Earth SCIENCE And Ecology
273 - 192 BC) Measured Earth‘s
Earth Science is the study of earth and its neioghbors in space
BRANCHES OF EARTH SCIENCE
1) Geology - is the primary Earth Science. The word means ―study
of the Earth‖. Geology deals with the composition of Earth materials,
Earth structures and Earth processes. It is also concerned with the
organisms of the planet and how the planet has changed over time.
2) Meteorology - is the study of the atmosphere and how
processes in the atmosphere determine Earth‘s weather and
climate.
3) Oceanography - is the study of the Earth‘s oceans-their
composition, movement, organisms and processes.
4) Astronomy - is the study of the universe.
Geologists search for fuels and minerals, study natural hazards, and
work to protect Earth‘s environment.
Oceanographers work to develop the ocean as a resource and
protect it from human impact.
Astronomers use their knowledge of Earth materials, processes and
history to understand other planets-even those outside of our solar
system.
Meteorologist use their knowledge of the atmosphere to determine
weather and climate. Monitor changes in climate over time.
IMPORTANCE OF EARTH SCIENCE
 Develop new sources of energy that will have minimal
impact on climate.
 Locate new sources of metals and other mineral
resources as known sources are depleted
 Determine how earth‘s increasing population can live and
avoid serious threats such as volcanic activity,
earthquakes, landslides, floods, and more.
ASTRONOMY
THE URGE TO MAKE SENSE OF THEIR WORLD HAS BEEN A FEATURE OF
EVERY SIGNIFICANT CIVILIZATION IN HISTORY.
HISTORY OF ASTRONOMY
 Astrology originated with the Babylonians around 1000 BC
 Anaxagoras (c.500 - 428 BC) Sun as giant hot stone.
Moon earth-like reflecting Sun‘s light.
 Eudoxus (408 -355 BC) Planets on crystal spheres
 Aristarchus (c.310 - 230 BC) Suggested a heliocentric
universe
 Erastosthenes (c.
circumference by shadow of vertical sticks in Alexandra
and Syene
 Hipparchus (c.190-120 BC) Developed geocentric system
of planetary motion, measured the precession of
equinoxes
 Ptolemy (AD 100 - 170) Geocentric cosmology: Wrote
Almagest – most important Astronomy text in Middle Ages
Astronomy, astro-nomos= the laws of the stars or the science
of heavenly bodies, is the observation of celestial phenomena
and the derivation of empirical laws from these observations.
Cosmology – is the observation of the large scale properties
of the Universe and the use of laws and physics to understand
its origin and evolution.
Astrometry – the accurate measurement of the positions and
movements of celestial bodies
Ex. Stonehenge in England, Newgrange in Ireland
 Stellar constellations are present in the astounding
paintings of the caves of Lascaux, dating from about
15,000 years BC.
 The challenge to the Greek astronomers was to work out
mathematical schemes which could describe these
motions. As early as the third century BC, a few
astronomers suggested that these phenomena could be
explained if the earth rotates on its axis, and even that the
planets orbit the sun.
 The prevailing picture of the structure of the Physical
universe was based upon the thinking of Aristotle who held
that the sphere is the most solid figure in that, when
rotated about in any diameter, it remains unchanged.
 The Universe was composed of layer upon layer of perfect
spheres and motions of celestial bodies should be circular.
 The Earth was composed of the four elements of earth, air,
fire and water, but there was a fifth pure element, the
ether, which was the substance out of which the celestial
bodies were made.
PLANETARY MOTION: THE HISTORY OF AN IDEA THAT
LAUNCHED THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION
―We revolve around the sun like any other planet‖ - Nicolaus
Copernicus
THE SCIENCE ORBITAL MECHANICS
--Kepler‘s Law of Planetary Motion
1. The orbit of every planet is an ellipse with the sun at a focus.
2. A line joining a planet and the sun swepts out equal areas during
equal intervals of time.
3. The square of the orbital period of a planet is directly SOLAR SYSTEM
proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit.
 The solar system is located in the Milky Way galaxy a huge
*Kepler found that the orbits of the planets followed three laws: disc- and spiral-shaped aggregation of about at least 100
1. Law of Ellipses – Explains that the planets are orbiting the sun in billion stars and other bodies.
a path described as an ellipse.  Its spiral arms rotate around a globular cluster or bulge
2. Law of Equal Areas – describes the speed at which any given of many, many stars, at the center of which lies a
planet will move while orbiting the sun. The speed at which the supermassive blackhole.
planet moves through space is constantly changing. A planet moves  A globular cluster is a spherical collection of stars that
fastest when its closest to the sun and slowest when it is furthest orbits a galactic core as a satellite.
from the sun.  The galactic halo is an extended, roughly spherical
3. Law of Harmonies – Compares the orbital period and radius of component of a galaxy which extends beyond the main,
orbir of a planet to those of the other planet. Makes a comparison visible component.
