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Phys. Status Solidi B 249, No. 7, 1322–1329 (2012) / DOI 10.1002/pssb.201084216
Auxetic warp knit textile structures
Kim Alderson*, Andrew Alderson, Subhash Anand, Virginia Simkins, Shonali Nazare,
and Naveen Ravirala
Institute for Materials Research and Innovation, The University of Bolton, Deane Road, Bolton BL3 5AB, UK
Received 3 December 2010, revised 2 March 2012, accepted 9 March 2012
Published online 9 April 2012
Keywords auxetic, negative Poisson’s ratio, warp knit, textile
* Corresponding author: e-mail ka1@bolton.ac.uk, Phone: þ44 (0)1204 903519, Fax: þ44 (0)1204 399074
The design, manufacturing and characterization of warp knit
textile structures with enhanced drapeability and energy
absorption is reported in this paper. Four textile structures
were produced, all based on a triangular or double arrowhead
1 Introduction Auxetic materials are those, which
have a negative Poisson’s ratio, n i.e., they expand in the lateral
direction when stretched longitudinally [1]. A very wide range
of materials can be fabricated in auxetic form including
polymeric and metallic foams [2–5], polymers [6–9], fibre
reinforced composite laminates [10–13] and honeycombs [14–
17]. A further consequence of auxetic behaviour is that many
mechanical properties are predicted to be enhanced such as low
velocity impact resistance [18], indentation [19] and shear
[20]. A new class of auxetic materials seeking to exploit these
property enhancements is auxetic textile structures. Auxetic
textile structures should lead to a range of beneficial
attributes including improved energy absorption, high
volume change, wear resistance and drapeability. Potential
applications include filter fabrics, geotextiles, reinforce-
ments in advanced composites for aerospace and automotive
sectors and personal and sports protective garments such as
bulletproof vests and batting gloves [21, 22].
There are two potential approaches to producing auxetic
textiles. The first is to knit or weave auxetic fibres into a
fabric. Evans and Hook [23] produced a multifilament
construction in which a high stiffness filament is wrapped
helically around a thicker, low stiffness filament, with
neither constituent needing to be auxetic. The overall
construction shows auxetic behaviour upon stretching due
to straightening of the high stiffness filament causing the
lower stiffness one to helically wrap round it. This can
be produced using existing textile machinery and examples
of the materials used include an aramid-nylon yarn.
Applications being investigated for these multifilaments
include as protective blast curtains.
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basic solid state physics
structure, which is known to lead to a negative Poisson’s ratio n.
Mechanical testing has confirmed that textile structures can be
produced which are auxetic at
458 to the warp direction, with
n of up to 0.22
0.03.
ß 2012 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
Auxetic polypropylene fibres have also been fabricated
using a continuous partial melt spinning process [24]. The
auxetic effect here is thought to be due to a complex granular
microstructure [25] obtained by gluing together powder
particles i.e., by surface melting these only. The resulting
structures cannot be drawn as is the usual practise to improve
mechanical properties, as this has been shown in the fibres to
lead to a positive Poisson’s ratio [24]. Thus, as would be
expected, the auxetic fibres produced have modest mechan-
ical properties, with a tensile strength of 25 MPa and a
modulus of 1.3 GPa, which have hampered post processing.
To improve the properties, the fibres were subjected to an
annealing study [26] which not only resulted in them
retaining their auxeticity but also in a tensile strength at least
1.5 times higher than the unannealled fibres. This allowed the
fibres to be knitted on a simple hand-knitting machine,
producing a prototype fabric [27].
A different route to the production of auxetic fibres for
use in textile structures is to engineer the fibres to be auxetic
at the molecular level [28, 29], which should produce fibres
strong enough to post process without additional fibre
treatments.
The second approach to producing auxetic textiles is to
use conventional fibres and to knit or weave these into a
structure, which is itself auxetic. Ugbolue et al. [30] have
reported an auxetic knit structure using polyester and Nomex
yarns. In their structure, the wales are knitted from open lap
loops using thicker lower stiffness filaments and a high
stiffness filament is inlaid around aramid loops as underlaps.
They report that their fillet warp knit fabrics are auxetic
especially at the first stage of stretching, with values of
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Phys. Status Solidi B 249, No. 7 (2012) 1323

