Architecture is both the process and the product of planning, designing, and

constructing buildings or any other structures. Architectural works, in the material form
of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols and as works of art.

The art or science of building specifically : the art or practice of designing and building

structures and especially habitable ones

b : a unifying or coherent form or structure a novel that lacks architecture

3 : architectural product or work buildings that comprise the architecture of the square
4 : a method or style of building Gothic architecture
5 : the manner in which the components of a computer or computer system are organized and
integrated different program architectures

Throughout history, architecture has been used as a creative, functional outlet that often heralds
the cultural depth of society. In fact, a scroll through the basics of important architectural
movements is a window into art and culture during any given time period.

Often, architectural styles build on one another, with each past period providing the building
blocks of advancement for the next culture. Just think of the lasting influence of the Egyptian
pyramids or classical Greek temples, which have not only inspired later architects, but also
fashion, jewelry, and industrial design.

This architecture 101 timeline of major Western types of architecture will give you a crash
course in the development of design and construction. By no means comprehensive, the
architectural styles included have proven to be benchmarks in society, leaving a lasting legacy
that continues today.

Ancient Egyptian Architecture

Giza pyramid complex. El Giza, Egypt. (Photo: WitR / Shutterstock)
One of the most powerful civilizations in history, it only makes sense that the Egyptians would
produce iconic architecture. And while the pyramids might be the structures that come to mind
when thinking of Egyptian architecture, they are not to the only type of architectural expression
the Egyptians built. Prior to the pyramids, Egyptians focused on incredibly detailed temple
complexes that focused on aesthetic beauty and function.

By combining incredible engineering prowess with rich symbolism, the architecture of the
Egyptians would continue to be a model for centuries to come. Both ancient Greek and Roman
architecture borrowed characteristics, such as stylized column motifs in early Greece and the
proliferation of obelisks in Rome.

Timeline: 3,050 BC to 900 BC

Signature building: Pyramid complex of Giza

Temple of Horus. Edfu, Egypt. (Photo: Graficam Ahmed Saeed / Shutterstock)
Temple of Karnak. Luxor, Egypt. (Photo: Zbigniew Guzowski)
 

Greek and Roman Architecture

Parthenon. Athens, Greece. (Photo:  anyaivanova / Shutterstock)
Often grouped together under the umbrella of classical architecture, ancient Greek and Roman
architecture solidified the idea of building structures against a set template. The Greek order of
columns—Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian—is still used today, and Roman scholar Vitruvius’ multi-
volume work De architectura, discussed how rules of proportion in architecture can bring about
harmony. From the Acropolis complex in Athens to the Colosseum and Pantheon in Rome, some
of history’s most iconic buildings come from the Greeks and Romans.

These civilizations were also masters of engineering, with the Romans building incredible
highway systems and aqueducts to bring commercial goods and water across their vast lands,
which stretched the entirety of Europe.

Timeline: 850 BC to 476 AD

Signature building: Parthenon
Pont du Gard. Vers-Pont-du-Gard, France. (Photo:  kavram / Shutterstock)
Pantheon. Rome, Italy. (Photo:  Viroj Phetchkhum / Shutterstock)
 

Byzantine Architecture
Hagia Sophia. Istanbul, Turkey. (Photo: Luciano Mortula – LGM / Shutterstock)
Byzantine architecture took shape once Constantine moved the capital of the Roman Empire to
Constantinople (now Istanbul) in 330 AD. While drawing on elements of ancient Roman
architecture, the architectural style evolved. Churches were built with a Greek cross plan and
brick and mortar were used to create elaborate geometric patterns as decoration. Architects took
more liberty with the classical orders that had been defined since the Greeks. Though Byzantium
has a long history, most of the iconic architecture comes from the middle period when the empire
was at its wealthiest.

Early works, like the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, demonstrate the detailed mosaic decoration
that would become the hallmark of the style. As the most iconic example of Byzantine
architecture, the Hagia Sophia shows off the engineering prowess of the Byzantines with its
series of domes—the minarets are an Ottoman addition not part of the original design. In fact,
it remained the world’s largest cathedral until 1520. Long after the fall of Byzantium, cultures
were influenced by its architecture. For instance, St. Basil’s Cathedral in Moscow, which was
started in 1555, mixes Byzantine architecture with Russian tradition.

Timeline: 527 to 1453
Signature building: Hagia Sophia

Mausoleum of Galla Placidia. Ravenna, Italy. (Photo: vvoe / Shutterstock)

Hosios Loukas Monastery. Distomo, Greece. (Photo:  Anastasios71 / Shutterstock)
 

Mesoamerican Architecture
El Castillo (Temple of Kukulcan) at the Chichen Itza archeological site. Yucatán, Mexico.
(Photo: Jose Ignacio Soto / Shutterstock)
Mesoamerican—or Pre-Columbian—architecture refers to the buildings constructed by the
native cultures of what is now Central America, from central Mexico to northern Costa Rica. The
period is most classically identified with Maya architecture and the great stepped pyramids of
this civilization. Urban planning was guided by religious and mythological beliefs, as the
cultures believed that the architecture was a tangible form of their faith.