between the motion characteristics of different planets.  This galaxy is about 100 million light years across (1 light
year = 9.4607 × 1012 km)
UNIVERSE AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM  The solar system revolves around the galactic center once
The solar system comprises the Sun, eight planets, dwarf planets in about 240 million years;
such as Pluto, satellites, asteroids, comets, other minor bodies such  The Milky Way is part of the so-called Local Group of
as those in the Kuiper belt and interplanetary dust. galaxies, which in turn is part of the Virgo supercluster of
galaxies
The asteroid belt lies between Mars and Jupiter. Meteoroids are  Natural forces created and shaped the Solar System. The
smaller asteroids. They are thought of as remnants of a ―failed same processes (condensation, accretion, collision and
planet‖—one that did not form due to disturbance from Jupiter‘s differentiation) are ongoing processes.
gravity. Large Scale Properties / Small Scale Properties /
Features Features
The Kuiper belt lies beyond Neptune (30 to 50 AU, 1 AU = Sun-Earth
distance = 150 million km) and comprise numerous rocky or icy  Much of the mass of  Most planets
bodies a few meters to hundreds of kilometers in size. the Solar System is rotate prograde
concentrated at the (west to east)
The Oort cloud marks the outer boundary of the solar system and center (Sun) while  Inner terrestrial
is composed mostly of icy objects angular momentum planets are made of
is held by the outer materials with high
Planetisimal - substantial objects, resembling asteroids in size and planets. melting points such
composition, which built up early in the development of the solar  Orbits of the planets as silicates, iron ,
system. elliptical and are on and nickel.
the same plane.  They rotate slower,
Solar System is at 4.6 billion years old based on radioactive dating  All planets revolve have thin or no
meteorites. PARTS OF MILKY WAY: around the sun. atmosphere, higher
 The periods of densities, and lower
revolution of the contents of volatiles
planets increase - hydrogen, helium,
with increasing and noble gases.
distance from the  The outer four
Sun; planets - Jupiter,
 The innermost Saturn, Uranus and
planet moves Neptune are called
fastest, the "gas giants"
outermost, the because of the
slowest; dominance of gases
  All planets are and their larger  James Jeans‘ (1917) sun-star encounter that would have
located at regular size. They rotate drawn from the sun matter that would condense to
intervals from the faster, have thick planets,
Sun. atmosphere, lower
densities, and fluid
interiors rich in
hydrogen, helium
and ices (water,
ammonia, methane).
 The sun and the
large planets have
enough gravity to
retain hydrogen and
helium

THEORIES ON SOLAR SYSTEM

1)NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS

 In the 1700s Emanuel Swedenborg, Immanuel Kant, and

 T.C. Chamberlain and F. R. Moulton‘s (1904) planetisimal
Pierre-Simon Laplace independently thought of a rotating
hypothesis involving a star much bigger than the Sun
gaseous cloud that cools and contracts in the middle to
passing by the Sun and draws gaseous filaments from both
form the sun and the rest into a disc that become the
out which planetisimals were formed;
planets.
 Ray Lyttleton‘s (1940) sun‟s companion star colliding
 This nebular theory failed to account for the distribution of
with another to form a proto-planet that breaks up to
angular momentum in the solar system.
form Jupiter and Saturn.
ACCRETION THEORY
 Otto Schmidt‘s accretion theory proposed that the Sun
passed through a dense interstellar cloud and emerged
with a dusty, gaseous envelope that eventually became the
planets. However, it cannot explain how the planets and
satellites were formed. The time required to form the
planets exceeds the age of the solar system.
Capture Theory
 Is a variation of James Jeans‘ near-collision hypothesis. In
this scenario, the Sun drags from a near proto-star a
filament of material which becomes the planets. Collisions
between proto-planets close to the Sun produced the
terrestrial planets; condensations in the filament
produced the giant planets and their satellites. Different
ages for the Sun and planets is predicted by this theory.

2)ENCOUNTER HYPOTHESES ALL IN ALL Encounter Hypothesis failed to explain how planets are
 Buffon‘s (1749) Sun-comet encounter that sent matter to formed and this encounters are extremely rare.
form planet;
3) Protoplanet Hypotheses – Current Hypothesis
 About 4.6 billion years ago, in the Orion arm of the Milky
Way galaxy, a slowly-rotating gas and dust cloud
dominated by hydrogen and helium starts to contract due
to gravity
 As most of the mass move to the center to eventually
become a proto-Sun, the remaining materials form a disc
that will eventually become the planets and momentum is
transferred outwards.
 Due to collisions, fragments of dust and solid matter begin
sticking to each other to form larger and larger bodies
from meter to kilometer in size. These proto-planets are
accretions of frozen water, ammonia, methane, silicon,
aluminum, iron, and other metals in rock and mineral
grains enveloped in hydrogen and helium.
 High-speed collisions with large objects destroys much of
the mantle of Mercury, puts Venus in retrograde rotation.
 Collision of the Earth with large object produces the moon.
This is supported by the composition of the moon very
similar to the Earth‘s Mantle
 When the proto-Sun is established as a star, its solar wind
blasts hydrogen, helium, and volatiles from the inner
planets to beyond Mars to form the gas giants leaving
behind a system we know today.
THE UNIVERSE
Structure, Composition, and Age
 The universe as we currently know it comprises all space
and time, and all matter & energy in it.
