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Kinetic art
Kinetic art is art from any medium that contains movement
perceivable by the viewer or depends on motion for its effect. Canvas
paintings that extend the viewer's perspective of the artwork and
incorporate multidimensional movement are the earliest examples of
kinetic art.[1] More pertinently speaking, kinetic art is a term that
today most often refers to three-dimensional sculptures and figures
such as mobiles that move naturally or are machine operated (see e. g.
videos on this page of works of George Rickey, Uli Aschenborn and
Sarnikoff). The moving parts are generally powered by wind, a
motor[2] or the observer. Kinetic art encompasses a wide variety of
overlapping techniques and styles.

There is also a portion of kinetic art that includes virtual movement,

or rather movement perceived from only certain angles or sections of
the work. This term also clashes frequently with the term "apparent George Rickey, Four Squares in
movement", which many people use when referring to an artwork Square Arrangement, 1969,
whose movement is created by motors, machines, or electrically terrace of the New National
powered systems. Both apparent and virtual movement are styles of Gallery, Berlin, Germany, Rickey
kinetic art that only recently have been argued as styles of op art.[3] is considered a kinetic sculptor
The amount of overlap between kinetic and op art is not significant
enough for artists and art historians to consider merging the two
styles under one umbrella term, but there are distinctions that have
yet to be made.

"Kinetic art" as a moniker developed from a number of sources.

Kinetic art has its origins in the late 19th century impressionist
artists such as Claude Monet, Edgar Degas, and Édouard Manet who
originally experimented with accentuating the movement of human
figures on canvas. This triumvirate of impressionist painters all
sought to create art that was more lifelike than their contemporaries.
Degas’ dancer and racehorse portraits are examples of what he
believed to be "photographic realism";.[4] During the late 19th
century artists such as Degas felt the need to challenge the
movement toward photography with vivid, cadenced landscapes and
portraits.

By the early 1900s, certain artists grew closer and closer to ascribing
their art to dynamic motion. Naum Gabo, one of the two artists
attributed to naming this style, wrote frequently about his work as
examples of "kinetic rhythm".[5] He felt that his moving sculpture
Kinetic Construction (also dubbed Standing Wave, 1919–20)[6] was Naum Gabo, Kinetic Construction,
the first of its kind in the 20th century. From the 1920s until the also titled Standing Wave (1919–20)
1960s, the style of kinetic art was reshaped by a number of other
artists who experimented with mobiles and new forms of sculpture.

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Contents
Origins and early development
Édouard Manet
Edgar Degas
Claude Monet
Auguste Rodin
20th century surrealism and early kinetic art
Albert Gleizes
Jackson Pollock
Max Bill
Mobiles and sculpture
Vladimir Tatlin
Alexander Rodchenko
Alexander Calder
Virtual movement
Materials and electricity
Apparent movement and op art
Contemporary work
Selected works
Selected kinetic sculptors
Selected kinetic op artists
See also
References
Further reading
External links

Origins and early development

The strides made by artists to "lift the figures and scenery off the page and prove undeniably that art is
not rigid" (Calder, 1954)[4] took significant innovations and changes in compositional style. Édouard
Manet, Edgar Degas, and Claude Monet were the three artists of the 19th century that initiated those
changes in the Impressionist movement. Even though they each took unique approaches to
incorporating movement in their works, they did so with the intention of being a realist. In the same
period, Auguste Rodin was an artist whose early works spoke in support of the developing kinetic
movement in art. However, Auguste Rodin's later criticisms of the movement indirectly challenged the
abilities of Manet, Degas, and Monet, claiming that it is impossible to exactly capture a moment in time
and give it the vitality that is seen in real life.

