Triac Principles and

Circuits Part I
By Ray Marston

Ray Marston describes basic triac principles and looks at practical triac circuits in this special two-part article.

A
triac is a controllable medium- to high-power semi-latching resistive lamp load; assume that SW2 is closed. When SWl is open, the
solid-state AC power switch. This two-part article explains its triac acts as an open switch and the lamp passes zero current. When
basic operation and shows various ways of using it. Most of SWl is closed, the triac is gated on via Rl and self-latches shortly after
the practical circuits show two sets of component values for the start of each half-cycle, thus switching full power to the lamp load.
use with normal domestic/commercial 50Hz or 60Hz AC The triac automatically unlatches at the end of each AC half-cycle as the
voltage supplies with nominal values of either 240V (as used in most of instantaneous supply voltage (and thus the load current) briefly falls to
Europe) or (in parenthesis) 120V (as used in most of the USA). In each zero.
design, the user must use a triac with ratings to suit his or her own par- In Figure 2 , the task of R 1 is that of limiting the peak instantaneous
ticular application. switch-on gate current of the triac to a safe value; its resistance (com-
bined with that of the load) must be greater than the peak supply voltage
Triac basics (roughly 350V in a 240V AC circuit, 175V in a 120V circuit) divided by
A triac is a three-terminal (MTl, gate, and MT2) solid-state thyristor that the triac's peak gate current rating (which is usually given in the triac
uses the alternative symbols in Figure 1 and acts like a pair of SCRs wired manufacturer's extended data sheets).
in inverse parallel and controlled via a single gate terminal. It can conduct Note in Figure 2 (and in most other triac circuits shown in this mini-
current in either direction between its MTl and MT2 terminals and can series) that - for safety reasons - the load is wired in series with the AC
thus be used to directly control AC power. It can be triggered by either supply's neutral (N) line, and master on/off switch SW2 can isolate the
positive or negative gate currents, irrespective of the polarity of the MT2 entire circuit from the live (L) line.
current, and it thus has four possible triggering modes or 'quadrants,' sig-
nified as follows: Triac rate effect
Most triacs, like SCRs, are susceptible to 'rate-effect' problems. Internal
I+ Mode = MT2 current +ve, gate current +ve capacitances inevitably exist between the main terminals and gate of a
I- Mode = MT2 current +ve, gate current -ve triac, and if a sharply rising voltage appears on either main terminal it can
Ill+ Mode = MT2 current -ve , gate current +ve - if its rate-of-rise exceeds the triac's dV /dt rating - cause enough break-
Ill+ Mode = MT2 current -ve, gate current -ve through to the gate to trigger the triac on. This unwanted 'rate-effect' turn-
on can be caused by supply line transients; the problem is, however, par-
The trigger current sensitivity is greatest when the MT2 and gate cur- ticularly severe when driving inductive loads such as electric motors, in
rents are both of the same polarity (either both positive or both negative), which load currents and voltages are out of phase, thus making a large
and is usually about half as great when they are of opposite polarity. voltage suddenly appear on the main terminals each time the triac
Figure 2 shows a triac used as a simple AC power switch, driving a unlatches as its main terminal current falls to near-zero in each operating

Figure 3. Simple AC power switch with inductive load and C 1-R2

snubber network to give rate-effect suppression.
Figure 6.
Basic
N diac-type
Figure I. Triac symbols. A1
R2 SW1 I variable

$
1QOR phase-delay
MT2 MT2 240V
(120V) R1 lamp dimmer
C1 180R
r-;J;\ or
AC
100n
400V
(100R) circuit.
@ Gate
(200VJ
MT1 MT1 LL A2
SW2
Note . MT= Main Temi11al
Figure 8.AC power switch with AC-derived DC triggering.
Figure 2. Simple AC power Figure 4. Basic AC lamp dimmer
switch with resistive with RFI suppression via C 1-L I.
(lamp) load. Figure 7. R1
Quadrac 2k2 , 11W Load
symbol. (1k0, 5W)

N
LP1 -l N
MT2
01
IN4004 240V
i R4 (120V)

G'to0
100W SW1 {
I 100R

r
Vanal;ie AC
240V
(120V) R1
180R
240V
(120V) ..L Iphase··delay
AC T c1 tngger
Q1 .AC Q1

LL
(100Ri network C2
J 1oon
400V C1 R3 100n
(200V) ZD1 100µ 1k0 400V
LL 10V 15V
SW2 SW1 MT1