 It is made of 4.6% baryonic matter (―ordinary‖ matter
consisting of protons, electrons, and neutrons: atoms,
planets, stars, galaxies, nebulae, and other bodies), 24%
cold dark matter (matter that has gravity but does not
emit light), and 71.4% dark energy (a source of
antigravity)
 Dark matter can explain what may be holding galaxies
together for the reason that the low total mass is
insufficient for gravity alone to do so while dark energy
can explain the observed accelerating expansion of the
universe.
 Hydrogen, helium, and lithium are the three most
abundant elements.
 Stars - the building block of galaxies born out of clouds of
gas and dust in galaxies. Instabilities within the clouds
eventually results into gravitational collapse, rotation,
heating up, and transformation to a protostar -the core
of a future star as thermonuclear reactions set in.
 Stellar interiors are like furnaces where elements are
synthesized or combined/fused together.
 Most stars such as the Sun belong to the so-called “main
sequence stars.” In the cores of such stars, hydrogen
atoms are fused through thermonuclear reactions to
make helium atoms.
 Massive main sequence stars burn up their hydrogen
faster than smaller stars. Stars like our Sun burnup
hydrogen in about 10 billion years.
 The remaining dust and gas may end up as they are or as
planets, asteroids, or other bodies in the accompanying
planetary system.
 A galaxy is a cluster of billions of stars and clusters of
galaxies form superclusters. In between the clusters is
practically an empty space. This organization of matter in
the universe suggests that it is indeed clumpy at a certain
scale. But at a large scale, it appears homogeneous and
isotropic.
 Based on recent data, the universe is 13.8 billion years old.
The diameter of the universe is possibly infinite but should
be at least 91 billion light-years (1 light-year = 9.4607 ×
1012 km). Its density is 4.5 x 10-31 g/cm3.
Expanding Universe
 In 1929, Edwin Hubble announced his significant discovery
of the ―redshift‖ (fig. 5) and its interpretation that galaxies
are moving away from each other, hence as evidence for
an expanding universe, just as predicted by Einstein‘s
Theory of General Relativity.
 He observed that spectral lines of starlight made to pass
through a prism are shifted toward the red part of the
electromagnetic spectrum, i.e., toward the band of lower
frequency; thus, the inference that the star or galaxy must
be moving away from us.
Cosmic Microwave Background
 There is a pervasive cosmic microwave background (CMB)
radiation in the universe. Its accidental discovery in 1964
by Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson earned them
the physics Nobel Prize in 1978.
 It can be observed as a strikingly uniform faint glow in the
microwave band coming from all directions-blackbody
 radiation with an average temperature of about 2.7
degrees above.
Origin of the Universe
1) Non-scientific Thought
 Ancient Egyptians believed in many gods and myths which
narrate that the world arose from an infinite sea at the
first rising of the sun.
 The Kuba people of Central Africa tell the story of a
creator god Mbombo (or Bumba) who,alone in a dark and
water-covered Earth, felt an intense stomach pain and
then vomited the stars, sun, and moon.
 In India, there is the narrative that gods sacrificed
Purusha, the primal man whose head, feet,eyes, and mind
became the sky, earth, sun, and moon respectively.
 The monotheistic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and
Islam claim that a supreme being created the universe,
including man and other living organisms.
2) Steady State Model
 The now discredited steady state model of the universe
was proposed in 1948 by Bondi and Gould and by Hoyle.
It maintains that new matter is created as the universe
expands thereby maintaining its density.
 Its predictions led to tests and its eventual rejection with
the discovery of the cosmic microwave background.
3) Big Bang Theory
 •As the currently accepted theory of the origin and
evolution of the universe, the Big Bang Theory postulates
that 13.8 billion years ago, the universe expanded from a
tiny, dense and hot mass to its present size and much
cooler state.
 The theory rests on two ideas: General Relativity and the
Cosmological Principle. In Einstein‘s General Theory of
Relativity, gravity is thought of as a distortion of space-
time and no longer described by a gravitational field in
contrast to the Law of Gravity of Isaac Newton. General
Relativity explains the peculiarities of the orbit of
Mercury and the bending of light by the Sun and has
passed rigorous tests. The Cosmological Principle
assumes that the universe is homogeneous and isotropic
when averaged over large scales. This is consistent with
our current large-scale image of the universe. But keep in
mind that it is clumpy at smaller scales.
 The Big Bang Theory has withstood the tests for expansion:
1) the redshift 2) abundance of hydrogen, helium, and
lithium, and 3) the uniformly pervasive cosmic
microwave background radiation -the remnant heat
from the bang.
Evolution of the Universe according to the Big Bang Theory
 From time zero (13.8 billion years ago) until 10-43 second
later, all matter and energy in the universe existed as a
hot, dense, tiny state It then underwent extremely rapid,
exponential inflation until 10-32 second later after which
and until 10 seconds from time zero, conditions allowed the
existence of only quarks, hadrons, and leptons.
 Then, Big Bang nucleosynthesis took place and produced
protons, neutrons, atomic nuclei, and then hydrogen,
helium, and lithium until 20 minutes after time zero when
sufficient cooling did not allow further nucleosynthesis.
 From then on until 380,000 years, the cooling universe
entered a matter-dominated period when photons
decoupled from matter and light could travel freely as still
observed today in the form of cosmic microwave
background radiation.
