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820139
Three Wheeled Vehicle yn mics
ABSTRACT
Comparisons are made between a three
wheeled vehicle with two wheels on the front
axle, a three wheeled vehicle with two wheels
on the rear axle, and a standard four wheeled
vehicle. Each vehicle's lateral stability,
rollover stability during lateral acceleration,
rollover stability while braking in a turn, and
rollover stability while accelerating in a turn
are determined. It is shown that for lateral
stability, the three wheeled vehicle with two
wheels on the rear axle is more stable than the
four wheeled vehicle, which is in turn more
stable than the three wheeled vehicle with two
wheels on the front axle. For rollover sta-
bility the four wheeled vehicle is always
stable as long as the vehicle's track width is
greater than twice its center of mass height.
The three wheeled vehicles are less stable than
the four wheeled vehicle in terms of rollover
stability. Vehicle track width to center of
mass height relationships which govern rollover
stability are developed for the three wheeled
vehicles. Provided these relationships are
observed, three wheeled vehicles can offer safe
alternatives to four wheeled vehicles.
AS A RESULT of the sharp increase in the cost
of gasoline during the past ten years, signifi-
cant pressure has been put on the automotive
and recreational vehicle industries to develop
more fuel efficient passenger vehicles. At
present, standard four wheeled vehicles are
designed to accommodate four to six passengers
comfortably with sufficient space for their
cargo. This design criterion limits signifi-
cant improvements in the fuel efficiency of
these vehicles. On the other hand, two wheeled
vehicles such as bicycles, mopeds and motorcy-
cles are extremely fuel efficient. However,
these two wheeled vehicles are primarily single
passenger vehicles with limited cargo space.
In addition, these two wheeled vehicles expose
the passenger to,bad weather which makes them
unsatisfactory for the majority of the driving
public. Therefore, a need exists for vehicles
which are designed to carry one or two passen-
gers with some of the space and comfort af-
forded by standard four wheeled vehicles and
significantly greater fuel efficiency. It is
natural, therefore, to consider three wheeled
vehicles as a means to achieve this goal.
45
Jeffrey C. Huston and Brian J. Graves
Iowa State Univ.
Ames, IA
David B. Johnson
J. Y. Taylor Mfg. Co.
Garland, TX
Numerous papers have been published con-
cerning the stability of both four wheeled and
two wheeled vehicles; it is surprising, how-
ever, that no papers have been published con-
cerning the stability of three wheeled vehi-
cles. The purpose of this paper is to develop
some important but basic relationships which
will help the automotive and recreational
vehicle designer understand the dynamic sta-
bility of three wheeled vehicles.
This paper compares a three wheeled vehi-
cle with two wheels on the front axle, a three
wheeled vehicle with two wheels on the rear
axle, and a standard four wheeled vehicle.
Geometrical relationships are determined and
discussed for each vehicle's lateral stability,
rollover stability during lateral acceleration,
rollover stability while braking in a turn, and
rollover stability while accelerating in a
turn.
LATERAL STABILITY
The first problem is determining the
lateral stability of each of the three vehicles
under consideration. The models used for the
four wheeled vehicle, the three wheeled vehicle
with two wheels on the front axle, and the
three wheeled vehicle with two wheels on the
rear axle are shown in Figs. 1, 2 and 3, res-
pectively. A zero-width vehicle, commonly
referred to as the bicycle model, with the
appropriate number of wheels per axle is
assumed for each of the three vehicles. The
wheels are located on the center line of the
vehicle with the front axle located a distance
.2 in front of the center of mass and the rear
1
axle located a distance 2 behind the center of
2
mass. The resultant lateral force exerted on
the tire by the road is assumed to act perpen-
dicularly to the plane of the wheel directly
below the wheel center.
For the specific case of constant-speed
straight line motion, the following assumptions
can be made: 1) the steer angle is zero, 2)
there are no tractive, braking, or rolling
resistance forces, 3) the speed in the x direc-
tion is constant (V = constant), and 4) all
second or higher order terms of the variables
are small compared to the first order terms and
can thus be neglected.
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V
y

Fig. 1 - Four wheeled vehicle model. Fig. 3 - Three wheeled vehicle model with two
wheels on rear axle

x
22 1 c ed + 2e2car
6 +
z z V

291 C cif - 222Gar

V = 0 (2)
V
x

where

m = the total mass of the vehicle

I = the moment of inertia of the

z
vehicle with respect to a
vertical axis through the mass
center

V = the speed of the vehicle in the

x
x direction

V = the speed of the vehicle in the

Fig. 2 - Three wheeled vehicle model with two y direction
wheels on front axle
0 = the rotational (yaw) speed of
z
the vehicle about the vertical
axis

Given the assumptions listed above, the C C = the cornering stiffness of each
equations of motion governing the behavior of ctf' Ur
tire associated with the front
the four wheeled vehicle (Fig. 1) can be writ- and rear axles, respectively.
ten [1,21*
To ensure lateral stability for the four
0.7 0 + 22 1 Caf - 222Cur wheeled vehicle, the roots of the character-
Q istic equation of the above differential equa-
y x z
+ ( Vx tions must be negative. The characteristic
equation for the four wheeled vehicle is
2Caf + 2Car
V = 0 (1)
V
x *Numbers in brackets designate References
at end of paper.