Poisson’s ratio, n ¼ 0.5. More recently, Liu and co-workers

have reported the production of a weft-knitted auxetic fabric
[31]. Their fabric design is based on a 3-dimensional auxetic
structure with parallelogram planes of the same shape and
size connected side to side to a form a zigzag. On application
of external strain, each parallelogram is able to change its
inclined position relative to the surface plane of the structure,
resulting in the whole structure increasing its dimensions in
both directions. The knit pattern was based on a purl structure
through a zigzag arrangement of face and reverse loops and
the yarn used was 100% wool 2/28 Nm yarn provided by
Novtex Woolen Spinners (Macau) Lt. A negative Poisson’s
ratio as low as n ¼ 0.5 was reported, which decreases with
increasing strain in the course direction.
This paper reports the work performed at the University
of Bolton on the design and fabrication of auxetic warp knit
fabrics based on mechanisms and structures known to result
in auxetic behaviour [32]. The fabrics were then tested using
video extensometry and shown to have n ¼ 0.22 depending
on the loading direction.

2 Design and fabrication of an auxetic warp knit

structure The design process to produce an auxetic warp
knit structure began with a review of known auxetic
structures and mechanisms. Based on this, the triangular or
double arrowhead topology was selected [33], as shown in
Fig. 1a. This produces the auxetic effect by hinging (see
Fig. 1b), leading to opening of the arrowheads.
In order to reproduce the structure in Fig. 1, a number of
stitch patterns were designed. The fabrics were formed of
two components – one as the auxetic component and the
other as the stabilizing component. An 18-gauge machine
was utilized throughout.
Figure 2a shows the first stitch pattern used to produce
the structure of Fig. 1.
This pattern uses three types of fibres, two to form the
auxetic component and one to form the stabilizing
component. The auxetic component is laid into the
stabilizing component, which is knitted using open loop
stitches. The stitch pattern was implemented using three
(a) (b)
Figure 1 Triangular or double arrowhead auxetic topology.
Figure 2 (a) Stitch pattern used for fabric 1 and (b) knitted fabric 1
produced from the stitch pattern.
Table 1 Guide bar settings and fibres used for fabric 1.
bar setting fibre
front 0-2/2-0 (full set) double coated lyrca
middle 0-0/2-2/4-4/2-2 mono-filament PES
(1 in–1 miss) 0.15 mm
rear 0-0/4-4/8-8/4-4 mono-filament PES
(1 in–1 miss) 0.25 mm
guide bars set as shown in Table 1, where the nomenclature
0–2 refers to a jump of one needle. Table 1 also shows the
fibres used, with the front guide bar being the stabilizing
component.
Figure 2b shows the actual knitted fabric produced from
this stitch pattern. Initial observations revealed that the
auxetic component of the fabric did not have the re-entrant
triangle configuration of Fig. 1 as had been intended, with the
base of the triangle directed out of the shape.
Figure 3a shows the second stitch pattern attempted.
For this variation, an additional elastomeric (Dorlastan)
fibre was utilized in the stabilization component of the fabric.
This was knitted using closed loop stitches to join the bases
of the triangle shapes in each column with the intention of
producing a more stable fabric in both length and width
directions. The stitch pattern was implemented using four
guide bars set as shown in Table 2 along with the fibres used.

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1324 K. Alderson et al.: Auxetic warp knit textile structures

Figure 4 (a) Stitch pattern used for fabric 3 and (b) knitted fabric 3
produced from the stitch pattern.

Figure 3 (a) Stitch pattern used for fabric 2 and (b) knitted fabric 2
Table 3 Guide bar settings and fibres used for fabric 3.
produced from the stitch pattern.
bar setting fibre