Nuts & Volts Magazine/ FEBRUAR'i 2002 29

half-cycle.
Rate-effect problems can usually be overcome by wiring an R-C 'snub-
ber' network between MTl and MT2, to limit the voltage rate-of-rise to a
safe value , as shown (for example) in the triac power switch circuit in
Figure 3 , where R2-C 1 form the snubber network. Some modern triacs
have enhanced dV / dt ratings (typically 750V / mS) and are virtually
immune to rate-effect problems ; these triacs are known as 'snubberless'
types.
RFI suppression
A triac can be used to give variable AC power control by using a 'phase-
delayed switching ' technique, in which the triac is triggered part-way
through each half-cycle. Ea c h time the triac is gated on , its load current
switches sharply (in a few microseconds) from zero to a value set by its
load resistance and instantaneous supply voltage values. In resistively
loaded circuits such as lamp dimmers, this switching action inevitably
generates a pulse of RF! , which is least when the triac is triggered close
to the 0 ° and 180 ° 'zero c rossing' points of the supply line waveform (at
which the switch-on c urrents are minimal) , and is greatest when the
device is triggered 90 ° after the start of each half cycle (where the switch-
on currents are at their greatest) .
The RFI pulses occur at twice the supply line frequency, and can be
very annoying. In lamp dimmers, RF! can usually be eliminated by fitting
the dimmer with a simple L-C filter network as shown in Figure 4 . The fil-
ter is fitted close to the triac, and greatly reduces the rate-of-rise of the AC
power line currents.
Diacs and quadracs
A diac is a two-terminal bidirectional trigger device; it can be used with
voltages of either polarity and is usually used in conjunction with a triac;
Figure 5 shows its circuit symbol. The diac's basic action is such that,
when connected across a voltage source via a current-limiting load resis-
tor, it acts like a high impedance until the applied voltage rises to about
35V, at which point it triggers and acts like a low-impedance 30V zener
diode, and 30V is developed across the diac and the remaining 5V
appears across the load resistor. The diac remains in this state until its
forward current falls below a minimum holding value (this occurs when
+5V
Input
from
control RS
240V
(120V)
the supply voltage falls below the 30V 'zener' value), at which point the
diac turns off again.
The diac is most often used as a trigger device in phase-triggered
triac variable power control applications, as in the basic lamp dimmer cir-
cuit of Figure 6. Here, in each power line half-cycle, the Rl-RVl-Cl net-
work applies a variable phase-delayed version of the half-cycle to the triac
gate via the diac, and when the CJ voltage rises to 35V, the diac fires and
delivers a 5V trigger pulse (from Cl) into the triac gate, thus turning the
triac on and simultaneously applying power to the lamp load and remov-
ing the drive from the R-C network. The mean power to the load (inte-
grated over a full half-cycle period) is thus fully variable from near-zero to
maximum via RVl .
In the early development days of the triac , some specialist devices
were manufactured with a built-in diac in series with the triac gate; such
devices were known as quadracs and used the Figure 7 circuit symbol.
Quadracs were not a commercial success , and are now obsolete.
AC power switch variations
The simplest type of triac power switch is that of Figure 2 , in which the
triac is gated on via R J when SW J is closed; only JV or so is generated
across the triac when it is on , so Rl and SWl consume very little mean
power; Figure 3 shows the same circuit fitted with a 'snubber' network.
There are many useful variations of these basic circuits. Figure 8, for
example, shows a version that can be triggered via an AC-derived DC
supply. CJ charges (via RJ-DJ) to + lOV on each positive AC power line
half-cycle, and this charge triggers the triac when SW1 is closed . Note
that R1 is subjected to almost the full AC line voltage at all times, and
thus needs a fairly high power rating, and that all parts of this circuit are
'live,' making it difficult to interface to external control circuitry.
Figure 9 shows the above circuit modified to give 'isolated' interfac-
ing to external control circuitry. SWJ is simply replaced by transistor Q2,
which is driven from the phototransistor side of an optocoupler. The cou-
pler's LED is driven via an external DC supply via R 1, and the triac turns
Note: C 1 . - - - - - -·_ _./'----,
+5V 01-04 = 1 N4001 220n , 400v·-L
\390n . 2001/)
Loao
sw 2 I
j L
Input
from 240V
control RJ :1 20V .)
. AC
circuit 100R
I C2
yN

circuit

I
100R AC
ok-1 100n
400V

C2 IN
ok-1 100n
400V
I

, Figure 10. lsolated-inputAC power switch,AC triggered.

Figure 9. Isolated-input (optocoupled) AC power switch, DC triggered.

01
IN4001 T1
11
240V
Load (120V) I I
R1 01
Figure 11. IN4001 T1 AC 6V3
11
10k +

l
AC power I I N 11
240V
switch with (120V) I I C1 11
11 C2 1000µ
transistor- AC R2 6V3
3k3 15V
11 100n 01
aided DC N
400V
triggering. C1 11
C2 0 11 1000µ I'
15V Control
100n 01 SW1 ov input +5\t
400V

Figure 12. Isolated-input AC power switch with DC triggering.

+15V +15V

R3
O ff
10 k
SW1

240V 240V
(120V) R4 (120V) R3
AC 10k AC 10K
N N
C2 On C2
100n 100n R4
SW1 10k
400V 400V

30 FEBRUA'"' 2002/Nuts & Volts Magazine

on only when SWl is closed; SWl can be replaced by electronic switch-
ing circuitry, if desired.
Figure 10 shows a variation in which the triac is AC triggered in each
half-cycle via the AC impedance of Cl-RI and via back-to-back zeners
ZD 1-ZD2, and C 1 dissipates near-zero power. Bridge rectifier D 1-D4 is
wired across the ZD 1-ZD2-R2 network and is loaded by Q2. When Q2 is
off, the bridge is effectively open and the triac is gated on in each half-
cycle, but when Q2 is on, a near-short appears across ZD1-ZD2-R2, and
the triac is off. Q2 is driven via the optocoupler from the isolated external
circuit, and the triac is on when SWl is open and off when SW1 is closed.
Figures 11 and 12 show variations in which the triac is triggered via
a transformer-derived DC supply and a transistor-aided switch. In Figure
11 , Q2 and the triac are both driven on when SWl is closed, and are off
when SWl is open. In practice, SWl can be replaced by electronic cir-
cuitry, enabling the triac to be activated via heat, light, sound, time, etc.
Note , however, that the whole of this circuit is 'live.' Figure 12 shows the
circuit modified for optocoupler operation, enabling it to be activated via
fully-isolated external circuitry.
OJT triggering
Another way to obtain fully-isolated triac switching is via the UJT circuits
in Figures 13 and 14, in which the UJT is an old 2N2646 type or a mod-
ern near-equivalent. In these circuits, the triggering action is obtained via
UJT oscillator Q2, which operates at several kHz and feeds output puls-
es to the triac gate via pulse transformer T1, which provides the desired
'isolation.' Because of its fairly high oscillating frequency, the UJT triggers
the triac within a few degrees of the start of each AC power-line half-cycle
when the oscillator is active.
In Figure 13, Q3 is in series with the UJT's main timing resistor, so
the UJT and triac turn on only when SW1 is closed. In Figure 14, Q3 is
wired in parallel with the UJT's main timing capacitor, so the UJT and
triac turn on only when SWl is open.
Optocoupled triacs
The gate junctions of a 'naked' triac are inherently photosensitive, and an
optocoupled triac can thus be made by mounting a 'naked' triac and LED
close together in a single package. Figure 15 shows the outline and lists
the characteristics of a typical six-pin DIL version of such a device, in
which the LED has a maximum current rating of 50mA, the triac has
maximum ratings of 400V and lOOmA RMS (and a surge current rating
of 1.2A for lOmS) , and the entire package has an isolating voltage rating
of 1.5kV and a typical input current trigger sensitivity of 5mA.
Optocoupled triacs are easy to use and provide excellent electrical
isolation between input and output. The input is used like a normal LED ,
and the output like a low-power triac. Figure 16 shows the device used to
activate an AC line-powered filament lamp, which must have an RMS rat-
ing below 1OOmA and a peak inrush current rating below l .2A.
Figure 17 shows an optocoupled triac used to activate a slave triac,
thereby driving a load of any desired power rating . This circuit is suitable
for use only with non-inductive loads such as lamps and heating ele-
ments. It can be modified for use with inductive loads such as electric
motors by using the connections in Figure 18. Here, the R2-C 1-R3 net-
work provides a degree of phase-shift to the triac gate-drive network, to
ensure correct triac triggering action , and R4-C2 form a snubber network
to suppress rate effects. ·
Synchronous 'zero-voltage' power switching
A synchronous 'zero-voltage' (or 'integral cycle') power switch is one in
which the triac invariably turns on just after the start of each power half-
cycle (i.e., near the waveform's zero-voltage point) and then turns off
again automatically at the end of it, thus generating minimal RFI. In most
power switching circuits shown so far in this article, the triac turns on at
an arbitrary point in its initial switch-on half-cycle, thus producing a
potentially high initial burst of RFI, but then gives a synchronous zero-
voltage switching action on all subsequent half-cycles.
A truly synchronous zero-voltage circuit uses the switching system in
Lamp
<100mA rms 240V
<1.2A peak (120V)
AC
,-------L
Input
i Load