Édouard Manet

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It is almost impossible to ascribe Manet's work to any one era or

style of art. One of his works that is truly on the brink of a new style
is Le Ballet Espagnol (1862).[1] The figures' contours coincide with
their gestures as a way to suggest depth in relation to one another
and in relation to the setting. Manet also accentuates the lack of
equilibrium in this work to project to the viewer that he or she is on
the edge of a moment that is seconds away from passing. The
blurred, hazy sense of color and shadow in this work similarly place
the viewer in a fleeting moment.
Édouard Manet, Le Ballet Espagnol
(1862).
In 1863, Manet extended his study of movement on flat canvas with
Le déjeuner sur l'herbe. The light, color, and composition are the
same, but he adds a new structure to the background figures. The
woman bending in the background is not completely scaled as if she were far away from the figures in
the foreground. The lack of spacing is Manet's method of creating snapshot, near-invasive movement
similar to his blurring of the foreground objects in Le Ballet Espagnol.

Edgar Degas

Edgar Degas is believed to be

the intellectual extension of
Manet, but more radical for the
impressionist community.
Degas' subjects are the epitome
of the impressionist era; he
finds great inspiration in images
of ballet dancers and horse
races. His "modern subjects"[7]
At the Races, 1877–1880, oil on
never obscured his objective of
canvas, by Edgar Degas, Musée
creating moving art. In his 1860
d'Orsay, Paris
piece Jeunes Spartiates
s'exerçant à la lutte, he
capitalizes on the classic Edgar Degas, L'Orchestre de
impressionist nudes but expands on the overall concept. He places L'Opera (1868)
them in a flat landscape and gives them dramatic gestures, and for
him this pointed to a new theme of "youth in movement".[8]

One of his most revolutionary works, L’Orchestre de l’Opéra (1868) interprets forms of definite
movement and gives them multidimensional movement beyond the flatness of the canvas. He positions
the orchestra directly in the viewer's space, while the dancers completely fill the background. Degas is
alluding to the Impressionist style of combining movement, but almost redefines it in a way that was
seldom seen in the late 1800s. In the 1870s, Degas continues this trend through his love of one-shot
motion horse races in such works as Voiture aux Courses (1872).

It wasn't until 1884 with Chevaux de Course that his attempt at creating dynamic art came to fruition.
This work is part of a series of horse races and polo matches wherein the figures are well integrated into
the landscape. The horses and their owners are depicted as if caught in a moment of intense deliberation,
and then trotting away casually in other frames. The impressionist and overall artistic community were
very impressed with this series, but were also shocked when they realized he based this series on actual
photographs. Degas was not fazed by the criticisms of his integration of photography, and it actually
inspired Monet to rely on similar technology.
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Claude Monet

Degas and Monet's style was very similar in one way: both of them
based their artistic interpretation on a direct "retinal impression"[1]
to create the feeling of variation and movement in their art. The
subjects or images that were the foundation of their paintings came
from an objective view of the world. As with Degas, many art
historians consider that to be the subconscious effect photography
had in that period of time. His 1860s works reflected many of the
signs of movement that are visible in Degas' and Manet's work.

By 1875, Monet's touch becomes very swift in his new series,

beginning with Le Bâteau-Atelier sur la Seine. The landscape almost
engulfs the whole canvas and has enough motion emanating from its
inexact brushstrokes that the figures are a part of the motion. This
painting along with Gare Saint-Lazare (1877-1878), proves to many
art historians that Monet was redefining the style of the Claude Monet, The Studio Boat (Le
Impressionist era. Impressionism initially was defined by isolating Bateau-atelier) (1876)
color, light, and movement. [7] In the late 1870s, Monet had
pioneered a style that combined all three, while maintaining a focus
on the popular subjects of the Impressionist era. Artists were often so struck by Monet's wispy
brushstrokes that it was more than movement in his paintings, but a striking vibration.[9]

Auguste Rodin

Auguste Rodin at first was very impressed by Monet's 'vibrating works' and Degas' unique understanding
of spatial relationships. As an artist and an author of art reviews, Rodin published multiple works
supporting this style. He claimed that Monet and Degas' work created the illusion "that art captures life
through good modeling and movement".[9] In 1881, when Rodin first sculpted and produced his own
works of art, he rejected his earlier notions. Sculpting put Rodin into a predicament that he felt no
philosopher nor anyone could ever solve; how can artists impart movement and dramatic motions from
works so solid as sculptures? After this conundrum occurred to him, he published new articles that
didn't attack men such as Manet, Monet, and Degas intentionally, but propagated his own theories that
Impressionism is not about communicating movement but presenting it in static form.

