towards +1, it indicates a positive relationship between the variables and -1 indicates a negative relationship between the two
variables.  
4. Diagnostic Research Design: In the diagnostic research design, a researcher is inclined towards evaluating the root cause of a specific topic.
Elements that contribute towards a troublesome situation are evaluated in this research design method.
There are three parts of diagnostic research design:
Inception of the issue
Diagnosis of the issue
Solution for the issue
5. Explanatory Research Design: In exploratory research design, the researcher’s ideas and thoughts are key as it is primarily dependent on
their personal inclination about a particular topic. Explanation about unexplored aspects of a subject is provided along with details about what,
how and why related to the research questions.
Experimental research design
Descriptive research design Descriptive research design is a scientific method which involves observing and describing the behavior
of a subject without influencing it in any way. Surveys
Survey research allows you to gather large volumes of data that can be analyzed for frequencies, averages and patterns. They are a common method
in correlational research, a type of descriptive research that aims to find relationships between variables. Other common uses of surveys include:
Describing the demographics of a country or region
Gauging public opinion on political and social topics
Evaluating satisfaction with a company’s products or an organization’s services
Observations
Observations allow you to gather data on behaviours and phenomena without having to rely on the honesty and accuracy of respondents. This method
is often used by psychological, social and market researchers to understand how people act in real-life situations.
Observation of physical entities and phenomena is also an important part of research in the natural sciences. Before you can develop
testable hypotheses, models or theories, it’s necessary to observe and systematically describe the subject under investigation.
Case studies
A case study can be used to describe the characteristics of a specific subject (such as a person, group, event or organization). Instead of gathering a
large volume of data to identify patterns across time or location, case studies gather detailed data to identify the characteristics of a narrowly defined
subject.
Rather than aiming to describe generalizable facts, case studies often focus on unusual or interesting cases that challenge assumptions, add
complexity, or reveal something new about

Measurement
There are various ways in which numbers are used to measure things. The main types of measurement encountered in health research are
classified as:
• nominal • ordinal • interval • ratio.
It is important to understand the difference between these levels of measurement as the degree of precision varies from category to category
and influences the type of statistical analysis you can conduct on your data.
Nominal data are used to classify things and can be binary (with only two possible choices, such as alive/dead) or have several values (e.g.
ethnic origin). The numbers given to each category are arbitrary and could just as easily be letters. When coding your data you could use 1/2 or
A/B to represent alive/dead - it would make no difference.
Ordinal data refers to scales where the numbers are ordered or ranked but there is no assumption that the distance between the numbers is
equal. An example is a question relating to pain: the respondent is asked to tick one box on a linear scale that is marked from 1 to 5, where 1 =
severe, 2 = moderate etc, in answer to the invitation 'Please rate your pain over the last week'. 1 = severe, 2 = moderate, 3 = mild etc.
Interval data refer to scales where the numbers are ordered, as in an ordinal scale, but the intervals between the numbers are known to be
equal. For example, in the question above we do not know whether the distance between 'severe' and 'moderate' pain is the same as between
'moderate' and 'mild'. Each person answering the question may have a different perception of this. However, in an interval scale we know that
the distance is always the same (e.g. the distance between 1 cm and 2cm is always the same as between 2cm and 3cm).
Ratio scales are the same as interval scales in that the numbers have an order and the distance between them is the same, but ratio scales
also have an absolute zero. Examples of ratio scales include weight and height