1
from
Optocoupled control R4 240V C1 powe r
Figure 15. Typical optocoupled Parameter
triac circuit 100R (120V) factor
triac outline and operating l20mA) AC 220n O.lS
characteristics. LED characteristic CZ
, 100n 330n 0 .5
IF (max) SOmA 0 1 400V
Trra c (ZOOV )
Triac characteristic
VMAX 400V
Top view
IMAX (rms) 100mA Figure 18. Driving an inductive load.
lsuRGE (see text) 1.2A

Coupling characteristic
Isolating vo ltag e ±1.SkV 01
IN4004
Input trigg er curre nt SrnA typ ical
(20mA max)
N
(a) (b) 240V
(120V)
AC

C2 +
. .L 270µ
R2 SW2 I
SW1
V+ 0.-vvRv1..__,
150R
(100R)
Load I 1SV

,--,,v•v--
Input from
DC control
circuit
...-+---.. . . . 240V
(1 20V)
AC
..
Figure 20. Synch . .1ous AC power switch.
(20mA)

RS R6
47k 6k8, SW 01
2W (3k3 , 2W)
IN4004
_.J SW1 '+-SW1-.i
I On I Off N

WJ---1W\r 240V
(120V)
AC
Z D1
10V +

11SV to C2 +
2SOV On
270µ
AC Solid-state Gated SW1 1SV
self-latching zero- + +
power crossing
switch detector C1
R2

Figure 21.Alternative version of the synchronous AC power switch.

Nuts & Volts Magazine/ FEBRUARY 2002 31

Figure 19, in which the triac can only be gated on near the start or 'zero- the triac gate via Q2, which is controlled via SWl and 'zero-voltage' detec-
voltage' point of each half-cycle , and thus produces minimal RFI. This tor Q3-Q4-Q5 and can supply gate current only when SW l is closed and
system is widely used to give on / off control of high-current loads such as Q3 is off.
electric heaters, etc. In the zero-voltage detector, Q4 or Q5 a re driven on whenever the AC
Figure 20 shows a practical synchronous zero-voltage AC power line voltage is more than a few volts (set by RVl) above or below zero ,
switch ; lOV DC is AC-derived via R7-Dl-ZD1 and C2 and is switched to thereby driving Q3 on via R5 and inhibiting Q2. Thus , gate current can
only be fed to the triac when SWl is closed and the instantaneous AC line
voltage is within a few volts of zero ; this circuit thus generates m inimal
switching RF!.
The Pocket Programmer Figure 21 shows the circuit modified so that the triac can only turn
on when SWl is open. Note in both cases that only a narrow pulse of gate
current is fed to the triac, and the mean gate c urrent is thus only 1 mA or
so . SWl can be replaced by an electronic switch or optocoupler, if
desired, thus enabling the load to be activated by light or temperature lev-
els or by time , etc.
In practice , the simplest way of making a really efficient synchronous
'zero-voltage' triac-driving circuit is with the aid of a special-purpose IC
that functions as an optocoupled low-power synchronous 'zero-voltage'
triac that can easily be used as a slave for synchronously driving a nor-
mal high-power triac.
Next month's concluding episode will give practical details of such
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Triac Principles and
Circuits Part 2
By Ray Marston

Ray Marston concludes his description of triac principles and circuits in the final episode of this two-part mini-series.

L
ast month's opening episode of this two-part feature explained
triac basics, looked at various practical triac power switching cir-
cuits, introduced optocoupled triacs, and explained basic synchro-
nous 'zero-voltage' power switching principles. That episode con-
cluded by pointing out that the simplest way of making a really efficient
synchronous 'zero-voltage' triac-driving circuit is with the aid of a special-
purpose IC that functions as an optocoupled low-power synchronous 'zero-
voltage' triac that can easily be used as a slave for synchronously driving
a normal high-power triac. This month's concluding episode gives practical
details of such circuits, together with other triac-related circuits and infor-
mation.
Optocoupled synchronous power switching
Synchronous 'zero-voltage' triac-driving circuits are widely used in
modern electric heating and filament-lamp lighting control systems. Until
fairly recently, several companies produced special synchronous 'zero-volt-
age' triac-gating ICs for use in such applications; the best known of these
ICs were the CA3059 (from RCA) and the TDA1024 (from Signetics),
which each had built-in AC-derived DC power supply circuitry, a zero-cross-
ing detector, triac gate drive circuitry, and a high-gain differential amplifi-
er/gating network.
In the mid-1990s, however, all of these ICs were made obsolete by the
introduction of a new and modestly-priced type of IC that functions as an
optocoupled low-power synchronous 'zero-voltage' triac that can easily be
used as a slave for synchronously driving normal high-power triacs.
Several companies (including lsocom, Motorola, Sharp, Siemens, and
Toshiba) manufacture optocoupled synchronous zero-voltage triacs. Most
of these devices take the form of a six-pin DIL IC, as shown in Figure 1, and
house a simulated triac that has its gate drive controlled via an integral
photosensitive zero-crossing detector (ZCD), which can be remotely ener-
gized via an integral LED. Typically, this type of optocoupled triac has max-
imum AC ratings of 400V peak and lOOmA RMS (with a surge rating of
l.2A for lOm S) , will only trigger when the instantaneous AC voltage is
below a fixed zero-cross inhibit voltage (V1H) value of ±15V nominal (±25V
maximum), has a maximum LED forward current rating of 60mA, has a
+12V
Figure 4. Dual push-
9
S1
9
S2
button LED control
circuit for use in the
On Off Figure 3 system.