Mesoamerican structures are noted for their heavy stonework and use of enormous manpower to
overcome technological handicaps. While this limited their abilities to build things such as true
arches, they adapted to invent a corbeled arch which supported less weight but was still
functional. The El Castillo pyramid at the iconic Maya city of Chichen Itza exemplifies what we
think of as Pre-Columbian architecture.  The chunky architecture would later influence Frank
Lloyd Wright, who in the 1920s and 1930s worked in a Mayan Revival style.

Timeline: 2000 BC to 1519 AD

Signature building: El Castillo (Temple of Kukulcan)

Palenque archaeological site. Chiapas, Mexico. (Photo: Anton_Ivanov / Shutterstock)
Ball Court at Copán Archaeological Site. Copán, Honduras. (Photo: Diego Grandi /
Shutterstock)
 

Gothic Architecture
Notre-Dame. Paris, France. (Photo: gumbao / Shutterstock)
The style of some of the best-known churches in Europe, Gothic architecture dominated for
hundreds of years, starting in France and spreading throughout the continent. The combination of
the pointed arch, flying buttress, and ribbed vault allowed for exceptional verticality to Gothic
structures. Increasing the height and reducing the weight of the walls allowed for light to pour in
through stained glass windows.

Notre-Dame in Paris is not the first example of French Gothic architecture, but is surely the most
famous. In Italy, the main cathedral of Milan shows how other cultures put their own spin on
Gothic, exaggerating the flamboyant features with its ornate facade.

Timeline: 1150 to c. 1530

Signature building: Notre Dame

Milan Cathedral. Milan, Italy. (Photo: Boris Stroujko / Shutterstock)
Westminster Abbey. London, England. (Photo:  Felix Lipov / Shutterstock)
 

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Math helps us to determine the volume of gravel or soil that is needed to fill a hole. We
rely on math when designing safe building structures and bridges by calculating loads
and spans. Math also helps us to determine the best material to use for a structure,
such as wood, concrete, or steel.
 
Use of mathematics in ArchitectureBuildings are used by everyone for a variety
of reasons. They serveas dwelling places and shelters for man. They also provide
places inwhich one may conduct a business, care for the sick, teach
youngp e o p l e ,   o r   s p e n d   l e i s u r e   t i m e .   T o   p r o d u c e   s t r u c t u r
e s   t h a t   a r e functional as well as models of architectural beauty, designers
musta p p l y   p r i n c i p l e s   o f   m a t h e m a t i c s   i n   t h e i r   w o r k .   S c a l e   d r a w
i n g s , commonly known as plans are used as patterns in the constructionof
buildings. Proper ratios and proportions relate each feature of a building with
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Mathematics and architecture have alwaysenjoyed a close association with
each other, not only in the sense that the latter is informed by the former, but also
in that both sharethe search for order and beauty, the former in nature and the latterin
buildings. Mathematics is indispensable to the understanding of  structural
concepts and calculations. It is also employed as
visualo r d e r i n g   e l e m e n t   o r   a s   a   m e a n s   t o   a c h i e v e   h a r m o n
y   w i t h   t h e universe. Here geometry becomes the guiding principle.Architecture
and mathematics have historically been disciplines
thatw e r e   i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e .   A r c h i t e c t s   w e r e   m a t h e m a t i c i a n s ,   a
ndm a the m a ti c i an s   we r e  o fte n   a r ch i te c ts .  In   th e  s i x th   c
e n t u r y , Byzantine emperor Justinian wanted the Hagia Sophia to be
unlikea n y   o t h e r   b u i l d i n g   b u i l t   b e f o r e ,   s o   h e   a s s i g n e d   t h e   j o b   t
o   t w o professors of mathematics named Isidoros and Anthemios. In
theI s l a m i c   w o r l d ,   a r c h i t e c t s   c r e a t e d   a   w e a l t h   o f   c o m p l e x   p a t t e r n s , pa
rticularly in their elaborate tiling patterns.I n G r e e k a r c h i t e c t u r e , t h e G o l d e n
m e a n o r t h e G o l d e n r e c t a n g l e served as a canon for planning. This
corresponds to a proportion
of 1 :   1 . 6 1 8 ,   c o n s i d e r e d   i n   W e s t e r n   a r c h i t e c t u r a l   t h e o r y
to be verypleasing. In Islamic architecture, a proportion of 1: √2
was oftenu s e d —
the plan would be a square and the elevation would beo b t a i
ned by projecting from the diagonal of the plan. T
h e dimensions of the various horizontal components of the
elevations u c h   a s   m o u l d i n g s   a n d   c o r n i c e s   t o o   w e r e   o b t a i n
e d   f r o m   t h e diagonals of the various projections and recesses in plan. The optical
illusions of the Parthenon at the Acropolis, Athens, couldnot have been done without
a thorough knowledge of
geometry.A n c i e n t   a r c h i t e c t u r e   s u c h   a s   t h a t   o f   t h e   E g y p t i a n s   a n
d Indiansemployed planning principles and proportions that 
r o o t e d   t h e buildings to the cosmos, considering the movements of sun,
stars,a n d   o t h e r   h e a v e n l y   b o d i e s .   V a a s t u   S h a s t r a ,   t h e   a n c i e n t  
I n d i a n canons of architecture and
town planning employs mathematicaldrawings called mandalas. Extremely
complex calculations are usedto arrive at the dimensions of a building and its
components. Some