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2 +( 1) 1
X
where K is the understeer coe cient which is
m equal tous
= 0(3)
K = Wf _ Wr (9)
where us \ C uf Cur

2C
uf
+ 2C
ar Eqs. (1)-(9) are quite well known and are
Vx presented here so that ready comparisons can be
made between them and the corresponding equa-
tions associated with the lateral stability of
2C
a
- 2C ar 2 2 three wheeled vehicles.
b 2 = mV x + Vx The equations of motion governing the be-
havior of the three wheeled vehicle with two
wheels on the front axle (Fig. 2) can be writ-
2C af 2 1 - 2C ar g 2 ten as
b3 Vx
22. C - 2 C
mV + mV + 1 cif 2 ur 0
and y x V x z
(
2 (2C cif +ar )
2C
af 21 2 + 2C
ur2. 2
b4 (7) V=0 (10)
Vx Vx

One way to check the stability of a system

without actually solving for the roots of the 2220 12c
characteristic equation is to use the Routh- 1 uf 2 ar
Izâz + Vx z
Hurwitz criterion [3]. One requirement, which
is a necessary but not a sufficient condition
for stability, is that all of the coefficients (22 1 Ccif - 22Cur)
of the characteristic equation be positive. If V=0
Vx
any of these coefficients is zero or negative,
there are existing roots on either the imag-
inary axis or in the right half of the complex The characteristic equation for the above dif-
it-plane. It can be shown by means of the ferential equation is
Routhian array that the above requirement is a
sufficient condition for stability when the (cicze c2c3)
2 +(1 + c4 X
X = 0
characteristic equation is a quadratic. In- m I z I z m
spection of Eq. (3) reveals that the only (12)
coefficient that can ever become zero or nega-
tive is the coefficient for the zeroth-order
term. By means of algebraic manipulation, the where
condition that this coefficient be positive may
be written 2C +C
af ar
c
1 Vx
V x 2 f
L + g Cuf - Cur >0 (7) 22 C - 2. C
I 2 ur
c 2 = mV x + Vx
where
22 C - 2 C
= the total distance between the 1 af 2 sir
L
front and rear axles (2 1 + 2 2 ) V

g = the gravitational constant and

= the weight on each tire associated 2
with the front and rear axles, 22 21C
af
+ C
2 ar
respectively. c4 Vx (16)

The speed at which the four wheeled vehicle be-

comes unstable can be determined by setting Eq. To determine the stability of the three
(7) equal to zero. This speed, called the wheeled vehicle with two wheels on the front
critical speed, can be expressed as axle, the procedure used to determine the
stability of the four wheeled vehicle is fol-
lowed. Thus, the coefficient of the zeroth
V . = 1,11(-gL
crlt (8) order term of the characteristic equation must
us be positive for stability to exist. After a

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few algebraic manipulations, this condition may The relationships governing the lateral
be expressed as stability of the three vehicles under consider-
ation are found in Eqs. (7), (17), and (25).
2
V (W W It is readily apparent that these equations are
r
L + 2 C f -) > 0 (17) identical. However, the weight distribution
g
Car for each vehicle is different. For the four
wheeled vehicle, the load on each of the front
Similarly, the equations of motion govern- and rear tires, respectively, is
ing the constant-speed straight line motion of
the three wheeled vehicle with two wheels on Wk
2 W21
the rear axle can be written as and W (26)
f = 2L r=
C -
V 22. C ) For the three wheeled vehicle with two wheels
2 ar
inC7 + mV 1 on the front axle, the load on each of the
y x+
x front and rear tires is
(C + 2C ) Wk W2
af tit 2 1
V=0 (18) W and W = L (27)
V f= r
x
For the three wheeled vehicle with two wheels
on the rear axle, the load on each of the front
o 2 r + lo2r
• + -1-af and rear tires is
I zOz +
V
xz W2 W2 1
2
= --- and W= • (28)
Wf L r 2L
(* Cal 2220ar)
V=0 (19)
V Equations (7), (17), and (25), in conjunc-
x
tion with Eqs. (26), (27), and (28), respec-
The characteristic equation for this system of tively, can be used to establish fundamental
differential equations is design conditions that must be satisfied to
ensure stability. To develop these conditions,
2 (di d d d - d d ) assume that the cornering stiffness can be
4A l 4 2 3 expressed in the following analytical form
A+ - 0
m I 1 m [4,5):
z z (20)