front 2-0/2-4 (1 in–1 miss) 480dtex Dorlastan V500

Table 2 Guide bar settings and fibres used for fabric 2.
2 0-2/2-0 (Full set) 480dtex Dorlastan V500
bar setting fibre 3 0-0/4-4/8-8/4-4 mono-filament PES
(1 in–1 miss) 0.25 mm
front 2-0/2-4 (1 in–1 miss) 480dtex Dorlastan V500 rear 2-0/2-2/2-4/2-2 mono-filament PES
2 0-2/2-0 (Full set) 480dtex Dorlastan V500 (1 in–1 miss) 0.15 mm
3 0-0/4-4/8-8/4-4 mono-filament PES
(1 in–1 miss) 0.25 mm
rear 0-0/2-2/4-4/2-2 mono-filament PES
(1 in–1 miss) 0.15 mm mented using 4 guide bars set as shown in Table 3, along with
the fibres used.
Figure 4b shows the actual knit fabric produced. As
can be seen, the fabric is denser and tighter than either fabric
Figure 3b shows the actual knit fabric produced. Once 1 or 2.
again, initial observations have shown that the auxetic Figure 5a shows the fourth and final stitch pattern
component did not have the re-entrant triangle configuration attempted, with Fig 5b showing the loop diagram expected
shown in Fig. 1. However, the base of the triangles was from the stitch pattern.
significantly flatter than was achieved with stitch pattern 1. This is a further variation on the previous stitch pattern
Figure 4a shows the third stitch pattern attempted. with the first fibre of the stabilizing component now being
This is a variation on the second stitch pattern in that the knitted in a Tricot stitch with both closed and open stitches,
fibres forming the bases of the triangles are now knitted into in contrast to the pillar stitch used in previous patterns. This
the fabric using closed loop stitches rather than being laid-in modification was intended to produce a more isotropic
as in the second stitch pattern. The variation here was to fabric. The stitch pattern was implemented using four guide
achieve more stability at the crossover points and more bars set as shown in Table 4, along with the fibres used.
stability under the hinges. The stitch pattern was imple- Figure 5c shows the actual knitted fabric.

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Phys. Status Solidi B 249, No. 7 (2012) 1325

x (warp direction)
1
2

Figure 6 (online colour at: www.pss-b.com) Schematic of test

sample orientations.

Moveable
crosshead

Video-
CCD extensometry
camera software

Figure 5 (a) Stitch pattern used for fabric 4, (b) loop diagram for
fabric 4 and (c) knitted fabric 4 produced from the stitch pattern.
Table 4 Guide bar settings and fibres used for fabric 4.
bar setting fibre
front 2-0/2-4 (1 in–1 out) 480dtex Dorlastan V500
2 2-4/0-2 (1 in–1 out) 480dtex Dorlastan V500
3 0-0/4-4/8-8/4-4 mono-filament PES
0.25 mm
4 2-0/2-2/2-4/2-2 mono-filament PES
(1 in–1 out) 0.15 mm
3 Experimental characterization methods The
fabrics were heat set and characterized using combined
mechanical testing and videoextensometry. Test samples
(15 cm long by 5 cm wide) were cut along and perpendicular
to the warp direction and also at
458 to the warp direction,
all the directions as shown in Fig. 6.
Tests were performed up to 10% loading strain and were
repeated several times per sample. Figure 7 shows a
schematic of the MESSPHYSIK ME 46 videoextensometer
and tensile testing machine, which were used to measure the
axial and transverse strains to ascertain the Poisson’s ratio.
The videoextensometer camera captures the image of the
sample and the software operates directly as a strain meter by
detecting the relative change in distance between fiducial
Load
cell
Width
Force Length
Extension PC2
PC1
Figure 7 (online colour at: www.pss-b.com) Schematic of the
videoextensometry set-up.
marks on the fabric along the length and width. Thus, from
the axial and transverse length data gathered during the test,
the axial and transverse strains can be calculated. Transverse
width data is collected for ten sections along the length of
the sample, enabling the individual width section data to be
generated as well as an average width data set. Data from the
middle 4 of the ten width sections was used in all data
analysis in order to minimize edge effects nearest to the
testing machine grips. Load-extension data for each test was
also captured.
4 Results In order to show how the data from the
videoextensometer are used to produce the Poisson’s ratios,
one example of tests performed on fabric 1 will be worked
through. Figure 8 shows the width and length data for fabric 1
when subjected to tensile loading along the x or warp
direction. There is one length curve (indicated by the thicker
line) and ten width curves, corresponding to all ten of the
individual transverse sections. It can be seen that as the fabric
is stretched, the width decreases, indicating a conventional
material with a positive Poisson’s ratio.
In order to calculate values of the Poisson’s ratio, the
width and length data were converted to transverse and axial

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1326 K. Alderson et al.: Auxetic warp knit textile structures

15.9 19.78
Table 8 Poisson’s ratio values for fabric 4.