 As the universe continued to cool down, matter collected
into clouds giving rise to only stars after 380,000 years
and eventually galaxies would form after 100 million years
from time zero during which, through nucleosynthesis in
stars, carbon and elements heavier than carbon were
produced.
 From 9.8 billion years until the present, the universe
became dark-energy dominated and underwent
accelerating expansion. At about 9.8 billion years after the
big bang, the solar system was formed.
STELLAR ASTROPHYSICS
DOPPLER EFFECT
 An increase (or decrease) in the frequency of sound, light,
or other waves as the source and observer move toward
(or away from) each other. The effect causes the sudden
change in pitch noticeable in a passing siren, as well as the
redshift seen by astronomers.
 Christian Doppler
 Astronomers use Doppler shifts to calculate precisely
how fast stars and other astronomical objects move
toward or away from Earth. For example the spectral lines
emitted by hydrogen gas in distant galaxies is often
observed to be considerably red shifted.
Terminologies
Baryonic Matter – ordinary matter consisting of protons, electrons and
neutrons that comprise atoms, planets, stars, galaxies and other bodies.
Dark Matter- Matter that has gravity but does not emit light. Holds the
heavenly bodies in their places together.
Dark Energy – A source of anti-gravity; a force that counteracts gravity
and causes the universe to expand.
Protostar – An early stage in the formation of a star that counteracts
gravity and causes the universe to expand
Thermonuclear Reaction – A nuclear reaction responsible for the
energy produced by the stars.
Main Sequence Stars – Stars that fuse hydrogen atoms to form helium
atoms in their cores; outward pressure resulting from nuclear fusion is
balanced by a gravitational forces
Light Year – the distance light can travel in a year; a unit of length used
to measure astronomical distance
13.8 billion years old (universe)
4.6 billion (Solar System)
Stars – building blocks of galaxies.
Galaxy – cluster of billion of stars
Supercluster – is a large group of smaller galaxy clusters or group,
which is among the largest known structures of the cosmos
Isotropic – same physical characteristics that can be viewed from
different points
91 billion light years diameter ng earth
1 light year = 9.4607x1012 km
Density = 4.5x10-31g/cm3
Spectroscopy – branch of science concerned with the investigation and
measurement of spectra produced when matter interacts with or emit s
electromagnetic radiation
Doppler Effect – an increase (or decrease) in the frequency of sound
light or other waves as the source and observer move toward (or away)
from each other.
Cosmic Microwave Background CMB – remnant heat left over from the
Big Bang
EM RADIATION – refers to the waves (or quanta, photons) of the
electromagnetic field, propagating (radiating) through space carrying
electromagnetic radiant energy
Meteoroids – remnant of a failed planet
Kuiper Belt – lies beyond Neptune. 30-50 AU
Astronomical Unit (AU) – 1 AU equals to 150 million km, Distance from
sun to earth
Oort Cloud – marks the outer body of the solar system
Planetisimal – earliest planet of the solar system
Milky Way / Home Galaxy – spiral galaxy. Hundred billion of stars. Black
hole at the center
Andromeda Galaxy –malapit na galaxy sa milky way
Virgo Supercluster – or the local supercluster. Is a mass concentration
of galaxies that contains Virgo Cluster to the local group which in return
contains the Milky way and Andromeda Galaxies.
Cosmological Principle – Assumes that the spatial distribution of matter
in the universe is homogenous and isotropic when viewed on a large
enough scale.
TERRESTRIAL PLANETS
The humanity‘s failure to protect the environment and life here on Earth is
likely due to the following:
 Inability to recognize the full consequence of his/her actions
 Lack of appreciation of how truly unique the Earth is
*See picture of Venus Earth and Mars*
 The blue coloration of the Earth is very apparent due to the
presence of water. The size of the planets is also important to
note.
 The size and mass of Venus and Earth are very similar. Mars is
about half the Earth's size.
 The three planets have a spheroidal shape.
*See table of comparison*
 The blue coloration of the Earth is very apparent due to the
presence of water. The size of the planets is also important to
note.
 The size and mass of Venus and Earth are very similar. Mars is
about half the Earth's size.
 The three planets have a spheroidal shape.
 Venus, Earth, and Mars are part of the inner terrestrial or
"rocky" planets. Their compositions and densities are not
different form each other
 Venus is said to be the Earth‘s twin planet. It has a very similar
size and mass with the Earth . Mars is about half the Earth‘s
size.
 Orbital period and velocity are related to the planet's distance
from the sun. Among the three planet, Venus is the nearest and
Mars is the farthest from the Sun.
 Rotational speed of Earth and Mars are very similar. Rotational
speed of Venus is extremely slow.
 Abundance of liquid water on Earth, hence the blue color. The
Earth is a habitable planet.
 The rows are color coded according to their relationship with
respect to each other.
 Escape velocity is the minimum speed an object needs to
escape a planet's pull of gravity.
 Surface pressure is the atmospheric pressure at a location on
the surface of the planet. It is proportional to the mass of air
above the location.
 „Temperature if no greenhouse gases
 are present‟ indicates the temperature of the planet without
the warming effect of greenhouse gases. Note that the
temperature of the Earth would be around 180C or lower without
greenhouse warming.