C = (A - BW)W (29)
a t
where
where
+ 2C
C af Ur
d (21) C = the cornering stiffness per tire
1= V a
X
W = the normal load on that tire
2. C - 22. C t
1 2 ar
d = mV (22) A,B = positive constants dependent upon
2 x+ V
x the tire's properties.
k C - 2k2Car The design condition for the four wheeled
1
(23) vehicle can be found by combining Eqs. (29),
V
x (26), and (9). Thus,
and W BW(k - 2 )
f W r 2 1
K
2 2 us C C 2L(A - BW I )(4 - BWr)
1C + 22 C af ar
af 2 ar
(24)
V Z 0 (30)
x

In order for the three wheeled vehicle Because the cornering stiffness is always posi-
with two wheels on the rear axle to be stable, tive, Eq. (30) leads to the well known condi-
the zeroth order term of the characteristic tion for lateral stability of a four wheeled
equation must be positive. By means of a few vehicle:
algebraic manipulations it can be shown that
this condition becomes 2  2 or 2 > (31)
2 - I 2=2
2
V (W Consequently, lateral stability is ensured if
F W
- r >0
L + (25) the vehicle's mass center is located in the
g C C
of ar front half of the vehicle.

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By substituting Eqs. (29) and (27) into
Eq. (9), the design condition for the three
wheeled vehicle with two wheels on the front
axle can be found. Thus,
W BW(2 - 221)
f W r 2 1
K -
us C C 2L(A - BW )(A - BW )
af ar f
which leads to
22 or a
2 - 1 2 - 3
Therefore, in order to ensure the lateral
stability of a three wheeled vehicle with two
wheels in the front, the mass center must be
located somewhere in the front third of the
vehicle.
Finally, the design condition associated
with the three wheeled vehicle with two wheels
on the rear axle can be found by combining Eqs.
(29), (28), and (9). Thus,
BW(22 2 - 21)
K - (34)
us 2L(A - BW f )(A - BWr)
which leads to the condition that
2 1 2 Or 2 1L
2 2 1 2 3
Consequently, lateral stability is ensured
provided that the mass center is located in the
front two thirds of the vehicle.
The lateral stability conditions developed
in the preceding analysis are summarized in
Table 1.
To illustrate the importance of the hori-
zontal location of the vehicle's center of
mass, the critical speeds associated with the
four wheeled vehicle and both three wheeled
vehicles were obtained for various mass center
locations. Each vehicle was assumed to have a
mass, m, of 500 kilograms (z 1100 lbs), a wheel
base, L, of 2 meters, and identical tires.
Figure 4 shows a graph, marked by triangles, of
the cornering stiffness versus normal load for
r
a B78-13 bias belted tire inflated to 28 psi at
(32) a 1' slip angle [6]. These five data points,
together with the requirement that the cor-
nering stiffness be zero when the normal load
is zero, were used to obtain, by means of a
least squares curve fitting technique, numer-
L (33) ical values for the constants A and B of Eq.
(29). The resulting values
A = 16.3
a
1
and B = 0.00160
Nrad
(36)
are used to generate the theoretical curve,
marked by circles, shown in Fig. 4. Table 2
0 lists critical speeds associated with the three
different vehicles. In order to achieve abso-
lute lateral stability (V r r = co) notice that
the three wheeled vehicle with two wheels on
the front axle allows the smallest acceptable
region for center of mass location whereas the
(35) three wheeled vehicle with two wheels on the
rear axle allows the largest acceptable region
for center of mass location.
Although the vehicle models used here do
not include roll freedom, suspension effects,
driver control, time delays, lateral normal
load transfers or nonlinearities, the resultant
lateral stability/critical speed equations lead
to fundamental design conditions that must be
considered.

Table 1 - Center of Mass Requirements for Lateral Stability

Three Wheeled Vehicle Three Wheeled Vehicle

Four Wheeled Vehicle 2 Wheels Front 2 Wheels Rear

Required condition L
for Positive Understeer - 2 -
22 - 2 22 - 3 2 - 3
K 0
US

Table 2 - Comparison of Critical Speeds for Four and Three Wheeled Vehicles

Three Wheeled Vehicle Three Wheeled Vehicle

Center of Four Wheeled Vehicle 2 Wheels Front 2 Wheels Rear
Mass Location (m/sec) (m/sec) (m/sec)

