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Earth construction in the Algarve - Past and future

Conference Paper · October 2017

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 Earth construction in the Algarve - Past and future

Abstract. Raw earth, while building material, is used by men for thousands of
years, and constitutes unquestionably one of the most sustainable construction
materials. Several construction technics exist over world using raw earth as basic
material. In Portugal, is possible to notice a rich heritage of buildings in raw earth,
located throughout the country, but more spread in the south, both civilian
buildings and military structures. The main vernacular techniques are rammed
earth and adobe, but while rammed earth continues being used with no significant
differences, the technique of the adobe suffered an evolution, to improve its
behaviour, essentially by the compaction promoted by a compression equipment.
It was conducted a research on earth building heritage throughout the Algarve,
especially in typological and dimensional terms, as well as structural and
constructional aspects and collected "in situ" numerous samples tested later in
laboratory. Simultaneously, the “Terra Crua” company has great practical
knowledge about raw earth construction, firstly with rammed earth assemblies,
since approximately seventeen years and one hundred of buildings erected, and
in the two last years with compressed earth blocks [CEB] and seven structures
already finished. Civil Engineering Department of Institute of Engineering,
University of Algarve is developing a research project focused in the
characterization and in the quality control of the CEB produced by “Terra Crua”.
In this paper, some aspects of old and new earth buildings are presented as well
as several developments in the construction techniques and quality control of
materials are reviewed. The necessity to find constructive sustainable solutions
explains the current demand for sophisticated construction with raw earth, but is
essential to associate empirical knowledge delivered through the centuries to
present scientific and technological developments, aiming not only for new
buildings but also for the conservation and rehabilitation of a valuable heritage.

Keywords: Earth construction, Compressed earth blocks, Quality control

 2

1 Introduction

Initially defined by the Brundtland Commission as “meeting the needs of the

present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”
[1] the concept of sustainability means nowadays a variety of approaches that integrate
simultaneously different perspectives, not only environmental or ecological
performance, but also and economic development and social responsibility. Not only
the protection of the environment and the biodiversity, reducing the carbon footprint,
but also the efficient use of materials, preferably naturals with a minimum embedded
energy, the conservation, reuse and recyclability of resources, the constant social
progress, a stable economic growth and even the defeat of poverty.
Phenomena such as climate change and the accentuation of ozone depletion, the loss
of biodiversity, the pollution increase, are caused by human activities. In addition
among these activities is necessary to accept that construction as a very relevant
prominence, perhaps even more important than general industry and transport systems.
The building sector consumes approximately 40% of global energy use in Europe
[2], being a main consumer of natural resources, correspondingly producing greenhouse
gases and creating large amounts of waste [3] [4][5].
Constructions have effects not only during the constructive process but also through
its functioning and even the future demolition. The buildings lifetime includes all the
process, since the conception of the project, the production of materials, the own
construction procedure, the normal operation, the required maintenance and at the end
of its lifetime its decommissioning.
It’s true that there was a big saving of energy with the use of more “friendly”
equipment and insulation in last years in developed countries. It’s true but it’s not
enough. When we talk about energy consumption or energy savings during total life
cycle of building it’s necessary to consider not only operating energy (connected with
the comfort in the interior of buildings during its utilization) but also embodied energy
(connected with the energy used with the fabrication and transport of the materials and
its application in the building) that is, nowadays, much more relevant [6].
Earth is one of the oldest construction materials. The single properties and it
availability justify the wide dissemination and the use over time [7]. Torgal and Jalali
[8] identify the start of earth construction with the agricultural society development
(12,000 to 7,000 B.C.). Until today many ancient constructions have remained intact
over time and are now buildings internationally known with high cultural and historical
value. It is the case, for instance, of the Temple of Ramses II in Gourna (1,200 B.C.),
Egypt or the Great Wall of China (220 B.C.).
The very ancient use of raw earth to build constructions may be, actually, an
alternative way and represents something very special, because it is a local material that
comes from natural resources, with the consumption of la small amount of energy and
water, with a low environmental impact in contrast to conventional construction
materials, like cement, concrete, steel, bricks and many others [9].
With the introduction of new materials and techniques in current constructions, the
earth constructions declined during the first half of 20th century, between the 1950s
and the 1970s, this type of construction was gradually substituted and after abandoned,
 3