 Emphasize that the greenhouse effect is not necessarily
undesirable. It is runaway greenhouse effect which we would
like to avoid (e.g. Venus).
WHAT IS THE CONSEQUENCE IF THE GREENHOUSE GASES ARE NOT PRESENT?
 Length of day is a function of rotational speed.
  The ability of a planet to retain its internal heat is proportional
to its size. Mars may have lost much of its internal heat very
early in its evolution.
 A planet's temperature is a function of its distance from the
Sun. However, this factor can be modified by the intensity of
greenhouse warming.
 Water in liquid form is one of the most important prerequisites
for life. There is recent evidence that liquid water, in the form of
brine (salty water) flows intermittently on the surface of Mars.
Thermophiles - bacteria that can tolerate extreme temperatures (41
to122 C) commonly associated with hot springs and deep-sea
hydrothermal vents. Life, in general can tolerate a wide range of
temperature conditions. The temperature range that allows water to
exist in the liquid state is the over-riding factor.
 Planets should have sufficient size to hold a significant
atmosphere. The composition of the atmosphere, specifically
the amount of green house gases, influences the planet
surface temperature.
 The amount of solar radiation that a planet receives is
primarily a function of distance from the sun. Sunlight is
essential for photosynthesis but some organism are able to
extract energy from other sources (chemosynthetic
organisms).
 A system that will be able to constantly supply nutrients to
organisms is important to sustain life. On Earth, nutrients are
cycled through the hydrologic cycle and plate tectonics
(volcanism)
 Internal heat drives plate tectonics. The ability of a planet to
maintain internal heat is related to size.
*FACTORS THAT MAKES A PLANET HABITABLE*
EARTH AS THE ONLY HABITABLE PLANET
Earth – it is one special planet
Water World – Earth is unique among planets in our solar system for
having water in its fluid form at the surface
Goldilocks Zone – Habitable zone around a star where the temperature is
just right
THERE ARE TWO MAJOR REQUIREMENTS FOR A PLANET TO BE CONSIDERED
HABITABLE
 The star should survive long enough for its planet to develop life
 The planet should exist in the Goldilocks Zone
EARTH AS A SYSTEM AND ITS SUBSYTEM
System – is a set of interconnected components that are interacting to
form a unified whole.
Closed System – a system in which there is an only exchange of heat or
energy and no exchange of matter.
4 MAJOR PARTS
ATMOSPHERE
The Earth is surrounded by a blanket of air, called the atmosphere. The
present atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen (N), 21% oxygen (O2),
0.9% Argon, and trace amount of other gases. One of the most important
processes by which the heat on the Earth's surface is redistributed is
through atmospheric circulation There is also a constant exchange of
heat and moisture between the atmosphere and the hydrosphere through
the hydrologic cycle.
 The atmosphere is a mixture of invisible gases that surround
Earth.
 The atmosphere extends outward to about 500 km from the
surface of Earth.
 Most of the atmospheric gases lie within 8 to 12 km of Earth‘s
surface.
LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE
TROPOSHERE
 Atmospheric layer in which we live
 It extends outward to 12km from earth‘s surface
 Weather usually occur in the troposphere
 Is the air layer about 4–11 miles above sea level. It contains
greenhouse gases that absorb and release energy which warms
the inner layer of the atmosphere.
STRATOSPHERE
 Above the troposphere
 The temperature increases with altitude
 Filter‘s out sun‘s harmful radiation
MESOSPHERE
 Coldest layer of the atmosphere
THERMOSPHERE
 Uppermost layer of the atmosphere
 The temperature increases with altitude
ENERGY FLOW IN THE ATMOSPHERE
 Solar radiation heats Earth‘s surface unevenly.
 Uneven heating causes air in the atmosphere to move.
 As cold air sinks, it forces warm, less-dense air upwards.
 This movement of air distributes energy throughout the
atmosphere.
 The transfer of energy, especially heat, due to the movement of
matter, such as air, is called convection.
GEOSPHERE
The geosphere is the solid Earth that includes the continental and ocean
crust as well the various layers of Earth‘s interior.
 94% of the Earth is composed of the elements oxygen, silicon,
and magnesium.
 The surface of the geosphere is is in a constantly changing.
 Mineral resources are mined from the geosphere.
LAYERS
Compositional Layers – based on chemical composition
Physical Layers – based on physical properties
*Layers of Earth*
 EARTH SYSTEM SCIENCE
BIOSPHERE
The biosphere is the living part of the Earth, and includes all living organisms
(including humans), and all organic matter that has not yet decomposed.
Is the study of how the four spheres of the Earth system interact
 Living organisms are made mainly of Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), continually, each affecting the others.
Oxygen (O) and Nitrogen (N)
 The biosphere is the set of all life forms on Earth.
 It covers all ecosystems—from the soil to the rainforest, from
mangroves to coral reefs, and from the plankton-rich ocean Three factors sustain the earth‟s life
surface to the deep sea.
 For the majority of life on Earth, the base of the food chain
comprises photosynthetic organisms. During photosynthesis,  One-way flow of high quality energy
CO2 is sequestered from the atmosphere, while oxygen is  Cycling of nutrients
released as a byproduct. The biosphere is a CO2 sink, and  Gravity
therefore, an important part of the carbon cycle.