20th century surrealism and early kinetic art

The surrealist style of the 20th century created an easy transition into the style of kinetic art. All artists
now explored subject matter that would not have been socially acceptable to depict artistically. Artists
went beyond solely painting landscapes or historical events, and felt the need to delve into the mundane
and the extreme to interpret new styles.[10] With the support of artists such as Albert Gleizes, other
avant-garde artists such as Jackson Pollock and Max Bill felt as if they had found new inspiration to
discover oddities that became the focus of kinetic art.

Albert Gleizes

Gleizes was considered the ideal philosopher of the late 19th century and early 20th century arts in
Europe, and more specifically France. His theories and treatises from 1912 on cubism gave him a
renowned reputation in any artistic discussion. This reputation is what allowed him to act with
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considerable influence when supporting the plastic style or the rhythmic movement of art in the 1910s
and 1920s. Gleizes published a theory on movement, which further articulated his theories on the
psychological, artistic uses of movement in conjunction with the mentality that arises when considering
movement. Gleizes asserted repeatedly in his publications that human creation implies the total
renunciation of external sensation.[1] That to him is what made art mobile when to many, including
Rodin, it was rigidly and unflinchingly immobile.

Gleizes first stressed the necessity for rhythm in art. To him, rhythm meant the visually pleasant
coinciding of figures in a two-dimensional or three-dimensional space. Figures should be spaced
mathematically, or systematically so that they appeared to interact with one another. Figures should also
not have features that are too definite. They need to have shapes and compositions that are almost
unclear, and from there the viewer can believe that the figures themselves are moving in that confined
space. He wanted paintings, sculptures, and even the flat works of mid-19th-century artists to show how
figures could impart on the viewer that there was great movement contained in a certain space. As a
philosopher, Gleizes also studied the concept of artistic movement and how that appealed to the viewer.
Gleizes updated his studies and publications through the 1930s, just as kinetic art was becoming
popular.

Jackson Pollock

When Jackson Pollock created many of his famous works, the United States was already at the forefront
of the kinetic and popular art movements. The novel styles and methods he used to create his most
famous pieces earned him the spot in the 1950s as the unchallenged leader of kinetic painters, his work
was associated with Action painting coined by art critic Harold Rosenberg in the 1950s. Pollock had an
unfettered desire to animate every aspect of his paintings. Pollock repeatedly said to himself, "I am in
every painting".[8] He used tools that most painters would never use, such as sticks, trowels, and knives.
He thought of the shapes he created as being "beautiful, erratic objects".[8]

This style evolved into his drip technique. Pollock repeatedly took buckets of paint and paintbrushes and
flicked them around until the canvas was covered with squiggly lines and jagged strokes. In the next
phase of his work, Pollock tested his style with uncommon materials. He painted his first work with
aluminum paint in 1947, titled Cathedral and from there he tried his first "splashes" to destroy the unity
of the material itself. He believed wholeheartedly that he was liberating the materials and structure of art
from their forced confinements, and that is how he arrived at the moving or kinetic art that always
existed.

Max Bill

Max Bill became an almost complete disciple of the kinetic movement in the 1930s. He believed that
kinetic art should be executed from a purely mathematical perspective. To him, using mathematics
principles and understandings were one of the few ways that you could create objective movement. This
theory applied to every artwork he created and how he created it. Bronze, marble, copper, and brass were
four of the materials he used in his sculptures. He also enjoyed tricking the viewer's eye when he or she
first approached one of his sculptures. In his Construction with Suspended Cube (1935-1936) he created
a mobile sculpture that generally appears to have perfect symmetry, but once the viewer glances at it
from a different angle, there are aspects of asymmetry.