but it is estimated that approximately 30 % of the world’s population still lives in

buildings constructed with earth [10].
The economic and social benefits are not the only attractive features of this material.
It has been recognized in different applications around the world that the earth
techniques have environmental and sustainable benefits. In a study carried out in France
[3], the use of locally sourced materials in the construction of rammed earth showed a
significant reduction in environmental impact when compared to a case where the
building material is obtained far and transported to the construction site. In a different
project in India [11], the use of earth and cement to create masonry blocks resulted in
a 62% reduction in the embodied when compared to a reinforced concrete structure and
a reduction of 45% when compared to burnt brick masonry and reinforced concrete
slabs.
As a building material normally available in the construction site and because does
not require high energy consumption for processing, earth is recognised as an
ecological material with a low environmental impact [3][12] [13]. Earth construction is
associated with low embodied energy, low carbon dioxide emissions and very low
pollution impacts [6] [14] [15] [16].
Another aspect to be considered in the sustainability analysis of earth constructions
is related to its durability [17] [18]. The durability of earth construction in all regions
without high seismic hazard is proved by the fact that some of the buildings last for
hundreds of years. The main mechanism responsible for the erosion of earth walls are
related to the kinetic energy of the impact of rainfall [8] [19]. The durability of earth
buildings only requires normal conservation care using techniques compatible with the
original construction [9].
There are numerous construction systems, the group Craterre mention the existence
of eighteen different techniques over the world. In Iberian Peninsula [20] and
particularly in Portugal there are, traditionally, three principal methods, rammed earth,
adobe and wattle and daub (fig. 1), nevertheless in Algarve, the rammed earth is almost
the only existing.

Fig. 1. Different construction systems (rammed earth, adobe and wattle and daub).

The rammed earth is found mainly in the South of the country, in the provinces of
Alentejo and Algarve.
The technic of adobe is more widespread in the center of the country near the sea, in
a province called "Beira Litoral" and specifically in the city of Aveiro.
 4

The wattle and daub system is too little visualized but performs particularly in the
north and center of the country, especially in the municipalities of Chaves, Bragança,
Barca de Alva, Arouca, Idanha Nova, Alpedrinha and Castelo Branco.

2 Brief characterisation of raw earth constructions existing in

the Algarve

In the Algarve it is yet possible to watch a lot of raw earth constructions throughout all
its extension, well adapted to climatic conditions of this region, with Mediterranean
characteristics, mainly executed with the technique of rammed earth, either in military
constructions as in civil buildings. This occurs especially in the west side, called
"Barlavento", where the prevailing winds blow from the southwest.
Very few buildings presented other construction techniques (adobe and wattle and
daub). A few years ago [21], 346 buildings were identified on raw land, of which only
2 were not made with rammed earth, these two dwellings were made with the system
of wattle and daub and none in adobe, this in terms of resistant exterior walls, since
internal dividing walls were found.
In recent times is watched that some modern architects are adapting this material to
new construction, naturally fulfilling new requirements and that there has been some
demand for this type of constructions.

4.1 Military Constructions

Several examples of military construction were noted, in particular the walls
of old Arab fortifications, as Castelo Belinho, Silves, Salir, Faro, Cacela Velha or
Paderne (fig. 2). In this last case, the castle, with its imposing walls, is located in the
center of the Algarve and has been built in the twelfth century, in the Almohad period
of Garb al- Andaluz. It constituted one of several fortifications of a defensive line for
controlling an ancient Roman way [22].

Fig. 2. Military constructions (Paderne, Silves and Cacela).

Recently, rehabilitation works were accomplished, using two different construction

methods (fig. 3). In the first one, pieces of ancient rammed earth walls were restored
by the execution of new ones perfectly recognizable with a grateful authenticity. The
 5

second method consisted in the projection of earth to repair hollows made by erosion,
caused by wind and rain.

Fig. 3. Rehabilitation works in the Castle of Paderne.