2 = 1/4L
1
2 = 1/3L
1
= 1/2L 42
2.1 = 2/3L 55 29
1 = 3/4L 45 25 61

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45

40 —
F = -2C a
yf uf f
m
s-
' and F = -2C a (39)
yr Ur r
0
30— Solving for the slip angles in Eq. (39) and
x
substituting the resultant relationship, to-
LEGEND gether with Eqs. (26) and (38), into Eq. (37),
,̀" 25—
results in the steer angle expression
U- a THEORETICAL
0 EXPERIMENTAL +/W Wr ) V2
N 20 — f
z 6 = L (40)
f R \Cuf Cur gR
W 15 "
0
L)D For the three wheeled vehicle with two wheels
on the front axle, the lateral forces can be
tJ- expressed as

F = -2 Cafaf
Yf

and F = -C (41)
yr Ur r
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
W
3 After Eqs. (27), (38) and (41) are substituted
TIRE NORMAL LOAD x 10 (N)
into Eq. (37), the resulting expression for the
Fig. 4 - Tire cornering stiffness vesus normal steer angle is
load for a B78-13 Bias belted tire
inflated to 28 psi at 1° slip angle W ) 2
L ( W f r V
(40)
STEADY TURNING BEHAVIOR R C C gR
uf ur

Next, consider the steady turning behavior This is the same as the expression found for
of an automobile. It is assumed that the the four wheeled vehicle case. Performing the
vehicle is negotiating a curve of a given same procedure for the three wheeled vehicle
radius, R, at some given speed, V (1,21. The with two wheels on the rear axle results in the
information sought is the steer angle, df, same expression for the steer angle, Eq. (40).
associated with the assumed steady turn. Whenever the understeer coefficient in Eq.
Geometry shows that the steer angle may be (40) is zero, the vehicle is said to have the
represented as property of neutral steer. This condition
occurs when the mass center is located at a
distance of L/2 from the front axle for the
d = -a + a + I (37)
f f r R four wheeled vehicle, at a distance of L/3 from
the front axle for the three wheeled vehicle
where a and a represent the front and rear with two front wheels, and at a distance of
f r
tire slip angles, respectively. When a vehicle 2L/3 from the front axle for the three wheeled
negotiates a curve, an inertia force is devel- vehicle with two rear wheels.
oped that must be balanced by the lateral
forces F and F . The lateral forces on the ROLLOVER STABILITY DURING LATERAL ACCELERATION
Vf vr
front ana rear tires are proportional to the
weight distribution on the front and rear In this section geometrical relationships
axles, respectively; the total lateral force governing the rollover stability during a
equals the inertia force. Thus, these forces lateral acceleration are derived for the four
can be written (L = 2 + 2 ) wheeled vehicle and both three wheeled vehi-
1 2
cles. This lateral acceleration, which may be
22 caused by such occurrences as a windgust or a
WV 2
F = - -- steady turn maneuver, is assumed to act perpen-
yf g R L
dicular to the center line of the vehicle.
22 Figures 5, 6, and 7 illustrate the top and rear
'W V 1 views of the four wheeled vehicle, the three
and F - (38)
L wheeled vehicle with two wheels on the front
axle, and the three wheeled vehicle with two
The lateral forces, F f and F r , can also be wheels on the rear axle, respectively. In all
defined in terms of tiCe tire Yornering stiff- figures, the TT axis represents the axis of
nesses, C af and C , and the tire slip angles, tipping. To ensure rollover stability, a
and u . For tRE four wheeled vehicle, which negative clockwise moment about the TT axis, as
r
ha s two wheels per axle, the lateral forces may viewed from the rear of the vehicle, must
also be expressed as exist.

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I V x T

REAR VIEW
W
REAR VIEW s

Fig. 5 - Four wheeled vehicle model, lateral Fig. 6 - Three wheeled vehicle model with two
acceleration wheels on the front axle, lateral
acceleration

Consider the four wheeled vehicle model in long as the coefficient of friction, p, has a
Fig. 5. Summing moments about the TT axis value less than b/2h, the vehicle will slide
yields laterally before it overturns. For most four
wheeled vehicles, the term b/2h is greater than
one. In contrast, the coefficient of friction,
(71.‘ 2M =b + -W
W ah 0 - -(42)
TT 2 g p, is always less than one. Therefore, most
four wheeled vehicles are ensured of rollover
which can be rewritten as stability. However, this does not mean that
vehicle rollover can never occur. For in-
a < b stance, if the vehicle hits a curb while
- (43)
g 2h sliding laterally, the lateral force then
becomes infinite, causing the vehicle to over-
Summing forces in the lateral direction reveals turn.
that Next consider the three wheeled vehicle
model with two wheels on the front axle shown
in Fig. 6. Summing moments about the tipping
•-g =
a F
y
< pW (44)
axis, TT, gives

which implies that
Ca
E 711 = -W k sine + - ah cose < 0 (46)
TT 2
-a < p (45) This relationship can be rewritten