Mobiles and sculpture

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Max Bill's sculptures were only the beginning of the style of movement that kinetic explored. Tatlin,
Rodchenko, and Calder especially took the stationary sculptures of the early 20th century and gave them
the slightest freedom of motion. These three artists began with testing unpredictable movement, and
from there tried to control the movement of their figures with technological enhancements. The term
"mobile" comes from the ability to modify how gravity and other atmospheric conditions affect the
artist's work.[7]

Although there is very little distinction between the styles of mobiles in kinetic art, there is one
distinction that can be made. Mobiles are no longer considered mobiles when the spectator has control
over their movement. This is one of the features of virtual movement. When the piece only moves under
certain circumstances that are not natural, or when the spectator controls the movement even slightly,
the figure operates under virtual movement.

Kinetic art principles have also influenced mosaic art. For instance, kinetic-influenced mosaic pieces
often use clear distinctions between bright and dark tiles, with three-dimensional shape, to create
apparent shadows and movement.[11]

Vladimir Tatlin

Russian artist and founder-member of the Russian Constructivism movement Vladimir Tatlin is
considered by many artists and art historians to be the first person to ever complete a mobile sculpture.
The term mobile wasn't coined until Rodchenko's time, but is very applicable to Tatlin's work. His
mobile is a series of suspended reliefs that only need a wall or a pedestal, and it would forever stay
suspended. This early mobile, Contre-Reliefs Libérés Dans L'espace (1915) is judged as an incomplete
work. It was a rhythm, much similar to the rhythmic styles of Pollock, that relied on the mathematical
interlocking of planes that created a work freely suspended in air.

Tatlin's Tower or the project for the 'Monument to the Third International' (1919–20), was a design for a
monumental kinetic architecture building that was never built.[12] It was planned to be erected in
Petrograd (now St. Petersburg) after the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, as the headquarters and
monument of the Comintern (the Third International).

Tatlin never felt that his art was an object or a product that needed a clear beginning or a clear end. He
felt above anything that his work was an evolving process. Many artists whom he befriended considered
the mobile truly complete in 1936, but he disagreed vehemently.

Alexander Rodchenko

Russian artist Alexander Rodchenko, Tatlin's friends and peer who insisted his work was complete,
continued the study of suspended mobiles and created what he deemed to be "non-objectivism".[1] This
style was a study less focused on mobiles than on canvas paintings and objects that were immovable. It
focuses on juxtaposing objects of different materials and textures as a way to spark new ideas in the
mind of the viewer. By creating discontinuity with the work, the viewer assumed that the figure was
moving off the canvas or the medium to which it was restricted. One of his canvas works titled Dance, an
Objectless Composition (1915) embodies that desire to place items and shapes of different textures and
materials together to create an image that drew in the viewer's focus.

However, by the 1920s and 1930s, Rodchenko found a way to incorporate his theories of non-objectivism
in mobile study. His 1920 piece Hanging Construction is a wood mobile that hangs from any ceiling by a
string and rotates naturally. This mobile sculpture has concentric circles that exist in several planes, but
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the entire sculpture only rotates horizontally and vertically.

Alexander Calder

Alexander Calder is an artist who many believe to have defined firmly and
exactly the style of mobiles in kinetic art. Over years of studying his works,
many critics allege that Calder was influenced by a wide variety of sources.
Some claim that Chinese windbells were objects that closely resembled the
shape and height of his earliest mobiles. Other art historians argue that the
1920s mobiles of Man Ray, including Shade (1920) had a direct influence
on the growth of Calder's art.

When Calder first heard of these claims, he immediately admonished his

critics. "I have never been and never will be a product of anything more
than myself. My art is my own, why bother stating something about my art
Alexander Rodchenko
that isn’t true?"[8] One of Calder's first mobiles, Mobile (1938) was the work
Dance. An Objectless
that "proved" to many art historians that Man Ray had an obvious influence
Composition, 1915
on Calder's style. Both Shade and Mobile have a single string attached to a
wall or a structure that keeps it in the air. The two works have a crinkled
feature that vibrates when air passes through it.