15.8 19.76
nxy nyx n12 n21
width 1
0.1
0.06 0.23
0.05 0.22
0.03 0.13
0.02
width 2
15.7 19.74 width 3

Length(mm)
width 4
Width(mm)

width 5
15.6 19.72 width 6
width 7 very low (near zero) values of n are produced in two of the
width 8
width 9
orientations.
15.5 19.7
width 10 Following the same analysis method, Table 6 shows the
length
15.4 19.68
Poisson’s ratio values obtained for fabric 2 in all four key
orientations. Once again, the fabric is conventional, with
15.3 19.66
near zero values of n in two of the orientations.
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 The results for fabric 3 are shown in Table 7. This fabric
Time(msec) sample can be seen to show auxetic behaviour in the n21
Figure 8 Plot of length and width variations against time for fabric1 direction, with n21 ¼ 0.13
0.04 and near zero behaviour
tested in the warp (x) direction. in n12, with n12 ¼ 0.02
0.02.
A more detailed analysis is reported here for fabric 4,
with Fig. 9a–d showing the length and average width against
true strains, respectively, using time in each of the four orientations, with the average width
coming from each of the four central widths of the fabric.
l
e1 ¼ ln (1) It can be clearly seen that the fabric shows conventional
l0 behaviour for the first two graphs, when tested in the x- and y-
where e1 is the true strain and l and l0 are the length and directions but has auxetic behaviour when tested at 458 and
original length, respectively. þ458. Figure 10a–d shows graphs for the four orientations
Since the Poisson’s ratio, nij, is defined as of average widthwise strain against lengthwise strain
calculated as above, with the gradient of these graphs giving
ej
nij ¼  (2) the Poisson’s ratio values as shown in Eq. (2).
ei Repeat tests were conducted a number of times on each
where i is the direction of length and j the width direction, fabric and on a number of fabrics and the overall Poisson’s
the transverse and longitudinal true strains were plotted ratio values are given in Table 8. Thus, it can be seen that on
against each other. The slope is thus nij. Best-fit lines were repeat stretching, fabric 4 retains its auxeticity with all
fitted to the data for each of the four middle sections (as Poisson’s ratio values being negative as shown by the error
noted above to remove edge effects) and an average was bars of
0.03 and
0.02 for n12 and n21, respectively, on
obtained. This was repeated for each of the four key each stretch.
conditions. As an example, when tested in the x or warp
direction, fabric 1 yielded values for the four middle 5 Discussion The knitted fabrics in this study were
sections of nxy ¼ þ0.62, þ0.45, þ0.18 and þ0.08, which designed to be auxetic in the first stage of stretching and also
when averaged equated to nxy ¼ þ0.3
0.3. The results of to be able to undergo subsequent stretching, as shown in
the analysis for fabric 1 in all four directions are shown in Table 8, unlike other auxetic fabrics reported, which are
Table 5. The results show that the fabric is conventional, but effectively one stretch only auxetic materials. The fabrics
generated are complex and it is difficult to pick out the
underlying mechanisms behind their behaviour. In order to
Table 5 Poisson’s ratio values for fabric 1.
begin to understand how the fabrics produce the auxetic
nxy nyx n12 n21 effect, a detailed optical microscopy study was undertaken.
0.3
0.3 0.04
0.07 0.02
0.03 0.1
0.1 Samples of the fabrics were fitted with locating pins to aid in
geometric parameter identification and images were taken at
0.5% and 10% loading strain for each sample and loading
Table 6 Poisson’s ratio values for fabric 2. direction considered. The micrographs contain a wealth of
information and a detailed study is underway. However, a
nxy nyx n12 n21
preliminary study has been undertaken and the following
0.26
0.06 0.08
0.04 0.04
0.04 0.18
0.03
observations have been made.
During the first stage, stretching of the fabric occurs by
stretching of the fibres of the stabilization component and by
Table 7 Poisson’s ratio values for fabric 3. rotation of the fibres of the auxetic component about their
vertices. This rotation causes the re-entrant triangles of the
nxy nyx n12 n21
auxetic component to deform towards regular triangles, thus
0.11
0.03 0.33
0.04 0.02
0.02 0.13
0.04
producing a negative Poisson’s ratio. The modulus of the