Important dissimilarities were observed, between architectural features of

constructions mainly aimed for defence, obviously very distinct than those intended for
housing. Besides others, stands out their different scales. For instance, the wall
thicknesses reached two or three times the thickness of the walls of dwellings, as later
will be seen, allowing bigger heights and to overcome larger spans. The blocks have
dimensions of about 2.65 x 1.80 x 0.90 [m], respectively, for length, width and height,
when comparatively can point to those used in civil constructions, 1.5 x 0.5 x 0.5 [m].
Joints, both horizontal and vertical ones, consisting essentially of lime and earth, are
large and evident, in order to simulate stone structures to be interpreted by the assailants
as an increased defensive capability.
At the same time, highlights the particular constitution of the wall itself, called
military rammed earth, distinct from civil rammed earth walls, due of its high strength
to an efficient defensive performance. The introduction of a significant percentage of
lime to the soil, causes a tremendous hardening of the blocks, thus allowing at long
time, a "petrification" of the earth, after a slow process of carbonation of lime [23].

4.2 Vernacular Constructions

There were completed various expeditions throughout the Algarve region for
the recognition and analysis of traditional buildings, in order to characterize the
remaining built heritage. The inquiry held, had been verified in identification sheets,
drawn to that effect. Each sheet contains the exact location and the architectural and
constructive characterization, including the description of the main pathologies and
implemented structural reinforcement elements, as well as plant and photographic
documentation.
These dwellings, mostly, built in the nineteenth and early twentieth century,
nowadays are, in general, completely abandoned, showing a marked state of
deterioration, without any roofing that enables a minimum protection of the walls.
They are, in the majority of cases, modest buildings with various uses, especially
family dwellings, but also small stockyards to protect animals and collect grain and
other agricultural products. Rarely with two floors, like is seen in (Fig. 4), they just
have one ground floor. Usually with a rectangular plant, just farm silos and mills have
a circular one [24].
 6

Fig. 4. Vernacular dwellings.

The following image (fig. 5) shows the percentage of raw earth buildings observed
in each of the provinces. Interestingly, the area where there is a higher percentage of
households made with earth, corresponding to a high hazard in accordance with the
provisions of the Eurocode 8 - Design of structures for earthquake resistance (NP EN
1998-1, 2010).

3%

14%
14% 2%
15%
1% 1%
21% 2%
9%
6% 8%
3% 2%

Fig. 5. Location of earthen buildings in Algarve.

Buildings are mainly identified in rural areas, where some are isolated, while others
are gathered in small clusters. In urban areas, it is still possible be seen, but it is
increasingly difficult to find them, because the valorisation of space provides different
uses, with the widespread demolition of traditional buildings and their replacement by
more valued, reinforced concrete constructions. Furthermore, the existence of plaster
also avoids often their objective recognition.
Traditional buildings are characterized by the simplicity and regularity of the plant,
with a very small number and size of openings. Often only two or three openings to the
outside, which corresponds to one or two small access doors and one or two windows
arranged in the main facade or opposite walls to ensure some ventilation.
The thickness of the exterior rammed earth walls commonly varies between 40 and
60 cm, most often between 45 and 55 cm. The earth blocks have an average size of 1.5
m long and 0.5 m in height, compacted in layers of 8-12 cm. Horizontal joints are
always implemented to make a solid connection between the blocks, constituted by the
earth itself added with aerial lime. Vertical joints, although may be observed in some
cases, are less usual.
 7