Validity Validity is the most critical criterion and indicates the degree to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure.
Validity can also be thought of as utility. In other words, validity is the extent to which differences found with a measuring instrument reflect
true differences among those being tested. 
(i) Content validity; (ii) Criterion-related validity and (iii) Construct validity.
Content validity is the extent to which a measuring instrument provides adequate coverage of the topic under study. If the
instrument contains a representative sample of the universe, the content validity is good. Its determination is primarily judgemental
and intuitive. It can also be determined by using a panel of persons who shall judge how well the measuring instrument meets the
standards, but there is no numerical way to express it.
Criterion-related validity relates to our ability to predict some outcome or estimate the existence of some current condition. This
form of validity reflects the success of measures used for some empirical estimating purpose. The concerned criterion must
possess the following qualities: Relevance: (A criterion is relevant if it is defined in terms we judge to be the proper measure.)
Freedom from bias: (Freedom from bias is attained when the criterion gives each subject an equal opportunity to score well.)
Reliability: (A reliable criterion is stable or reproducible.)
Availability: (The information specified by the criterion must be available .)
Construct validity is the most complex and abstract. A measure is said to possess construct validity to the degree that it confirms
to predicted correlations with other theoretical propositions. Construct validity is the degree to which scores on a test can be
accounted for by the explanatory constructs of a sound theory. For determining construct validity, we associate a set of other
propositions with the results received from using our measurement instrument. If measurements on our devised scale correlate in
a predicted way with these other propositions, we can conclude that there is some construct validity.
 If the above stated criteria and tests are met with, we may state that our measuring instrument is valid and will result in correct
measurement; otherwise we shall have to look for more information and /or resort to exercise of judgement.
Reliability The test of reliability is another important test of sound measurement. A measuring instrument is reliable if it provides
consistent results. Reliable measuring instrument does contribute to validity, but a reliable instrument need not be a valid instrument. For
instance, a scale that consistently overweighs objects by five kgs., is a reliable scale, but it does not give a valid measure of weight. But the
other way is not true i.e., a valid instrument is always reliable. Accordingly reliability is not as valuable as validity, but it is easier to assess
reliability in comparison to validity. If the quality of reliability is satisfied by an instrument, then while using it we can be confident that the
transient and situational factors are not interfering.
Two aspects of reliability viz., stability and equivalence deserve special mention. The stability aspect is concerned with securing consistent
results with repeated measurements of the same person and with the same instrument. We usually determine the degree of stability by
comparing the results of repeated measurements. The equivalence aspect considers how much error may get introduced by different
investigators or different samples of the items being studied. A good way to test for the equivalence of measurements by two investigators is
to compare their observations of the same events. Reliability can be improved in the following two ways:
By standardising the conditions under which the measurement takes place i.e., we must ensure that external sources of variation such as
boredom, fatigue, etc., are minimised to the extent possible. That will improve stability aspect.
By carefully designed directions for measurement with no variation from group to group, by using trained and motivated persons to conduct
the research and also by broadening the sample of items used. This will improve equivalence aspect.
3. Test of Practicality practicality characteristic of a measuring instrument can be judged in terms of economy, convenience
andinterpretability. From the operational point of view, the measuring instrument ought to be practical i.e., it shouldbe economical, convenient
and interpretable.
Errors in measurement
 Respondent: At times the respondent may be reluctant to express strong negative feelings or it is just possible that he may have
very little knowledge but may not admit his ignorance. All this reluctance is likely to result in an interview of ‘guesses.’ Transient factors
like fatigue, boredom, anxiety, etc. may limit the ability of the respondent to respond accurately and fully.
 Situation: Situational factors may also come in the way of correct measurement. Any condition which places a strain on
interview can have serious effects on the interviewer-respondent rapport. For instance, if someone else is present, he can distort
responses by joining in or merely by being present. If the respondent feels that anonymity is not assured, he may be reluctant to express
certain feelings.
 Measurer: The interviewer can distort responses by rewording or reordering questions. His behaviour, style and looks may
encourage or discourage certain replies from respondents. Careless mechanical processing may distort the findings. Errors may also
creep in because of incorrect coding, faulty tabulation and/or statistical calculations, particularly in the data-analysis stage.
 Instrument: Error may arise because of the defective measuring instrument. The use of complex words, beyond the
comprehension of the respondent, ambiguous meanings, poor printing, inadequate space for replies, response choice omissions, etc.
are a few things that make the measuring instrument defective and may result in measurement errors. Another type of instrument
deficiency is the poor sampling of the universe of items of concern.
Researcher must know that correct measurement depends on successfully meeting all of the problems listed above. He must, to the
extent possible, try to eliminate, neutralize or otherwise deal with all the possible sources of error so that the final results may not be
contaminated.

Research report
Mostly, research work is presented in a written form. The practical utility of research study depends heavily on the way it is presented to those
who are expected to act on the basis of research findings. Research report is a written document containing key aspects of research project.
Research report is a medium to communicate research work with relevant people. It is also a good source of preservation of research work for
the future reference. Many times, research findings are not followed because of improper presentation. Preparation of research report is not
an easy task. It is an art. It requires a good deal of knowledge, imagination, experience, and expertise. It demands a considerable time and
money.
Definitions:
1. In simple words: Research report is the systematic, articulate, and orderly presentation of research work in a written form.
2. We can also define the term as:
Research report is a research document that contains basic aspects of the research project.
(i) Cover page
(ii) Title page
(iii) Certificate or statement
(iv) Index (brief contents)
(ix) Summary reportp
II. Main Report (Central Part of Report):
(i) Statement of objectives
(ii) Methodology and research design
(iii) Types of data and its sources
(iv) Sampling decisions
(v) Data collection methods
(vi) Data collection tools
(vii) Fieldwork
(viii) Analysis and interpretation (including tables, charts, figures, etc.)
(ix) Findings
(x) Limitations
(xi) Conclusions and recommendations
(xii) Any other relevant detail