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Phys. Status Solidi B 249, No. 7 (2012) 1327

(a) 29.35
average width
108 (b) 27.5
average width
108

length length
29.3 27.4
106 106

27.3
29.25
104 104
27.2
29.2

length (mm)

length (mm)
width (mm)

width (mm)
102 102
27.1
29.15
100 27 100
29.1
26.9
98 98
29.05
26.8

29 96 96
26.7

28.95 94 26.6 94
0 100000 200000 300000 400000 500000 0 100000 200000 300000 400000 500000
time (msec) time (msec)

(c) 29.3 106 (d) 29.25 104

average width average width
length 29.2 length 103
29.2
104
102
29.15
29.1 101
102 29.1
100
length (mm)
width (mm)

length (mm)
29.05
width (mm)

29
99
100
29
28.9 98
28.95
98 97
28.8 28.9
96

96 28.85 95
28.7
28.8 94
28.6 94
28.75 93
0 100000 200000 300000 400000 500000
0 100000 200000 300000 400000 500000
time (msec)
time (msec)

Figure 9 (a) Plot of length and average width against time for fabric 4 tested in the warp (x) direction. (b) Plot of length and average width
against time for fabric 4 tested perpendicular to the warp direction. (c) Plot of length and average width against time for fabric 4 tested at 458
to the warp direction. (d) Plot of length and average width against time for fabric 4 tested at þ458 to the warp direction.

material during the first phase is defined by the modulus of
the fibres of the stabilizing component and the resistance of
the fibres of the auxetic component to the rotation. This
resistance depends on the knit pattern, the types of fibres used
for the auxetic component and the relative properties of
the fibres of the auxetic and stabilizing components. For
example, the fibres of the auxetic component must have a
sufficiently high modulus compared to the resistance to
rotation of that fibre about its vertices, such that the shapes of
the auxetic component deform rather than stretching or
buckling. Likewise, the elasticity of the fibres of the
stabilizing component must be sufficiently high compared
with the resistance of the fibres of the auxetic component to
rotation so that the stabilizing component can act to return
the auxetic component to its original configuration when the
stress on the fabric is removed. This means that it is likely
that the modulus of the fabric will be dominated by the
modulus of the stabilizing component.
Looking now at the four stitch patterns investigated here,
as stated above, the behaviour of the fabrics is defined by the
interaction and relative characteristics of its two components
i.e., auxetic and stabilizing. The changes in knit pattern from 1
to 4 affect these relative characteristics and, as has been clearly
shown, this leads to very different properties. A general trend
from the first to the fourth pattern is the increase in the modulus
of the stabilizing component. Pattern 4 also introduces a lateral
interaction of the stabilizing component with the auxetic
component, which acts to pull the centre of the re-entrant side
of the triangle out of the triangle, causing the expansion in the
lateral direction. This is believed to lead to the improved values
of n12 ¼ 0.22
0.03 and n21 ¼ 0.13
0.02.
It is expected that at some stage, the structure will revert
to a conventional structure displaying positive Poisson’s
ratios as the network expands in much the same way as is
seen in honeycomb and other auxetic network structures.
This is likely to be at strains much higher than the 10%
assessed here since initial microscopic examinations do not
reveal that the structure is at its limits when 10% strain is
applied. In addition, the fabric behaves linearly elastic up to
the 10% strain applied.