where p is the coefficient of friction that 2

a < 2
exists between the tire and road surface. As - tane (4 7)
g E

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Wa
g
h V = ,NIB1112
F
yr
REAR VIEW
Fig. 7 - Three wheeled vehicle model with two
wheels on the rear axle, lateral
acceleration
Notice that 8 is a function of the geometry of
the vehicle. Thus, it can be shown that
tan8 =
a To illustrate this point further, assume
Substituting Eq. (48) into Eq. (47) yields the
following rollover stability condition for the
three wheeled vehicle with two front tires:
a b2
< f
Since 2 is always less than L, the three
2 center of mass location is moved from front to
wheeled vehicle requires less lateral accelera-
tion to overturn than the corresponding four
wheeled vehicle.
For the three wheeled vehicle with two
wheels on the rear axle, as illustrated in Fig.
7, the rollover stability condition after
summing moments about the TT axis is
a < b1
(50)
g 2h L
This condition also results in a less stable
condition than that found for the corresponding
four wheeled vehicle.
To obtain some physical feeling for the
conditions that might cause overturning, con-
sider that each of the above vehicles is nego-
tiating a curve of radius R. The corresponding
lateral acceleration for this case can be
expressed in terms of the vehicle forward
speed, V, and the turning radius, R, as
2
V
a = (51)
R
Substituting Eq. (51) into the rollover sta-
bility equations for the four wheeled vehicle
(43), the three wheeled vehicle with two front
wheels (49), and the three wheeled vehicle with
two rear wheels (50) yields an equation for the
vehicle's forward speed at which rollover
occurs. These rollover speed equations are
represented by
(52)
ro vv 2h
for the four wheeled vehicle, by
gRb2
2
V (53)
ro 2hL
for the three wheeled vehicle withtwo front
wheels, and by
I
gRb2i
V = (54)
r0 2hL
for the three wheeled vehicle with two rear
wheels. Notice, that since 2 and 2 are
1 2
always less than L, the speeds at which roll-
over occurs for the three wheeled vehicles will
always be lower than those for the corres-
ponding four wheeled vehicles.
(48)
that each vehicle has the following parameter
values: a wheel base, L, of 2 meters; a track
width, b, of 1.25 meters; and a center of mass
height, h, of 0.6 meters. In addition, assume
that each vehicle is negotiating the same turn
with a radius of curvature, R, of 100 meters.
(49) The speeds at which rollover occurs for each
vehicle as a function of its mass center loca-
tion are listed in Table 3. Note that as the
back on the three wheeled vehicle with two front
wheels, the vehicle's rollover speed decreases.
The converse is true for the three wheeled
vehicle with two rear wheels. Also note that
the rollover speed for the four wheeled vehicle
is independent of its mass center location.
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Table 3 - Rollover Speeds for Steady Turning (m/sec)

Center of Three Wheeled Vehicle Three Wheeled Vehicle

Mass Location Four Wheeled Vehicle Two Front Wheels Two Rear Wheels

= L/4, 2 2 = 3L/4 32.0 27.7 16.0

21 = L/3, R. = 2L/3 32.0 26.1 18.5
2 22.6
= L/2, 22 L/2 32.0 22.6
21 = 2L/3 k= L/3 32.0 18.5 26.1
2
21 = 3L/4, 22 = L/4 32.0 16.0 27.7
1

ROLLOVER STABILITY WHILE ACCELERATING IN A TURN

Next consider the rollover stability case

when each vehicle is accelerating while nego-
tiating a steady turn. Figures 8, 9, and 10
show the four wheeled vehicle, the three
wheeled vehicle with two front wheels, and the
three wheeled vehicle with two rear wheels,
respectively, in this particular situation. In
each figure the symbol A represents the inertia
force vector caused by he longitudinal ac-
celeration, the symbol E represents the inertia
force vector caused by the lateral acceleration
resulting from the steady turn, and thg symbol
2 represents the resultant of vectors A and .
Ihe magnitudes of the inertia force vec-
tors A and E can be written

A = I XI = Va (55)
8

and

E = - (56) Fig. 9 - Three wheeled vehicle model with two

gR
wheels on the front axle, accelerating
in a turn

s
A-----

2 -1
4

T
Fig. 10 - Three wheeled vehicle model with two
Fig. 8 - Four wheeled vehicle model, wheels on rear axle, accelerating in
a turn
accelerating in a turn