R4
680R
R1
100k R2
100k

Top view Top view ov

Note: ZCD = zero-crossing detector
+12V
Figure I. Typical optocoupled synchronous 'zero-voltage' triac outlines
and pin notations.
Adjustable Figure S.
thermostat
(normally
'Thermostat'
R1 R2 LED control
N LOAD ....-...--v,..,v--, .-----VVV'---, + closed)
Figure 2. Basic 82R circuit for use
power switching DC input in the Figure 3
240V rt::=IC=-1_........_- - • from
circuit using an control Red system.
(120V) IC1 LED
optocoupled circuit

.
AC Input

LL
Q1
synchronous
'zero-voltage' ov
Optocoupled
triac. synchronous
SW1
'zero-voltage'
triac
+12V
R2
56k

LED control
T1 R3 Auto
current\
11 + 220R
240V 11
LED 11
(120V) control
AC circuit 11

LL o1•
SW1
R1
1k2 Note : D1=1N4148
'--------------+----+---
ov
]
synchronous
triac IC

Figure 3. Basic power switching system using an optocoupled synchro- Figure 6.Automatic LED control circuit, using a silicon diode as a
nous 'zero-voltage' triac. temperature-sensing element, for use in the Figure 3 system.

Nuts & Volts Magazine/ MARCH 2002 67

typical input current trigger sensitivity of 8mA or less, and the entire pack- rent to the LED input of the optocoupled triac. The bistable latches into the
age has an isolating voltage rating of several kV. 'output low' state when S2 is briefly closed, thereby killing the DC power
Optocoupled synchronous zero-voltage triacs are easy to use and pro- feeds to the red LED and the triac.
vide excellent electrical isolation between input and output. The input is The Figure 4 circuit gives purely manual on/ off LED control of an elec-
used like a normal LED, and the output like a low-powered triac. In most trical power load such as a heater. Figure 5 shows a simple circuit that also
practical applications, the optocoupled triac is used to activate the gate of provides the option of automatic control via an adjustable thermostat
a 'slave' triac, thereby driving a resistive AC load of any desired power rat- switch that is normally closed but opens when its temperature exceeds a
ing. Figure 2 shows a practical circuit of this type, which can be manually selected value. Here, the red LED and the electric heater are off when SWl
or automatically switched on or off via a DC input current. Note in Figure is in the 'off' position or in the 'auto' position when the thermostat is open,
2 that R 1 is used to limit the peak switch-on current of the optocoupled but are on when SWl is in the 'on' position or in the 'auto' position when
triac (and thus the peak gate current of Q 1) at JC 1's absolute maximum the thermostat is closed.
Y1tt value minus 2V, i.e. , typically at 23V; with the Rl value shown, the peak Figures 6 and 7 show high-precision versions of the basic Figure 5 cir-
switch-on current is limited to 280mA. R2 is used to limit the LED input cur- cuit, with the thermostat replaced by a temperature-sensitive electronic
rent of IC 1 to a sensible working value. switching circuit. The Figure 6 circuit uses an ordinary silicon diode (D 1)
Figure 3 shows one way of incorporating the above circuit in a com- as a thermal sensing element. Here, zener diode ZDl is wired in series with
plete electric power switching system. Here, when SWl is closed, the AC Rl so that a constant 5.6V is developed across the two potential dividers
power line is connected to both the load/Ql circuitry and to the primary of formed by R2-R3-RV1 -RV2, and R4-D 1, and a near-constant current thus
low-power transformer Tl, which has its output converted into a 12V DC flows through each of these dividers. A constant reference voltage is thus
supply that powers IC 1's LED control circuit, which is electrically fully iso- developed (via RV1) between the Rl-ZDl junction and pin 2 of the 741 op-
lated from the AC supply. The LED control circuit can take any of a variety amp, and a temperature-dependent voltage with a coefficient of -2mV /' C
of forms; some simple examples are shown in Figures 4 to 7. The simplest is developed between the Rl-ZDl junction and pin 3 of the op-amp. Thus,
LED control circuit that can be used in the Figure 3 system consists of an a differential voltage with a coefficient of -2mV /' C appears between pin 2
on/ off toggle switch that - when closed - connects the IC 1 LED to the 12V and pin 3 of the op-amp, which is wired as a high-gain (open loop) voltage
DC supply via a 680R resistor that limits the LED 'on' current to about comparator with slight hysteresis applied via R6.
15mA, thereby switching the electric load fully on. In Figure 6 , RVl is a linear rotary pot that is used to manually adjust
Figure 4 shows a dual push-button LED control system, in which the the heater system's operating temperature over a ±lO ' C (nominal) range,
LED and load turn on when S 1 is briefly closed, and off when S2 is briefly and RV2 is a multiturn preset that is used to set the circuit's nominal (with
closed. Here, CMOS NOR gates ICla-IClb are wired as a manually trig- RVl at mid-scale setting) trip temperature. To initially set up the circuit, set
gered bistable multivibrator that has its output buffered by emitter follower RVl to mid-scale, adjust the temperature of D 1 to the desired mid-scale trip
Ql and latches into the 'output high' state when S 1 is briefly closed, there- value, then trim RV2 so that the red LED is on, but goes off again if the D 1
by energizing the circuit's red LED via R3 and feeding a 15mA control cur- temperature is increased slightly (by briefly applying finger heat to D 1). In
practice, the circuit has a typical switching sensitivity of about 0.5 ' C. The
+12V Figure 7 circuit uses an inexpensive NTC (negative temperature coeffi-
RV1 R1 Q1 Figure 7. cient) bead or disc thermistor, with a nominal resistance of 4k7 at 25 ' C, as
10k 4k7 2N3904 Automatic LED its thermal sensing element. Here, potential divider RVl-THl applies a tern-
(trip)
control circuit,
Auto using a NTC +12V
thermistor as RV1
R5 a temperature- 10k R4 Q1
4k7 2N3904
68DR sensing (trip)
TH1
4k7 at
element, for
To input of RS RV2 Auto
25° C optocoupled use in the 1k0 10k
synchronous Figure 3 (temp)
}
triac IC system. RB
680R
TH1
4k7 at
25° C
Figure 8. }
synchronous
i. Switching cycle.i Burst-fire triac IC
(integral cycle)
AC power
Figure I 0. Fully automatic 'burst-fire' LED control circuit for use in the
Load waveform controller.
Figure 3 heater control system.
115Vto
250V .---...._-_,
AC L1
Solid-state Gated
self-latching zero-
power crossing C1 100µH
switch detector