 Sunlight is not necessarily for life
Chemosynthetic Organisms ECOSYSTEM
Organisms use energy for hydrothermal vents or methane seeps
(methane seeping through rocks and sediments) to produce simple sugar.
Ecology – focuses on how organisms interact with each other and with
HYDROSPHERE
their non-living environment.

 The hydrosphere contains all the water (H20) found on our
planet.
 Water found on the surface of our planet includes the ocean as
well as water from lakes and rivers, streams, and creeks.
 Water found under the surface of our planet includes water
trapped in the soil and groundwater.
 Water found in our atmosphere includes water vapor
 Frozen water on our planets includes ice caps and glaciers
 Only 3% water on the Earth is fresh water and about 70% of
the fresh water is frozen in the form of glacial ice
 97% is the global ocean
 The global ocean covers a surface area about 335 square
kilometers
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
 Population – is a group of individuals of the same species living
in a particular place
 Community – is populations of different species living in a
particular place, and potentially interacting with each other
 Ecosystem – is a community of different species interacting
with one another and with their non-living environment of
matter and energy
IMPORTANT COMPONENTS

Energy flow in the Hydrosphere

 Solar radiation heats water unevenly
 The temperature of ocean water varies warm at the equator
and near freezing at the poles
 The temperature of ocean water also decreases with depth
 Differences in the density and the concentration of salts in the
ocean affect the density of ocean water
 Differences in the density of ocean water causes movement
called convection currents
 Convection currents distribute energy in the ocean
 Every organisms belongs to a particular trophic level depending
on its source of nutrients
 Producers or autotrophs use photosynthesis to make
nutrients from components in the environment
 Consumers or heterotrophs get their nutrients by feeding on
other organisms or their remains
 Consumers can be HERBIVORE, CARNIVORE, or OMNIVORE
 Consumers can be primary, secondary or tertiary depending
upon their trophic level
 Decomposers (bacteria fungi) breaks down organic detritus
into simpler inorganic compounds
 Detritivores (detritus feeder) feed on waste or dead bodies
 Producers, consumers and decomposers utilize chemical
energy stored in organic molecules. In most cells, this energy is
released by aerobic respiration
  Food Chain – is a sequence of organisms, each of which serves
as a source of nutrients and energy for the next organism
 Food Web – is a series of interconnected food chains. Occurs
most in ecosystem (producers are first level, primary
consumers are the second level, secondary consumers are the
third level, tertiary consumers are the fourth level and
Detritivores and decomposers process detritus from all trophic
levels
 About 90 % of the energy is lost as heat
 The rate of an ecosystem‘s producers converting energy into
biomass is the Gross Primary Productivity (GPP)
 Net Primary Productivity (NPP) is the rate that producers
use photosynthesis to store biomass minus the rate at which
they use energy for aerobic respiration. Measures how fast
producers can provide biomass needed by consumer in an
ecosystem
 Three most productive system are swamps and marshes,
tropical rain forest and estuaries
 Estuaries – is where a river meets the sea. It has a free
connection to the open sea
THE WATER CYCLE
 Solar energy evaporates water; the water returns as
precipitation (rain or snow), goes through organisms, goes into
bodies of water, and evaporates again.
 Water is filtered and partly purified as it moves through the
hydrological cycle.
 Water can be stored as ice in glaciers or in underground
aquifers.
 Unique properties of water include that it:
–Is held together by hydrogen bonds.
–Exists as a liquid over a wide temperate range.
–Stores a large amount of heat.
–Requires a large amount of energy to be evaporated.
–Dissolves a variety of compounds.
–Filters some UV rays from the sun.
–Can move through capillary action.
–Expands when freezes.
–Exists in all three phases at the Earth’s surface.
 Humans alter the water cycle in 3 ways:
-Withdrawing freshwater at faster rates than nature can
replenish it.
–Clearing vegetation which increases runoff and decreases
replenishment of groundwater supplies.
–Draining wetlands which interferes with flood control.
THE CARBON CYCLE
 Carbon is the basic building block of carbohydrates, fats,
proteins, DNA, and other compounds.
 Carbon circulates through the biosphere, hydrosphere, and
atmosphere.
 Producers, consumers and decomposers circulate carbon in
the biosphere.
 Fossil fuels contain carbon.
 Humans are altering atmospheric carbon dioxide mostly by our
use of fossil fuels and our destruction of the carbon-absorbing
vegetation.
THE NITROGEN CYCLE / BACTERIA IN ACTION
 Nitrogen gas (N2), which makes up 78% of the atmosphere,
cannot be used directly by most living organisms.
 Nitrogen-fixing bacteria convert N2 into compounds that are
useful nutrients for plants and animals.
 The nitrogen cycle includes the following steps:
–Specialized bacteria convert gaseous nitrogen to ammonia in
nitrogen fixation.
–Specialized bacteria convert ammonia in the soil to nitrite ions
and nitrate ions; the latter is used by plants as a nutrient. This
process is nitrification.
–Decomposer bacteria convert detritus into ammonia and
water-soluble salts in ammonification.