Regardless of the obvious similarities, Calder's style of

mobiles created two types that are now referred to as the
standard in kinetic art. There are object-mobiles and
suspended mobiles. Object mobiles on supports come in
a wide range of shapes and sizes and can move in any
Alexander Calder, Red Mobile, 1956, Painted
way. Suspended mobiles were first made with colored
sheet metal and metal rods, a signature work –
glass and small wooden objects that hung on long
Montreal Museum of Fine Arts
threads. Object mobiles were a part of Calder's emerging
style of mobiles that were originally stationary
sculptures.

It can be argued, based on their similar shape and stance, that Calder's earliest object mobiles have very
little to do with kinetic art or moving art. By the 1960s, most art critics believed that Calder had
perfected the style of object mobiles in such creations as the Cat Mobile (1966).[13] In this piece, Calder
allows the cat's head and its tail to be subject to random motion, but its body is stationary. Calder did not
start the trend in suspended mobiles, but he was the artist that became recognized for his apparent
originality in mobile construction.

One of his earliest suspended mobiles, McCausland Mobile (1933),[14] is different from many other
contemporary mobiles simply because of the shapes of the two objects. Most mobile artists such as
Rodchenko and Tatlin would never have thought to use such shapes because they didn't seem malleable
or even remotely aerodynamic.

Despite the fact that Calder did not divulge most of the methods he used when creating his work, he
admitted that he used mathematical relationships to make them. He only said that he created a balanced
mobile by using direct variation proportions of weight and distance. Calder's formulas changed with
every new mobile he made, so other artists could never precisely imitate the work.

Virtual movement
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By the 1940s, new styles of mobiles, as well as many types of sculpture and paintings, incorporated the
control of the spectator. Artists such as Calder, Tatlin, and Rodchenko produced more art through the
1960s, but they were also competing against other artists who appealed to different audiences. When
artists such as Victor Vasarely developed a number of the first features of virtual movement in their art,
kinetic art faced heavy criticism. This criticism lingered for years until the 1960s, when kinetic art was in
a dormant period.

Materials and electricity

Vasarely created many works that were considered to be interactive in the 1940s. One of his works
Gordes/Cristal (1946) is a series of cubic figures that are also electrically powered. When he first showed
these figures at fairs and art exhibitions, he invited people up to the cubic shapes to press the switch and
start the color and light show. Virtual movement is a style of kinetic art that can be associated with
mobiles, but from this style of movement there are two more specific distinctions of kinetic art.

Apparent movement and op art

Apparent movement is a term ascribed to kinetic art that evolved only in the 1950s. Art historians
believed that any type of kinetic art that was mobile independent of the viewer has apparent movement.
This style includes works that range from Pollock's drip technique all the way to Tatlin's first mobile. By
the 1960s, other art historians developed the phrase "op art" to refer to optical illusions and all optically
stimulating art that was on canvas or stationary. This phrase often clashes with certain aspects of kinetic
art that include mobiles that are generally stationary.[15][16]

In 1955, for the exhibition Mouvements at the Denise René gallery in Paris, Victor Vasarely and Pontus
Hulten promoted in their "Yellow manifesto" some new kinetic expressions based on optical and
luminous phenomenon as well as painting illusionism. The expression "kinetic art" in this modern form
first appeared at the Museum für Gestaltung of Zürich in 1960, and found its major developments in the
1960s. In most European countries, it generally included the form of optical art that mainly makes use of
optical illusions, such as op art, represented by Bridget Riley, as well as art based on movement
represented by Yacov Agam, Carlos Cruz-Diez, Jesús Rafael Soto, Gregorio Vardanega, or Nicolas
Schöffer. From 1961 to 1968, GRAV (Groupe de Recherche d’Art Visuel) founded by François Morellet,
Julio Le Parc, Francisco Sobrino, Horacio Garcia Rossi, Yvaral, Joël Stein and Vera Molnár was a
collective group of opto-kinetic artists. According to its 1963 manifesto, GRAV appealed to the direct
participation of the public with an influence on its behavior, notably through the use of interactive
labyrinths.