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1328 K. Alderson et al.: Auxetic warp knit textile structures

(a) (b)
0.004 0.01

0.002 0.005

0 0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 -0.02 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
Average strain_y

Average strain_x
-0.002 -0.005

-0.004 -0.01

-0.006 -0.015
y = -0.1078x + 0.0017
y = -0.2684x + 0.0025
-0.008 -0.02

-0.01 -0.025

-0.012 -0.03
Strain_x Strain_y
(c) (d)
0.02 0.012

0.01
0.015
0.008
y = 0.1969x - 0.0008 y = 0.1299x - 0.0012
Average strain_2

Average strain_1

0.01 0.006

0.004

0.005
0.002

0
0 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
-0.02 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
-0.002

-0.005 -0.004
Strain_1 Strain_2

Figure 10 (a) Plot of transverse against longitudinal strain length for fabric 4 tested in the warp (x) direction. (b) Plot of transverse against
longitudinal strain length for fabric 4 tested perpendicular to the warp direction. (c) Plot of transverse against longitudinal strain length for
fabric 4 tested at 458 to the warp direction. (d) Plot of transverse against longitudinal strain length for fabric 4 tested at þ458 to the warp
direction.

Simple analytical models based on hinging, flexing and shows the pristine double arrowhead geometry of Fig. 1, and
stretching of the fabric components are currently being Fig. 11b shows the same geometry where the long arms
developed. It is likely that the three mechanisms need to be aligned towards the 2-axis have been rendered inactive
considered acting in a concurrent manner. Also it is (indicated by dashed lines). The array of active elements
recognized that other mechanisms may operate in the (solid lines) in Fig. 11b approximates a sheared re-entrant
fabrics. In particular, fibre translation determined by friction, hexagonal honeycomb, with ‘vertical’ (long) arms aligned
leading to slippage, is expected to occur. towards the 1-axis. The re-entrant hexagonal honeycomb
Another modification, which may need to be incorpor- displays auxetic response for loading along or perpendicular
ated into the models relates to the arms of the networks being to the direction of the ‘vertical’ arms when deformation is
fibres rather than beams. Consider, for example, the case of a predominantly by flexing or hinging of the arms. Now
tensile load applied vertically to the structure of Fig. 1. In this consider the case of the structure of Fig. 11a subject to tensile
case, the long arms of the network are placed under tension loading along the 1-axis. This loading will tend to flatten the
along their lengths, whereas the short arms are under axial adjacent cells bounded by ABCD along the y-direction,
compression. In which case the short fibre arms are likely to which will place the long arms aligned towards the 2-axis
adopt a kinked or buckled form in contrast to the combination (e.g., arm AC) to be placed under compression. In the case of
of flexed, hinged or shortened deformation determined from stiff beam elements, cell flattening is resisted. However, for
beam mechanics. The kinked/buckled fibres become inactive fibre elements, the arms aligned towards the 2-axis become
in the mechanism responsible for the effective mechanical buckled/kinked and thus are rendered inactive, leading to the
properties, which may explain why the on-axis auxetic structure of Fig. 11b and, therefore, the occurrence of auxetic
response predicted from beam theory has not been achieved behaviour for tensile loading along the 1-axis. A similar
in the fabrics investigated here. argument can also be advanced for tensile loading along the
The presence of off-axis auxetic response in fabrics 3 and 2-axis. A thorough assessment of which ribs become inactive
4 may also be attributed to the occurrence of inactive during loading is clearly now required to assess the validity
buckled/kinked fibres during mechanical loading. Figure 11a of these initial considerations.

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Phys. Status Solidi B 249, No. 7 (2012)
Figure 11 (a) Pristine double arrowhead structure and (b) double
arrowhead structure with inactive (dashed) long arms oriented
towards the 2-axis, revealing a sheared re-entrant hexagonal array
of active elements.
Such analytical modelling should serve the dual purpose
of aiding in the understanding of the deformation of the
fabric reported here and in informing the design of further
fabrics with tailored mechanical properties.
6 Conclusion Combining the design and development
of auxetic structures with the design and fabrication of
knitted structures has allowed auxetic warp knit fabrics
to be produced from conventional fibres. Auxetic behaviour
has been confirmed through combined mechanical testing
and videoextensometry when the fabric is stretched
along directions at þ458 and 458 to the warp direction.
Preliminary optical microscopy analysis has been under-
taken. This has indicated that a multiple deformation model
is needed to fully understand the response of the fabric. This
is ongoing and should inform the development of auxetic
textiles with a range of beneficial properties.
Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge the
assistance and contributions of Mike Starbuck, Auxetics
Technologies Limited and Culzean in this project.
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