–In denitrification, anaerobic bacteria in soggy soil and bottom
sediments of water areas convert NH3 and NH4+ back into
nitrite and nitrate ions, then into nitrogen gas and nitrous oxide
gas, which are released into the atmosphere.
 Human activities have more than doubled the annual
release of nitrogen from the land into the rest of the
environment, mostly from the greatly increased use
of inorganic fertilizers to grow crops. This excessive
input of nitrogen into the air and water contributes to
pollution and other problems.
THE PHOSPHOROUS CYCLE
 Phosphorus circulates through water, Earth‟s crust,
and living organisms in the phosphorus cycle.
Phosphorus does not cycle through the atmosphere.
 The major reservoirs of phosphorus on Earth are
rock formations and ocean bottom sediments.
 Phosphorus is transferred by food webs and is an
important component of many biological molecules.
 Human activity removes phosphate from the earth to
make fertilizer and reduces phosphate levels in
tropical soils by clearing forests. Phosphate-rich
runoff from the land can produce huge populations of
algae, which can upset chemical cycling and other
processes.
THE SULFUR CYCLE
 Much of the earth’s sulfur is stored underground in
rocks and minerals.
  Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is released from volcanoes
and anaerobic decomposition of organic matter in
bogs and swamps.
 Humans have been increasing atmospheric sulfur
dioxide by burning sulfur-containing fuels, refining
sulfur-containing fuels, and converting sulfur
containing metallic mineral ores into free metals.
HOW DO SCIENTIST STUDY ECOSYSTEM?
 Field research (―muddy-boots biology‖) involves
making direct measurements and observations of
ecosystems in natural settings.
 Remote sensing devices can gather data on the
earth‟s surface that can be converted into usable
forms by geographic information systems (GIS), such
as computerized maps of an area that are used to
examine forest cover, water resources, air pollution
emissions, coastal changes, and changes in global
sea temperatures.
 Ecologists use tanks, greenhouses, and controlled
indoor and outdoor chambers to study ecosystems in
laboratory research. This allows control of light,
temperature, CO2, humidity, and other variables.
 Life is sustained by the flow of energy from the sun
through the biosphere, the cycling of nutrients within
the biosphere, and gravity.
 Some organisms produce the nutrients they need,
some survive by consuming other organisms, and
others recycle nutrients back to producers.
 Human activities are altering the flow of energy
through food chains and webs, and the cycling of
nutrients within ecosystems and the biosphere.
ROCKS AND MINERALS
 Minerals – are building blocks of rocks
 From the beginning humans needed the ability to cut,
grind, pierce and pound various materials.
 Teeth were undoubtedly the first tools to be used for
these purposes. However, it would have been hard to
skin an elephant or carve a statue using teeth alone,
so tools made of wood, bone and stone appeared very
early in prehistory, more than a million years ago
 Generally the term stone is not used in geology,
instead geologists use the terms mineral and rock.
 Mineral - naturally occurring substance with a
reasonably fixed chemical composition and crystal
structure.
 Rock - a naturally occurring solid aggregate of one
or more minerals.
 Silicate – are the most abundant it makes 12% of
the earth‘s crust. And they were the material of
choice for primitive stone tools
 Flint is a type of cryptocrystalline quartz made up of
such minute crystals they are only visible
microscopically.
MINERALS VS CRYSTAL VS ROCK
MINERALS
 Minerals are natural inorganic substances that have
a regular crystal structure and distinctive chemical
composition. Minerals are composed of combinations
of Earth‘s 98 naturally occurring elements and have
distinct measurable physical and chemical properties
and crystalline structures.
 Mineral compositions can usually be expressed by a
chemical formula indicating the elements present and
proportions in which they are combined, for example
SiO2is the formula for quartz
 Minerals vary from simple, pure elements like gold,
copper, silver, carbon and sulfur to complex mixtures
that have a thousand or so known forms.
 Examples of common minerals in the Earth‘s crust
are quartz, feldspar, mica and calcite. Minerals may
occur as single crystals or collections of crystals
CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERAL
 Inorganic
 Naturally Occurring
 Crystalline
 Solid
 Must have consistent chemical composition
CRYSTALS
 Solids which form crystals are called crystalline.
 Solids which are not crystalline are called
amorphous.
ROCKS
 Rocks are made of a mixture of minerals and often
the minerals are in crystalline form.
 The mineral content of a rock and the size of the
mineral crystals determine the physical and chemical
properties of a rock.
 Granite is an igneous rock, it forms from molten
material. Most igneous rocks are made of interlocking
crystals of a range of sizes.
 Basalt is an igneous rock which forms when lava
cools on the surface of the Earth.
IDENTIFYING MINERALS
 Mineralogists are scientists who specialize in the
study of minerals, both on Earth as well as those
from beyond the Earth, such as rock samples from
the Moon or meteorites.
 Many mineral names end in ‗ite‘. This suffix is derived
from the Greek word lithos (from its adjectival form -
ites), meaning rock or stone.

Every mineral has two different names:
• Mineralogical, e.g. pyrite, quartz.
• Chemical, e.g.iron sulphide FeS2 or silicon dioxide SiO2.