Contemporary work
In November 2013, the MIT Museum opened 5000 Moving Parts, an exhibition of kinetic art, featuring
the work of Arthur Ganson, Anne Lilly, Rafael Lozano-Hemmer, John Douglas Powers, and Takis. The
exhibition inaugurates a "year of kinetic art" at the Museum, featuring special programming related to
the artform.[17]

Neo-kinetic art has been popular in China where you can find interactive kinetic sculptures in many
public places, including Wuhu International Sculpture Park and in Beijing.[18]

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Changi Airport, Singapore has a curated collection of artworks (http://www.changiairport.com/en/disco

ver/recommended-itineraries/art-that-delights-the-senses.html) including large-scale kinetic
installations by international artists ART+COM (https://artcom.de/) and Christian Moeller.

Selected works

Lyman Whitaker, The Twister Jesús Raphael Soto, La David Ascalon, Wings to the
Star Huge, a whirligig Esfera, Caracas, Venezuela Heavens, 2008. Fabricated
sculpture and brazed aluminum and
stainless steel cable, Temple
Israel, Memphis, Tennessee

The Bucket Fountain, Wave, Park West, Angela Nicolas Schoeffer Chronos
Wellington, NZ Conner 10B, 1980, Munich

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Yaacov Agam, Sheba Marc van den Broek, Sun Turpin + Crawford Studio,
Medical Center, Israel Writer, 1986, Germany Halo, Sydney, Australia

Uli Aschenborn, turning Uli Aschenborn, if the Uli Aschenborn, Morph-Cube

Sculpture-Morph its shadow
shows the Male Life Cycle,
Namibia
onlooker passes this
‘chameleon-painting’ Magic
Dice it shows 1, 2 or 3 pips
and its colour changes -
sand and paint, Namibia
showing a fish, which
changes if the onlooker
moves, Namibia

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Sarnikoff 'Goldflakes' Mobile

cardboard animated by an
asynchronous motor, also
recycle art to bring spirit in
this contribution France

Selected kinetic sculptors

Yaacov Agam Roger Katan
Uli Aschenborn Starr Kempf
David Ascalon Frederick Kiesler
Fletcher Benton Viacheslav Koleichuk
Mark Bischof Gyula Kosice
Daniel Buren Gilles Larrain
Alexander Calder Julio Le Parc
U-Ram Choe Liliane Lijn
Angela Conner Len Lye
Carlos Cruz-Diez Sal Maccarone
Marcel Duchamp Heinz Mack
Lin Emery Phyllis Mark
Rowland Emett László Moholy-Nagy
Arthur Ganson Alejandro Otero
Nemo Gould Robert Perless
Gerhard von Graevenitz Otto Piene
Bruce Gray George Rickey
Ralfonso Gschwend Ken Rinaldo
Rafael Lozano-Hemmer Barton Rubenstein
Chuck Hoberman Nicolas Schöffer
Anthony Howe Eusebio Sempere
Irma Hünerfauth Jesús Rafael Soto
Tim Hunkin Mark di Suvero
Theo Jansen Takis
Ned Kahn Jean Tinguely

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Wen-Ying Tsai Lyman Whitaker

Marc van den Broek Ludwig Wilding
Panayiotis Vassilakis

Selected kinetic op artists

Nadir Afonso Abraham Palatnik
Getulio Alviani Bridget Riley
Marina Apollonio Eusebio Sempere
Carlos Cruz-Díez Grazia Varisco
Ronald Mallory Victor Vasarely
Youri Messen-Jaschin Jean-Pierre Yvaral
Vera Molnár Wajid Khan (artist)

See also
Gas sculpture Robotic art
Kinegram Sound art
Lumino kinetic art Sound installation