RV1 Figure 11 .
C2
470k Practical circuit
240V AC 100n (270k) of a simple
(120V AC) 400V diac-type lamp
Full voltage
(full power) N dimmer with
Load Dia c RFI suppression.
Half voltage (ST2)
waveforms
(quarter power)

1/16th voltage LP1

(1 /256th power)

+12V L1

R4 01 On Figure 9.
4k7 2N3904 Manually
variable
RV1 Ma n 'burst-fire'
10k C3
(te mp) LED 240V AC 100n
RB
control (120V AC) 400V
R3 6BOR circuit for
N
56k use in the
C1 } Figure 3
1Oµ synchronous system.
_ ___,...____ triac IC
LP1

68 MARCii 2002/ Nuts & Volts Magaz ine

perature-sensitive voltage to pin 3 of the 74 1 op-amp, and potential divider
Rl-R2-RV2-R3 applies a preset reference voltage to pin 2 of the op-amp.
The two potential dividers are actually wired in the form of a Wheatstone
bridge, and the op-amp is used as a high-gain bridge balance detector; the
bridge balance point is unaffected by variations on supply voltage.
Capacitors Cl and C2 help to ensure circuit stability.
The action of the Figure 7 circuit is such that (when SWl is in the Auto
position) the output of SWl is normally low but switches high and activates
the red LED and the external triac when the THl temperature is below a
value pre-set via RVl and RV2. RV2 is a linear rotary pot that is used to
manually adjust the heater system's operating temperature over a limited
range , and RVl is a multiturn preset that is used to set the circuit's nomi-
nal (with RV2 at mid-scale setting) trip temperature. To initially set up the
circuit, set RV2 to mid-scale, raise the temperature of TH 1 to the desired
mid-scale trip value, then trim RV l so that the red LED is on, but goes off
if the TH 1 temperatu re is increased slightly.
Note that the Figure 7 circuit has a typical switching sensitivity similar
to that of the Figure 6 design (about 0.5 °C) , but that its thermistor has a
far longer thermal time constant than the sensing diode of the Figure 6 cir-
cuit; the Figure 7 circuit is thus slower-acting than the Figure 6 circuit. Also
note (i n Figure 7) that the thermal 'span' range of RV2 can be increased
(or reduced) by increasing (or reducing) the value of resistor R2.
Finally, note that - in all cases where an 'automatic' heater-control cir-
cuit is used to regulate the temperature of a room - the actual thermal sen-
sor device (thermostat, thermistor, or sensing diode) must be sited rough-
ly one meter above floor level, in a position where it can directly and safe-
ly sense the temperature of normally-circulating air; this position must be
free of drafts or direct radiation from the heater, and must not be obstruct-
ed by furniture, etc.
'Burst fire' AC power control principles
the input of the Figure 3 optocoupled synchronous electric heater control
system, where it enables the mean power input to the heater to be varied
(via RVl) from zero to maximum in 68 discrete 'half-cycle' steps in a 50Hz
system or 82 steps in a 60Hz system.
Finally, to complete this look at burst-fire heater control circuits, Figure
10 shows a self-regulating synchronous burst-fire heater controller that
automatically varies the heater's input power to maintain a room's temper-
ature at a precise pre-set value. Here, the circuit to the right of R3 is almost
the same as the Figure 7 thermistor-controlled automatic circuit, but the
IC 1 circuit to the left of R3 is taken directly from the Figure 9 circuit and
superimposes a 680mS ramp waveform (with a peak-to-peak amplitude of
about 40mV) on the RVl-THl junction and pin 3 of IC2.
The net effect of the above combination is that the external heater is
turned fully on (via the optocoupled triac in the Figure 3 system) if the TH 1
temperature is more that (say) 1 ' C below a pre-set value, or fully off if it is
more that 1 ' C above the pre-set value, but is operated in the burst-fire
mode - with its M/S ratio automatically adjusted via TH 1 - when the TH 1
temperature is within ±1 ' C of the pre-set value. The circuit thus automati-
cally adjusts the heater's thermal output level to meet the room's heating
needs; when the temperature reaches the precise pre-set value, the heater
does not switch fully off, but generates just enough output power to exact-
ly match the thermal losses of the room. To initially set up the Figure 10
circuit, set RV2 to mid-scale, raise the TH 1 temperature to the desired mid-
scale trip value, then trim RVl so that the red LED flashes on and off (at
roughly a 1.5Hz rate) but goes fully off if the THl temperature is increased
slightly. When experimenting with this circuit, note that the thermal 'span'
range of RV2 is determined by the R5 value, and the burst-fire thermal oper-
ating span is determined by the R3 value.
Finally, note - when using burst-fire systems to control domestic elec-
tric heaters with built-in lamps - that the control system must be fed to the
heater elements only, and must not be applied to the lamps.