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where The rollover speed expression of Eq. (59) is

more accurate than the one obtained earlier for
W = the total weight of the vehicle, steady turning, Eq. (52), since Eq. (59) incor-
porates the effects of the geometry of the
g = the gravitational constant, curve as represented by the angle y.
For both three wheeled vehicle models,
a = the longitudinal acceleration, obtaining a closed form expression for the
speed at which rollover occurs is impossible
V = the forward speed of the vehicle, because of the geometry of the problem. Take,
for example, the three wheeled vehicle with two
R = the radius of the turn. wheels on the front axle. It can be seen from
Fig. 9 that an expression for the resultant
The angles y, 0, 0, a, and p shown in Figs. 8, inertia force vector, Z, can be written as
9, and 10 can be defined as follows
2 = E cosy I + (E sing - A) 3 (60)
y = the angle between the line drawn from
the center of curvature to the vehi- The magnitude of this vector relationship is
cle's center of mass and the line
drawn from the center of curvature to = [A2 + E 2 - 2AE siny] 112 (61)
Z =
the vehicle's rear axle;
Geometrically it can be seen from Fig. 9 that
0 = the angle between the center line of
the vehicle and the tipping axis, TT -1 E siny - A
(note that 0 is undefined for the four $ = tan
E cosy
wheeled vehicle since these axes are
parallel);
0 = tan (6 3)
-1 (b2L)
= the angle between the resultant vec-
tor Z and the x axis;
and
a = Vie angle between the resultant vector (64)
= -
Z and the line drawn perpendicular to
the tipping axis through the mass cen- The rollover stability equation can now be ob-
ter of the three wheeled vehicle with tained by summing moments about the tipping
two front wheels; and axis, TT. Thus,
S = Vie angle between the resultant vector /N = Moose/ - W2 sine < 0 (65)
Z and the line drawn perpendicular to TT 2
the tipping axis through the mass cen-
which can be reexpressed as
ter of the three wheeled vehicle with
two rear wheels. 2
Wb 2
Z cos y < (66)
As in the case of rollover stability for later- 2h 1/2
2 2
al acceleration, the clockwise moment about the [L + 0/2) ]
tipping axis, TT, as viewed from the rear of
the vehicle, must be negative to ensure roll- where
over stability while accelerating in a turn.
For the four wheeled vehicle model, it can b/2
(67)
be seen from Fig. 8 that the inertia forc5 sine - 1/2
2 2
caused by the longitudinal acceleration, A, is [L + (b/2) ]
parallel to the axis of tipping, and therefore
does not contribute to the rollover stability By a similar procedure it can be shown that the
equation. Summing moments about the axis of rollover stability equation governing the three
tip, TT, results in wheeled vehicle model with two wheels in the
rear (Fig. 10) is
IM = Ehcosy - Wb < 0 (57)
TT 2 2
Wb 1
Z cosp (68)
2h 1/2
or the condition that 2 2
[L + (b/2) ]
Wb
E< (58) where
2hcosy

for rollover stability. Substituting Eq. (56) = ÷ 0

into Eq. (58) results in an expression for the
Equations (66) and (68) can be solved numer-
speed at which rollover occurs. Thus,
ically to obtain the speed that causes roll-
gRb
over.
V = (59)
ro Ni2hcosy

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Table 4 - Rollover Speeds for Accelerating in a Turn (m/sec)

Center of Three Wheeled Vehicle Three Wheeled Vehicle

Mass Location Four Wheeled Vehicle Two Front Wheels Two Rear Wheels

=
2 L/4 , 2= 3L/4 32.0 26.3 18.1
21 = 2
L/3 , 2= 2L/3 32.0 24.6 20.4
21 = 2
L/2, 2, = L/2 32.0 20.9 24.2
21
1
= 2L/3 , t = L/3 32.0 16.2 27.4
2
2 = 3L/4 222 = L/4 32.0 13.4 29.0
1 '

Now consider the following problem. (70)
D=1 5 1 = d
Assume that each vehicle is negotiating a turn
with a 100 m radius of curvature and that each To obtain the resultant vector, 1, and its
vehicle is accelerating at a rate of 0.25 g's. orientation angle, 0, for the braking in a turn
Also assume that each vehicle has the same case, replace the inertia acceleration force,
parameter values used previously in the roll- A, in Eqs. (60), (61), and (62) with the nega-
over stability/lateral acceleration problem. tive of the above inertia braking force, -D.
The rollover speeds associated with each vehi- As in the accelerating in a turn case, the
cle as a function of its mass center location inertia force caused by braking for the four
for the case of accelerating in a turn are wheeled vehicle model is again parallel to the
listed in Table 4. Note that the rollover axis of tipping and therefore does not contri-
speeds associated with the four wheeled vehicle bute to the rollover stability equation. Thus
are independent of the vehicle's mass center the stability condition is the same as that
location and that these values are the same as found previously, i.e.,
those found for the lateral acceleration case.
For the three wheeled vehicle with two front Wb
wheels, the rollover speeds are lower in the E< (58)
2h cosy
accelerating in a turn case than in the pre-
vious lateral acceleration case. The inverse The expression for the speed that causes the
is true for the three wheeled vehicle with two four wheeled vehicle to overturn is
rear wheels. Here a slight increase in the
rollover speeds is seen. gRb
V (59)
These results could have been predicted by ro A/2h cosy
comparing the angle between the resultant
vector, Z, and the axis of tipping, TT, for the
three wheeled vehicles shown in Figs. 9 and 10.
For the three wheeled vehicle with two wheels
on the front axle, Fig. 9, it is obvious that
the rollover speecs will be lower since the
resultant vector, 2, is nearly perpendicular to
the axis of tipping. This situation results in
a larger overturning moment. On the other
hand, the three wheeled vehicle with two wheels
Sn the rear, Fig. 10, has a resultant vector,
Z, that is almost parallel to the axis of
tipping. This results in a small overturning
moment and, consequently, higher rollover
speeds.