Beneath the walls and on top of the foundations, plinths may be watched usually
constituted by stones, of limestone or shale, with a variable height between 25 and 90
cm. This is a significant constructive detail to prevent access of water from the ground.
The preferential direction of the main facade is to the south, and over 80% of
buildings have that main façade targeted between east and west quadrants. Over half of
the constructions have a surface area lower than 100 m2, some even inferior to 50 m2.
The partitioning is reduced and primarily obtained by the existence of a main wall of
earth located in the middle of the house, separating compartments and, at the same time,
holding the roofing. When there are other inner walls are generally made with adobes,
with a thickness of 20 cm.
The roofs are mostly two sides with a slope between 20 and 35%. They have a
wooden structure consisting of rods with pine or eucalyptus 8 cm in diameter, supported
on the peripheral walls and on the main wall, where it exists or, alternatively, on a
central beam of wood, usually oak, round or square with a dimension of 25 cm. Rare is
the existence of timber trusses, which allow to quash the transmission of horizontal
forces resulting from the weight of the roof. Usually, under the traditional roof tiles of
red clay, there is a lining with canes or wood slats.
The main difficulties, in addition to the severe problems caused by absence of
maintenance and abandonment of buildings, consist in two reasons, the presence of
moisture and the effects of horizontal loads, either caused by the roofing, as those
resulting from seismic activity.
The presence of water, resulting in particular for the capillary rise from the ground
or derived from infiltrations caused by the direct action of water on the walls, especially
when the rain is conditioned by the wind, justifies the need to implement appropriate
constructive solutions. The implementation of plinths at the bottom of the walls
(bellow), of roofs with overhanging eaves (over) and of plaster with lime mortar (by
the side), can solve, naturally and without a big trouble, a problem that only the
occurrence of floods may become insoluble, hence the necessity for careful selection
of the implantation site.
The fragile structural behaviour to horizontal actions that raw earth constructions
evidence, like the manifestation of serious damage, including partial or total collapse
of the buildings, is a problem a long time noted. Highlighting the concerns that resulted
of that structural weaknesses, the existence of reinforcing expedite solutions (fig. 6) is
found with the aim of providing better structural performance facing actions, especially,
horizontal ones.
Contributing to increase the inertia of the walls, the reinforcement takes place
through introduction of abutments disposed generally on opposite facades, which
function is to prevent outward rotation. To ensure the connection of the different walls,
steel rods were positioned between opposite facades to constrain their movements and
acting as a passive armour. Steel rods were also placed peripherally on the outside of
the walls to increase the connection between adjacent walls.
 8

Fig. 6. Reinforcement expedite solutions.

3 Description of construction methods and works performed by

the company Terracrua

“Terra Crua” is a company with a long tradition of constructions with raw earth. Since
1999, they built a lot of buildings, certainly more than one hundred, mainly in Alentejo
and Algarve, the two more southern regions of Portugal (fig. 7). Since always the
technical system used with so good outcomes is the rammed earth, nevertheless in the
last four years they adopted another constructive system, the ECB (earth compressed
blocks) and now they construct with both systems, depending essentially on the
building site but also on the owner's wishes.

Fig. 7. Dwellings performed by Terracrua.

In the execution of rammed earth (fig. 8), the feedstock is poured in thin layers
(approximately 10 cm) between panels of wood and successively compacted through a
maul of wood. Blocks of approx. 1.5 m in length and 0.5 m in height and a thickness
corresponding to the desired wall thickness (e.g. 0.5 m) are thus executed. After the
execution of the blocks of the first level in the entire perimeter of the construction, the
 9

next level starts over the first one, being careful to proceed to the lag of the vertical
joints between blocks. Moreover the construction continues identically until the
projected dimension is reached. It is therefore an almost monolithic construction of
great resistance to the action of gravitational charges.
The system of construction with compressed earth blocks [CEB] used nowadays
(fig. 9) is a conversion of the old system of adobe (constructions made with small
blocks, like bricks, manufactured and dried at the sun overlapped to lift the walls) to
improve its performance, essentially through the compression in mechanical press,
hence the designation and often the addition of a binder, preferentially lime. The
company has already manufactured more than one hundred thousand blocks.
While the technique of rammed earth requires to be made only "in situ", that is to
say, the extraction of the earth and the construction have to be carried out in the same
place, already in the construction with CEBs these can be done in a certain location and
later to be transported to the site.
That means a big difference but is always evident a concern for constructive
sustainability and in their permanent eagerness to optimize processes is now beginning
to use construction and demolition waste to work with.

Fig. 8. Rammed earth executed by Terracrua.

Fig. 9. Compressed earth blocks accomplished by Terracrua.