There are three basic ways of controlling the AC power feed to resistive AC lamp dimmer circuits
loads such as filament lamps or electric heaters via a triac. One of these is
the variable phase-delay-switching system, which gives fully-variable power Triacs can be used to make very efficient lamp dimmers by using the
control and is often used in lamp dimmers, but generates substantial RFI 'phase-delayed switching' technique in which - in each power half-cycle -
and is thus unsuitable for driving high-power (greater than about 200W) the triac is gated on at some controlled phase-delayed time after the start
loads. The second is the synchronous zero-voltage power switching system of each AC half-cycle, thus controlling the mean power fed to the lamp. All
(see last month's Figure 19), which generates minimal RFI but gives only such circuits require the use of a simple L-C filter in the lamp feed line, to
a simple on/off - rather than fully-variable - type of power control.
L1
The third method of AC power control is the burst-fire integral-cycle
system shown in Figure 8, in which bursts of complete half-cycles are fed
to the load at regular line-frequency-related intervals. Thus, if bursts are
repeated at eight-cycle intervals, the mean load voltage equals the full sup- RV1
ply line value if the bursts are of eight-cycle duration , or half voltage (equals 470k
240V AC (270k)
quarter power) at four-cycle duration, or one-sixteenth voltage (equals
(120V AC)
1/256th power) at one half-cycle duration, etc. The burst-fire system thus C3
100n
gives variable power control and generates minimal RFI, and is often used N 400V
to control the thermal output of electric heaters. Note that the burst-fire
10n
integral-cycle control system operates on the synchronous 'zero-voltage' 50V
triac switching principle, and practical circuits of this type can thus be
made by using suitable control circuitry in conjunction with the basic LP1
power switching system of Figure 3. Two suitable circuits are shown in the
next section of this article.
Figure 14. HT7704B outline and
osc 8 TRIG 1
pin notations.
'Burst-fire' heater control circuits
zc 2 7 Voo (-)
The optocoupled synchronous circuits shown in Figures 2 to 7 all - HT7704B
(+) VDD 3 6 F.SEL
when powering a heater load - give a simple form of control in which the
heater is either fully off or is operating at maximum power. Figures 9 and SENSE 4 5 F.B Figure 15. Basic HT7704B lamp
10 show circuits that drive the heater in the synchronous burst-fire mode, (touch input)
dimmer application circuit.
thus enabling the heater's thermal output to be varied over a wide range.
The Figure 9 circuit enables the heater's thermal output to be varied man-
LP1
ually, via RVl. The Figure 10 circuit varies the heater's output automati-
cally, to maintain a room's temperature at a precise pre-set value. C3
R2
The operation of the Figure 9 circuit is fairly simple. Here, !Cl (a 150k R5 470p
Q1
CMOS version of the 555 'timer' IC) is wired in the astable mode and gen- 8
(Triac)
200R
erates a repeating ramp waveform across C 1. This waveform has a period
of about 680mS (thus spanning roughly 68 half-cycles of a 50Hz power line R3
2 7
waveform or 82 half-cycles of a 60Hz waveform during each period) and is 01 10M IC1
IN4006 HT7704B 50Hz
centered on half-supply volts and swings symmetrically between 1/ 3rd and
3 6
2/3rds of supply voltage value. This waveform is fed to pin 3 of op-amp IC2
via R3, and linear rotary pot RVl feeds a DC reference voltage that is vari- 110/220V 60Hz
AC
able from below 1/3rd to above 2/3rds of the supply voltage value to pin 2 4 5
of the op-amp, which is configured as a high-gain voltage comparator. R7
The net effect of the above circuitry is that IC2 converts the 680mS Touch 3M3
plate
ramp waveform into a switched rectangular output waveform with a
mark/space (M/S) ratio that is fully variable from 0:1 (output low for the
full 680mS period ) to 1:0 (output high for the full 680mS period) via RVl. Note: R1* =22k/2W on 11 0V AC supp ly,
When SWl is switched to the Man (manual) position, this output is fed to
=47k/2W on 220V AC supply.
Nuts & Volts Magazine/ MARCH 2002 69
minimize RF! problems. full off, and so on.
The two most popular ways of obtaining variable phase-delay triac trig- Figure 15 shows the basic application circuit of the HT7704B (without
gering are to use either a diac plus C-R phase delay network, or to use a fused overload protection or RFI-suppression circuitry) , with alternative
special-purpose IC as the triac trigger. Figure 11 shows a practical diac-trig- component values and pin connections shown for use with 50Hz or 60Hz
gered lamp dimmer, in which R1-RV1-C1 provide the variable phase-delay. AC supplies with nominal values of 1 lOV or 220Y. Note that R1 is a 2W
This circuit is really a simple variant of the basic lamp dimmer circuit type and needs a value of 22K on 1 lOY AC supplies or 47K on 220V AC
shown in last month's Figure 6, with the addition of the L1-C2 RF! sup- supples, that pin 6 must be tied to pin 7 on 50Hz supplies or pin 3 on 60Hz
pressor and with RV1 and SW1 ganged together to easily enable the lamp supplies, and that the ratings of triac Q1 must be chosen to suit the lamp
to be turned fully off. power and supply-voltage rating of the individual system.
A weakness of the simple Figure 11 design is that it has considerable
control hysteresis or backlash, e.g., if the lamp is dimmed off by increas- Triac protection techniques
ing the RV1 value to (say) 470k, it will not go on again until RV1 is reduced
to about 400k, and then burns at a fairly high brightness level. This back- In use , triacs must always have an RMS current rating greater than that
lash is caused by the diac partially discharging C 1 each time the triac fires . of the load that they are driving and must always be protected against cat-
Backlash can be greatly reduced by using the 'gate slaving' technique in astrophic damage from current surges or malfunctions in their loads.
Figure 12, in which the diac is triggered from C2, which 'follows' the C1 Adequate protection can usually be obtained via a suitably-rated quick-
phase-delay voltage but protects C1 from discharging when the diac fires. blow fuse that is effectively connected (either directly or via a supply-con-
If desired , the backlash can be reduced to virtually zero by wiring a current- nection plug) in series with the load and the triac's main terminals, but in
limiting resistor in series with the diac, to reduce the magnitude of the C2 a few special applications, additional protection may also be needed. Note
discharge voltage, as shown in Figure 13. that the fuse value must always be chosen with great care, and should be
of the minimum practicable rating; a fuse with too high a rating provides
A 'smart' lamp dimmer IC no useful protection.
When a triac is used in an electric-heater driving circuit, a quick-blow
Many modern lamp dimmers have their triac driven via a dedicated fuse with a current rating greater than that of the heater but less than the
'smart' IC that can turn the lamp on or off or control its brilliance, the IC maximum current rating of the triac provides adequate protection. When a
taking its action commands via a touch-sensitive pad or push-button input triac is used in an electric-motor driving circuit, a quick-blow fuse with a
switch. For many years, Siemens was the leading producer of this type of current rating greater than the stalled current rating of the motor but less
IC, first with the IC known as the S566B, and then (starting in 1990) with than the maximum current rating of the triac should be used.
the SLB0586, which remained in full production until 1995 (but was still In most filament-lamp driving triac circuits, the triac needs a current
widely available in early 2000) . Today (in 2002) , the most popular lamp rating at least three times greater than the normal running current of the
dimmer IC is a low-cost Holtek product known as the HT7704B 'touch' dim- lamp, and should be protected by a quick-blow fuse with a rating of 500mA
mer. (1A absolute maximum) per lOOW of lamp rating in 240V AC systems, or
The HT7704B is an eight-pin DIL IC with the outline and pin notations lA (2A absolute maximum) per lOOW of lamp rating in 120V AC systems;
shown in Figure 14, and provides four levels of brightness plus switch-off in some special filament-lamp driving circuits, however, additional protec-
control, all sequentially selectable via a simple metal 'touch' pad or plate tion may also be needed, as described later in this article. To understand
that is AC coupled to pin 4 of the IC. In use, the first 'touch' turns the lamp the principles of triac protection in filament-lamp driving circuits, it is nec-
on at its lowest brighness level; the next three touches bring the brightness essary to understand certain characteristics of fuses, filament lamps, and
up to maximum level in successive stages; the fifth touch turns the lamp triacs as follows.
FUSE BASICS. An ordinary 'quick-blow' fuse consists of a short
Full-brilliance operating current, IL , length of wire, which burns out ('blows') if the current passing through it