References
1. Popper, Frank (1968). Origins and Development of Kinetic Art. New York Graphic Society.
2. Lijn, Liliane (2018-06-11). "Accepting the Machine: A Response by Liliane Lijn to Three Questions
from Arts" (https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0752/7/2/21). Arts. 7 (2): 21. doi:10.3390/arts7020021 (http
s://doi.org/10.3390%2Farts7020021).
3. Popper, Frank (2003), "Kinetic art", Oxford Art Online, Oxford University Press,
doi:10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.t046632 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgao%2F978188444605
4.article.t046632)
4. Leaper, Laura E. (2010-02-24), "Kinetic art in America", Oxford Art Online, Oxford University Press,
doi:10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.t2085921 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgao%2F97818844460
54.article.t2085921)
5. Popper, Frank. Kinetics.
6. Brett, Guy (1968). Kinetic art. London,New York: Studio-Vista. ISBN 978-0-289-36969-2.
OCLC 439251 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/439251).
7. Kepes, Gyorgy (1965). The Nature and Art of Motion. G. Braziller.
8. Malina, Frank J. Kinetic Art: Theory and Practice
(https://archive.org/details/kineticarttheory0000mali).
9. Roukes, Nicholas (1974). Plastics for Kinetic Art. Watson-Guptill Publications. ISBN 978-0-8230-
4029-2.
10. Giedion-Welcker, Carola (1937). Modern Plastic Art, Elements of Reality, Volume and Disintegration.
H. Girsberger.
11. Menhem, Chantal. "Kinetic Mosaics: The Art of Movement" (http://blog.mozaico.com/kinetic-mosaics-
the-art-of-movement/). Mozaico. Retrieved 8 August 2017.
12. Janson, H.W. (1995). History of Art. 5th ed., Revised and expanded by Anthony F. Janson. London:
Thames & Hudson. p. 820. ISBN 0500237018.

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13. Mulas, Ugo; Arnason, H. Harvard. Calder (https://archive.org/details/calder0000arna). with

comments by Alexander Calder.
14. Marter, Joan M. (1997). Alexander Calder. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-58717-4.
15. "Op art" (https://www.britannica.com/art/Op-art). Encyclopedia Britannica.
16. "Art cinétique" (http://mediation.centrepompidou.fr/education/ressources/ENS-cinetisme/ENS-cinetiq
ue.html). Site Internet du Centre Pompidou (in French).
17. "5000 Moving Parts" (http://web.mit.edu/museum/exhibitions/5000.html). MIT Museum. MIT
Museum. Retrieved 2013-11-29.
18. Gschwend, Ralfonso (22 July 2015). "The Development of Public Art and its Future Passive, Active
and Interactive Past, Present and Future" (https://doi.org/10.3390%2Farts4030093). Arts. 4 (3): 93–
100. doi:10.3390/arts4030093 (https://doi.org/10.3390%2Farts4030093).

Further reading
Terraroli, Valerio (2008). The Birth of Contemporary Art: 1946-1968 (https://archive.org/details/artoftw
entiethce0000unse). Rizzoli Publishing. ISBN 9788861301948.
Tovey, John (1971). The Technique of Kinetic Art. David and Charles. ISBN 9780713425185.
Selz, Peter Howard (1984). Theories of Modern Art: A Source Book by Artists and Critics (https://arc
hive.org/details/theoriesofmodern0000chip). University of California Press. ISBN 9780520052567.
Selz, Peter; Chattopadhyay, Collette; Ghirado, Diane (2009). Fletcher Benton: The Kinetic Years.
Hudson Hills Press. ISBN 9781555952952.
Marks, Mickey K. (1972). Op-Tricks: Creating Kinetic Art (https://archive.org/details/optrickscreating0
0mark). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 9780397312177.
Diehl, Gaston. Vasarely. Crown Publishing Group. ISBN 9780517508008.
Milner, John (2009). Rodchenko: Design. Antique Collector's Club. ISBN 9781851495917.
Bott Casper, Gian (2012). Tatlin: Art for a New World. Hatje Cantz Verlag GmbH & Co KG.
ISBN 9783775733632.
Toynton, Evelyn (2012). Jackson Pollock (https://archive.org/details/jacksonpollock0000toyn). Yale
University Press. ISBN 9780300192506.

External links
Kinetic Art Organization (KAO) (https://web.archive.org/web/20060110112226/http://www.kinetic-art.o
rg/) - KAO - Largest International Kinetic Art Organisation (Kinetic Art film and book library, KAO
Museum planned)
International Kinetic Art Exhibit and Symposium: Boynton Beach, Florida (http://intlkineticartevent.or
g)

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