For instructional purposes only • 1st Semester SY 2020-2021 49

References
Ghilani, C., & Wolf, P. (2012). Introduction to Geomatics 13th Ed. New Jersey:
Pearson Education, Inc.
Kavanagh, B. F. (2015). Surveying with Construction Applications Seventh
Edition. New York: Prentice Hall.
S.K., R. (1999). Fundamentals of Surveying. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India.

Lesson 3.5: Sources of Errors in Leveling

Learning Outcome
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to identify the sources of
errors and common mistakes in doing leveling operations.

Discussion
From our previous discussion on the sources of errors, leveling is also
subjected to all those three types of errors: 1) instrumental, 2) natural, and 3)
personal.

Instrumental Errors
1. Line of Sight
2. Cross-hair not exactly horizontal
3. Rod not correct Length
4. Tripod Legs loose

Natural Errors
1. Curvature of the Earth
2. Refraction
3. Temperature variations
4. Wind
5. Settlement of the instrument
6. Settlement of the turning point

Personal Errors
1. Bubble not centered
2. Parallax
3. Faulty Rod readings
4. Rod handling
5. Target setting

Page 49 of 53
Vision: A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation. TP-IMD-02
Mission: Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge V0 07-15-2020
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment. No. CET.ESC
SLG20-08
 50 ESci 121m: Fundamentals of Surveying

References
Ghilani, C., & Wolf, P. (2012). Introduction to Geomatics 13th Ed. New Jersey:
Pearson Education, Inc.
Kavanagh, B. F. (2015). Surveying with Construction Applications Seventh
Edition. New York: Prentice Hall.
S.K., R. (1999). Fundamentals of Surveying. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India.

Module Evaluation

1. Define the ff. terms:

a) Level surface
b) Horizontal plane
c) Vertical plane
d) Vertical line
e) Elevation of point
f) Benchmark
g) Tie point
h) Datum
i) Backsight
j) Foresight
2. Explain the effects of curvature and refraction in level.
3. If a plus sight of 3.54 ft is taken on BM A, elevation 850.48 ft, and a
minus sight of 7.84 ft is read on point X, calculate the HI and the
elevation of point X.
4. Complete the accompanying set of differential leveling notes, and
perform the arithmetic check

Page 50 of 53
Vision: A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation. TP-IMD-02
Mission: Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge V0 07-15-2020
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment. No. CET.ESC
SLG20-08