LP1 =AC volts/ LP1 Wattage rating exceeds a limit determined by the wire's diameter. Most quick-blow fuses
use a copper wire, which has a melting temperature of 1083 °C and a resist-
Figure 16. Basic ance that - when referenced to 20 °C - increases by about 0.4% per °C
240V triac and fuse
(120V) increase in temperature. Thus, when the current passed through the fuse
selection data for
240V exceeds roughly 40% of its rating, its resistance and power dissipation and
(120VJ Q1 use in simple
Drive on/off lamp temperature all increase exponentially with further increases in current,
AC
circuitry
switching and lamp until a point is reached where the ability of the fuse to dissipate power is
dimmer types of exceeded by the prevailing input power level; under this condition,the fuse
L application. eventually blows at its weakest point; when a fuse blows, its wire first melts
A. Quick-blow fuse with rating = at the failure point, which is then widened as current briefly arcs across the
· t _ _ 500mA [1A maxi per 100W of LP1 rating .
(1A [2A max] per 100W of LP1 rating) . gap and vaporizes the adjacent metal.
All fuses carry a 'rating' figure (such as 500mA, 1A, 2A, 5A, etc.)
which indicates the maximum current that the fuse can safely carry with-
LP1 out blowing or suffering a reduction in its working life. The fuse will only
Figure 17. Ideally, blow if its rating figure is exceeded ('overloaded') for a significant period of
R2 all on/off-type time; thus, a 2A quick-blow fuse may take absolute maximum times of sev-
240V 82R lamp switching cir- eral days to blow at 2.2A, 2.5 hours at 3A, 1 second at 4A, 40mS at 6A,
(120V)
- + DC input
from
control
cuits should be
gated via an opto-
8mS at 1OA, 2mS at 20A, 500µ S at 40A, and so on. All quick-blow fuses
can thus safely handle large-amplitude current transients or surges, pro-
IC1
Input
circuit coupled synchro- vided that they do not exceed a certain critical duration.
nous 'zero-voltage' FILAMENT LAMP BASICS. An ordinary filament lamp consists of a
triac, to eliminate tightly coiled Tungsten wire filament that is supported on insulated struts,
all switch-on surge
has its two ends made externally available, and is enclosed in a sealed
current problems.
glass envelope or bulb. In use, an electric current passed through the resis-
tive filament raises its temperature to a white heat, causing it to emit white
light; the glass bulb that encloses it is normally filled by a non-reactive gas
such as argon , to stop the filament burning up under this condition.
Figure 18.
Ballast resistor The Tungsten filament's wire has a melting temperature of 3370 °C and
LP1 (see text) In extreme
a resistance that - when referenced to 20 °C - increases by about 0.45%
tt R2 cases, such as in
flashing-lamp per °C increase in temperature, making the resistance value rise sharply
240V 82R disco displays, with filament temperature. The resistance of a 240V lOOW lamp is typical-
(120V)
___
1c_1_......_- - + DC input
from the main triac ly 40R at 20 °C but is 576R under normal 'white heat' running conditions
(the lamp thus shows about a 14:1 resistance variation over its full usage
IC1
control (QI) can be
Input
circuit protected against range) . Note from this data that this lOOW lamp consumes a normal RMS
damage from a running current of 417mA from the 240V AC supply but - if it is initially
'catastrophic' switched on at a moment when the AC voltage happens to be at the peak
lamp failure by a point in a half-cycle - may pass an initial switch-on surge current of up to
ballast resistor, 8.46A, thus generating a 2030W switch-on power surge in the lamp. By
wired as shown. comparison, a 120V lOOW lamp consumes a normal RMS running current
of 833mA and may pass an absolute peak switch-on surge current of
70 MARCH 2002/Nuts & Vo lts Magazin e
16.5A. In practice, the lamp's initial switch-on power surge makes its fila-
ment resistance rise very rapidly (in a few milliseconds) to a value reason-
ably near to the filament's normal operating value; the lamp-driving triac
(and its protective fuse) must be able to handle this surge current without
suffering damage.
Tungsten filament lamps have a typical operating life of about 2,000
hours. The outer surfaces of the coiled Tungsten filament slowly 'boil off'
with continued use , until the weakened filament eventually blows at its
most vulnerable (thinnest) point, in the same basic manner as in a fuse,
i.e. , the failure point first melts and is then partly vaporized by arcing; usu-
ally, the vaporized metal blackens part of the glass bulb's inside surface.
Filament lamp failures occur in three basic types , which can be classified
as 'simple,' 'recursive,' or 'catastrophic;' these failure types have the follow-
ing characteristics. Most lamp failures are of the 'simple' type, in which the
filament simply burns through and then arcs at its weakest point, vaporiz-
ing the local metal; the lamp emits an audible 'ting' as the two halves of the
ruined filament spring apart; usually, the arcing debris blackens only the
end of the bulb. This type of failure often occurs at the moment of initial
switch-on and is usually harmless to triac drivers.
The 'recursive' type of lamp failure can be regarded as a s mall number
of 'simple' failures occurring in quick succession. At the end of the first fail-
ure , the broken but still hot and vibrating ends of the filament briefly make
contact and weld together, passing a surge of current through the remain-
ing (but shortened) length of filament, which qu ickly suffers another failure
at another weak point, and so on. In this type of failure , the lamp usually
flickers on and off a few times before finally dying; the inside of the bulb
normally becomes widely blackened as a result of the multiple arcing that
occurs in this process. This type of failure may be accompanied by very
heavy current surging, which may damage a driving triac that is not ade-
quately rated or fuse-protected.
The 'catastrophic' type of lamp failure is a rare and very savage type
of recursive failure , in which the internal arcing is so severe that the entire
inner surface of the lamp and the filament's supports becomes coated in
conductive vaporized metal, thus shorting out much of the filament and
causing a very low resistance to appear across the lamp's terminals. This
type of failure sometimes occurs in crude flashing-lamp disco displays in
which the triac-driven lamps are switched on and off in response to the fil-
tered amplitudes of the music, often going through thousands of on/off
switching sequences (and their associated heavy surge currents) per hour;
triacs need special protection in this type of application. In extreme cases
of this type of failure , the triac may develop an internal short-circuit, and
the fuse may then blow as the lamp filament self-destructs, thus destroying
all three components during the 'failure' process.
TRIAC BASICS. From the 'current overload protection' point of view,
the two most important parameters of a triac are its basic 'RMS on-state
current rating ,' IT(RMS)• and its non-repetitive peak surge on-state current rat-
ing over a period of one full cycle duration, ITsM· Typically, ITsM is 10 times
greater than lT(RMS) in 60Hz systems, and eight times greater than IT(RMS) in
50Hz systems. Thus, a 4A triac can typically handle h sM surge current of
up to 32A in a 50Hz system, or 40A in a 60Hz system.
TRIAC PROTECTION CIRCUITS. When all of the above data is put
together, it transpires that the simplest on/ off-switching or 'dimmer' type of
lamp-driving triac circuit should take the basic form shown in Figure 16.
The lamp's normal 'fully on' running current, IL, equals the AC supply volt-
age divided by the lamp's power rating , the triac needs a minimum current
rating of 3 x IL, and the fuse must be a quick-blow type with a current rat-
ing of 500mA (lA absolute maximum) per lOOW of lamp rating in 240V
AC system, or l A (2A maximum) per lOOW of lamp rating in 120V AC sys-
tems. Ideally, all modern lamp-driving 'on-off' types of triac circuit (includ-
ing those used in flashing-lamp disco displays) should take the basic form
shown in Figure 17, in which the main triac is gated via an optocoupled
synchronous 'zero-voltage' triac (as described earlier in this article) , thus
completely eliminating all switch-on surge current problems.
In very extreme cases, particularly in flashing-lamp disco displays, the
above circuit can be modified to give the main triac additional protection
against damage from the 'catastrophic' type of lamp failure by wiring a bal-
last resistor is series with the load, as shown in Figure 18; this resistor must
be a wire-wound type with a resistance equal to at least 5% of the lamp's
hot resistance and with a power rating equal to at least the same percent-
age of the lamp's power rating. If the lamp suffers a near-short-circuit dur-
ing a catastrophic failure, this ballast resistor limits the surge current to a
value that blows the fuse but does not damage the triac; the ballast resis-
tor gives a slight reduction in lamp brilliance under normal running condi-
tions. NV