 In addition, well-formed crystals of some minerals
will also have a gemmological name, e.g. peridot is
clear, gemstone quality olivine
PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
1. Luster – it is the quality and intensity of reflected light exhibited by the
mineral
a. Metallic – generally opaque and exhibit a resplendent shine similar to a
polished metal
b. Non-metallic – vitreous (glassy), adamantine (brilliant/diamond-like),
resinous, silky, pearly, dull
(earthy), greasy, etc.
2. Hardness – it is a measure of the resistance of a mineral (not
specifically surface) to abrasion. *Moh‘s scale of hardness*
3. Color and streak – Color maybe a unique identifying property of
certain minerals (e.g. malachite – green, azurite – blue). Streak on the
other hand is the color of a mineral in powdered form.
4. Crystal Form/Habit –The external shape of a crystal or groups of
crystals is displayed / observed as these crystals grow in open spaces.
The form reflects the supposedly internal structure (of atoms
and ions) of the crystal (mineral). The crystal form also define the relative
growth of the crystal in 3 dimension which are its length, width and height
5. Cleavage – It is the property of some minerals to break along parallel
repetitive planes of weakness to form smooth, flat surfaces. These planes
of weakness are inherent in the bonding of atoms that makes up the
mineral.
6. Fracture – Some minerals may not have cleavages but exhibit broken
surfaces that are irregular and non-planar.
7. Specific Gravity – It is the ratio of the weight of a mineral to the
weight of an equal volume of water.
8. Others – There are certain unique properties of minerals that actually
help in their identification (e.g. magnetism, odor, taste, tenacity, reaction
to acid, etc.).
1. What are the characteristics that define a mineral?
Answer: inorganic, naturally occurring, crystalline, solid and must have a
consistent chemical composition
2. Which among the following mineral groups, if any, contain silicon:
halides, carbonates or sulfides? Explain.
Answer: None. The identified mineral groups are non-silicates
3. Which is more abundant in the Earth‘s crust: silicates or all the other
mineral groups combined? Explain.
Answer: Silicates. Silicon and oxygen are the main components of silicates
and these are the two most abundant elements in the Earth‘s crust.
4. An unknown opaque mineral has a black streak and has a density of
18g/cm3. Is the mineral metallic or non-metallic?
Answer: The mineral is more likely to be metallic because it is opaque and
metallic minerals are usually heavy and with dark streaks
5. What is the difference between a mineral's streak and color? Why is
streak more reliable for rock identification?
Answer: Streak is the color of a mineral in powdered form. It is more
reliable because it is inherent to most minerals. Color is not reliable
because mineral can be formed with varieties of color, an effect of
impurities and weathering.
6. Differentiate habit and a cleavage plane.
Answer: Habit is the external shape of a crystal that is developed during
the formation of the mineral. Cleavage plane is a plane of weakness that
maybe formed in a crystal after the crystal formation.
7. Is it possible for a mineral to have a prismatic habit without having any
cleavage? Why orwhy not? If yes, give an example.
Answer: Yes, the prismatic habit is simultaneously developed while the
mineral is growing. During the process, there is no repetitive plane of
weakness being created which makes the mineral break only by
fracturing. An example of this scenario is quartz.
CRYSTALLIZATION - Is the process by which crystals are formed.
Crystals could occur in many ways:
1.Cooling of molten rock to form a crystalline solid.
 As magmas cool, groups of atoms begin to come
together in the chaotic mix and form crystals.
 The crystals grow as more atoms attach themselves
to the initial structure.
 As the crystals increase in size they meet, causing
growth to cease at the points of contact.
 Growth continues where space is available. Thus the
crystals in igneous rocks are irregular in shape and
are said to interlock.
 Examples: quartz, olivine, mica, hornblende, and
feldspar
2. Crystals can form from a solution when a solvent evaporates.
 When fluids become a saturated solution (fully
loaded) dissolved solids precipitate out of the fluid.
Typically this happens as the fluid evaporates, cools
down or boils due to changes in pressure.
 Example: When sodium, chlorine, boron and calcium
are dissolved out of rocks they may be carried by
rivers to inland seas and lakes which then evaporate,
leaving behind mineral deposits of salt, gypsum and
boron
Metamorphism - Existing minerals are affected physically by heat
and/or pressure (metamorphism) resulting in the growth of new
minerals that are stable under the changed conditions.
Example: Limestone is a rock made mostly of the mineral calcite. The
grains of calcite are normally very small and cannot be seen with the
naked eye. If the limestone is heated or subjected to pressure the calcite
grains can recrystallize and form larger calcite crystals. When this
occurs, the rock is called marble, a metamorphic rock.
Polymorphs - Minerals with the same chemical composition may have
completely different crystal structures. These are known as polymorphs
and the difference in structure can influence the physical properties of
the mineral.
Example: Carbon can form diamonds, which are the hardest of all minerals
because of their very strong crystal lattice structure. A different
polymorph of carbon is graphite, which is very soft and malleable due to
weak bonds between the ‗layers‘ of atoms

Bowen‟s Reaction Series

•The petrologist Norman Bowen (1887–1956) carried out decades of rock
melting experiments in the early 1900s and developed Bowen‟s Reaction
Series. This lists common rock forming minerals in the sequence that
they crystallize from a cooling melt.
*See pic*