ROLLOVER STABILITY WHILE BRAKING IN A TURN

In this last section the rollover sta-

bility for the four wheeled vehicle, the three
wheeled vehicle with two front wheels, and the
three wheeled vehicle with two rear wheels is
considered for the case of braking in a turn.
Figures 11, 12, and 13 illustrate the vector
mechanics involved in this problem for each of
he above vehicles, respectively. The symbols
E and 2 and the angles y, 0, 0, 0, and a shown
in Figs. 11, 12, and 13 are the same as those
defined in the preceding section describing he T
accelerating in a turn problem. The symbol D
represents the inertia force vector caused by
braking. The magnitude of this vector can be Fig. 11 - Four wheeled vehicle model, braking
written in a turn

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Following the same procedure used in the

accelerating in a turn problem results in the
rollover stability conditions governing the
three wheeled vehicle models. For the three
wheeled vehicle with two wheels on the front
axle (Fig. 12), the rollover stability equation
is

2
Wb 2
2 cos& < (71)
2h, 1/2
+ (b/2)4]

where the angle is defined as

= m + 6 (72)

For the three wheeled vehicle with two wheels

on the rear axle (Fig. 13), the rollover sta-
bility equation is

2
Wb
Z cos p < (73)
2h 1/2
2
[1. + (b/2) 2 ]

where the angle p is now defined as

P = (I) - e (74)

Equations (71) and (73) can be solved

Fig. 12 - Three wheeled vehicle model with two
wheels on the front axle, braking in
a turn
Fig. 13 - Three wheeled vehicle model with two
wheels on the rear axle, braking in
a turn
numerically to obtain the vehicle's forward
speed that causes rollover.
Consider now an example where each vehicle
is braking while negotiating a turn. Assume
that the conditions used in the preceding
section still apply, except now each vehicle is
braking with an acceleration of -0.25 g's.
Table 5 lists the corresponding rollover speeds
associated with each vehicle as a function of
its mass center location. The rollover speeds
for the four wheeled vehicle are again the same
as those found earlier for the lateral acceler-
ation and the accelerating in a turn cases.
But the results for the two three wheeled
vehicles are completely opposite to those found
for the accelerating in a turn case. Here a
slight increase in the rollover speeds for the
three wheeled vehicle with two front wheels is
seen.
Again, these results could have been pre-
dicted by comparing the angle between the re-
sultant vector, 2, and the axis of tipping, TT,
for the three wheeled vehicles shown in Figs.
12 and 13. For the three wheeled vehicle with
two wheels on the front axle, Fig. 12, it is
obvious that the rollover speeds will be higher
since the resultant vector, 2, is nearly paral-
lel to the tipping axis. This situation re-
sults in a smaller overturning moment. On the
other hand, the three wheeled vehicle with two
wheels on the rear axle, Fig. 13, has a resul-
tant vector, I, that is nearly perpendicular to
the tipping axis. This results in a larger
overturning moment and, consequently, lower
rollover speeds.