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BP-202s p•ck 1Hrx.2021 7.2v 1400mAh $29.95
Mic TM

FNB-38 pack f5Wl 9.6v 700mAh $39.95 For KENWOOD TH-79A I 42A I 22A: •tiny 1-inch x 1.4-inch 6rHC11 module from $49 • bas!i!(f on 68HC812A4 . ""'"'
•from$79
For YAESU FT-530 I 416 I 816 I 76 I 26:
FNB-26 pack (,.MHI 7.2v 1500mAh $32.95
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6.0v 1000mAh $29.95
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FNB-27s 1swNiMHl 12.0v 1000mAh $45.95 For KENWOOD TH-78148128 I 27: •compact 2-inch x 2- inch 68HC11 module from $68 • choice of 832, 060, D.G 128
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FNB-11
FBA-10
pack (5w) 12.0v 600mAh $24.95
6-Cell AA case $14.95
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PB-6x 7.2v 1200mAh 34.95
Family '·
NiMH wlch 1 • • 68HC11 modules with lots of 1/0 lines from $63 • BD" P<!i:l!!i!: ..,,}"
Packs for AL/NCO DJ-580 I 582 I 180 radios: Mail, phone. & Fax orders welcome' Pay with Al!plication Cards Available: • only $79! ·.:::.<'<
EBP-20ns pack 7.2v 1500mAh $29.95 Mastercard I VISA I DISCOVER I American Express • stepper motor driver
EBP-22nh pk.(5w) 12.0v 1000mAh $36.95 Call 608-831-3443 I Fax 608-831-1082 •voice record/playback To/I-free: 1 - 877-963-8996
EDH-11 6-Cell AA case $14.95 •LCD/keypad/PC keyboard
For ICOM IC-ZIA I T22-42A I W31- 32A I T7A : Mr. NiCd - E. 1-1. Yost & Company • data acquisition. DAC T ecC.'1UllJPical Visa•MasterCard
BP-180xh pk l"'MHI 7.2v 1000mAh $39.95 2211-D Parview Road , Middleton , WI 53562
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BP-173 pack (5w) 9.6v 700mAh $49.95 963-8996 Fax:
For !COM IC-W21A I 2GXA T I V2 1AT:1a1acko,Gnoy> Cellular I Laptop I Videocam I Commercial & Aviation packs too!
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BP-132s rsw "'MH' 12.0v 1500mAh $49.95

"BUILT LIKE A BATTLE§HIP"

SPECIAL

•Dimensions: 11.5 x 7.0 x 2.75"

COD's OK. Sony, no credit cards. Free catalog USA only; other countries $5. Price Includes UPS to 48 States on Pre-Paid Orders

Vikitt5 ltttcrttatiottal 100 North Hill Drive #42, Brisbane, CA 9400s

Phone (415) 467-1220 •Fax: (415) 467·1221 •Web: www.vikinginlcom
Circle #I 03 on the Reader Service Card. C i rcle #I 04 on the Reader Service Card.
Nuts & Volts Magaz ine/ MARCH 2002 71