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Table 5 - Rollover Speeds for Braking in a Turn (m/sec)
Center of
Mass Location Four Wheeled Vehicle
2 = L/4, = 3L/4 32.0
2
2 1 = L/3, .2 = 2L/3 32.0
2
= L/2, 22 L/2 32.0
21 = 2L/3 t = L/3 32.0
2
2 1 = 3L/4, 2 = L/4 32.0
21 2
CONCLUSIONS
In this paper lateral and rollover sta-
bility relationships governing four wheeled and
three wheeled vehicles have been presented and
compared. For the lateral stability case it
was shown that the relationship governing both
three wheeled vehicles was the same as the
classical lateral stability solution for the
four wheeled vehicle. This result can be
deceiving since the region where each vehicle's
mass center must be located to achieve absolute
lateral stability is different. For example,
it was shown that the three wheeled vehicle
with two wheels on the front axle must have its
mass center located in the front third of the
vehicle, whereas the center of mass location
for the four wheeled vehicle must be in its
front half. For the three wheeled vehicle with
two rear wheels, the mass center may be located
anywhere in the front two thirds of the vehi-
cle.
With regard to rollover stability, it was
shown that the three wheeled vehicles are more
susceptible to rollover than the four wheeled
vehicle. It was also shown that as long as the
four wheeled vehicle's track width is greater
than twice its center of mass height, it will
slide laterally before overturning regardless
of the type of acceleration encountered. Both
three wheeled vehicles have a rollover sta-
bility relationship similar to that of the four
wheeled vehicle; however, for the three wheeled
vehicles this relationship is more complex and
dependent upon each vehicle's mass center
location in the horizontal plane. For in-
stance, in the case of steady state turning,
the closer the mass center is to the axle with
two wheels, the more stable each vehicle be-
comes with regard to rollover. Comparing the
governing relationships for each of the three
vehicles, it was evident that a less stable
condition exists for the three wheeled vehi-
cles.
It was also shown that for the case where
each vehicle is accelerating in a turn, the
three wheeled vehicle with two wheels on the
rear axle is more stable for rollover than the
three wheeled vehicle with two wheels on the
front axle. The converse is true for braking
in a turn. Here the three wheeled vehicle with
two front wheels is more stable than the three
wheeled vehicle with two rear wheels. In both
of the above cases, the location of the vehi-
cle's mass center has an effect on the rollover
speeds.
57
Three Wheeled Vehicle Three Wheeled Vehicle
Two Front Wheels Two Rear Wheels
29.1 13.1
27.5 16.2
24.2 20.8
20.4 24.6
18.2 26.2
Based upon the lateral stability and
rollover stability relationships developed in
this paper, the following design guidelines are
recommended. To ensure lateral stability for
the situation of constant speed straight line
motion, it is recommended that the three
wheeled vehicle with two wheels on the front
axle be designed so that its mass center is
located in the front third of the vehicle and
that the three wheeled vehicle with two wheels
on the rear axle be designed so that its mass
center is located in the front two thirds of
the vehicle. Although constant speed straight
line motion is the most common driving situa-
tion, other routinely encountered driving
situations must also be studied. Comprehensive
design recommendations must take into account a
vehicle's limit behavior and its lateral sta-
bility while changing lanes, braking and ac-
celerating in a straight line, braking and
accelerating while negotiating a turn, and
performing avoidance maneuvers. In addition,
the recommendations made in this paper are
based upon the bicycle models shown in Figs.
1-3; consequently, further studies should
strive to incorporate roll freedom and driver
control into the models.
To ensure a rollover resistance approxi-
mately equivalent to that of the four wheeled
vehicle in the case of steady turning behavior,
it is recommended that the three wheeled vehi-
cle with two wheels on the front axle be de-
signed so that the ratio of half of the track
width to center of mass height, b/2h, is in-
creased by a factor of L/2,. For the three
wheeled vehicle with two wheels on the rear
axle, it is recommended that this ratio, b/2h,
be increased by a factor L/2 1 . If the above
recommendations are followed, the three wheeled
vehicle with two wheels on the front axle will
have a slightly higher rollover resistance
compared to that of the four wheeled vehicle in
the case of braking in a turn and a slightly
lower rollover resistance for the case of
accelerating in a turn. The converse is true
for the three wheeled vehicle with two wheels
on the rear axle.
In conclusion, the analysis done to date
suggests that three wheeled vehicles offer a
safe, efficient alternative to traditional four
wheeled vehicles. Ongoing research into the
dynamic behavior of three wheeled vehicles will
furnish additional design recommendations that
should further establish the viability of three
wheeled vehicles.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
4. W. Bergman, "Critical Review of the State-
Support for this work was provided by the of-the-Art in the Tire Force and Moment
Engineering Research Institute, Iowa State Measurements," "SAE Trans.," Vol. 86,
University. Paper No. 770331, pp. 1436-1450, 1977.

REFERENCES 5. J. C. Huston, and D. B. Johnson, "Effect

1. J. R. Ellis, "Vehicle Dynamics," Business
Books, London, 1969.
2. J. Y. Wong, "Theory of Ground Vehicles,"
John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1978.
3. F. J. Hale, "Introduction to Control Sys-
tems Analysis and Design," Prentice-Hall,
Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1973.
of the Normal Force Dependence of Corner-
ing Stiffness on the Lateral Stability of
Recreational Vehicles," "SAE Trans.," Vol.
89, pp. 999-1005, Paper No. 800161, 1980.
6. P. J. Sekula, G. L. Hall, G. R. Potts, and
F. S. Conaut, "Dynamic Indoor Tire Testing
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Science and Technology," Vol. 4, No. 2,
pp. 66-85, 1976.

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