 10

4 Quality control tests carried out to verify the quality of the

works executed by Terracrua

The characterization was carried out following the specifications of the existing
Spanish standard UNE 41410 “Bloques de tierra comprimida para muros y tabiques.
Definiciones, especificaciones y métodos de ensayo”[25]. Account were also taken
from the French rules drawn up jointly by the “Centre pour le développement industriel
[CDI] e o grupo CRATerre –EAG (Research Laboratory created in 1979 at the School
of Architecture of Grenoble).
The blocks produced by Terracrua Company were randomly selected from 2
different lots in order to make sampling more meaningful. With those blocks multiple
tests were carried out in the Construction Laboratory of Civil Engineering Department
of University of Algarve, for its mechanical characterization. Thermal characterization
tests (thermal conductivity and specific heat) are being carried out but only later will
be available the respective results.

4.1 Dimensions and tolerances

As established in the standard UNE 41410 were adopted the procedures of the standard
NP EN 772-16 [26].
The measurements of the length, height and width of each sample were executed like
the determination of its dry mass in stove.
Average length of 251,1 mm with a standard deviation of 0,4 mm, corresponding to
0,15 % of the average value. The maximum and minimum values were respectively,
252,0 mm and 250,1 mm.
Average width of 126,3 mm with a standard deviation of 0,2 mm, corresponding to
0,15 % of the average value. The maximum and minimum values were respectively,
126,7 mm and 126,0 mm.
Average height of 78,6 mm with a standard deviation of 0,9 mm, corresponding to
1,11 % of the average value. The maximum and minimum values were respectively,
81,7 mm and 77,7 mm.
In the UNE 41410 standard are prescribed maximum tolerances of 5 mm rounding
up and 2 mm rounding down. Maximum tolerances were fully respected. Rounding up,
the maximum variation was 3,1 mm (in height) and rounding down it didn’t went over
1mm (in length).
 11

4.2 Density
As established in the standard UNE 41410 were adopted the procedures of the standard
NP EN 772-13 [27].
After acquiring the dimensions of each sample referred to above (in 4.1) the
respective volume was calculated. In addition, it was performed the measurement of
the dry mass in the stove of each sample.
For the average density it was obtained a value of 1758,7 Kg/m3, with a standard
deviation of 49,4 Kg/m3, corresponding to 2,81 % of the average value. The maximum
and minimum values were respectively, 1863,4 Kg/m3 and 1649,0 Kg/m3.
In the bibliography it is referred a density value for hardened state of CEBs with
stabilizer between 1740 Kg/m3and 2000 Kg/m3 [28].

4.3 Compressive strength

As established in the standard UNE 41410 were adopted the procedures of the standard
NP EN 772-1:2001 [29] for air-dried samples.
The PROETI S. A. 08M7486 press (fig. 10) was used and, expecting a compressive
strength value inferior to 10 N/mm2, a tension increment of 0.05 N/ mm2/ s was applied
to the loading speed.

Fig. 10. Compressive strength test.

It was obtained an average compressive strength of 3,38 N/mm2, with a standard

deviation of 0,69 N/mm2, corresponding to 20,54 % of the average value. The
maximum and minimum values were respectively, 4,99 N/mm2 and 2,38 N/mm2.
The minimum value corresponding to the fractile of 5 % recommended in the
standard was 2,47 N/mm2 which implies that the normalized compressive strength class
is designated like BTC1 compressive strength higher than 1.3 N/mm2.
A very well grounded regulation, perhaps the best one, comes from New Zeland and
it is constituted the by 3 standards, (NZS 4297, NZS 4298 and NZS 4299) [30] [31]
[32]. In accordance with [31] the design minimum value for compressive strength is
1.52 N/mm2.
 12

4.4 Erosion
Following the procedures established in the standard UNE 41410: 2008 [25] during 10
minutes, a continuous stream of water was set to drop from a tank (with ensured
constant level) onto a sample block, which was at a distance of 1 m and inclined at 27°
to the horizontal. After that time the sample block was removed and the depth (D) of
the possible originated orifice measured with a 3 mm diameter rod.
The CEB is considered to be "fit" when the depth is not over 10 mm, if not it will be
considered “unfit”.
Out of 10 tested sample blocks, 7 had no orifice (D = 0) and only 1 was considered
"unfit" because the depth of the orifice caused by erosion was 14 mm, therefore, over
10 mm.

4.5 Water absorption due to capillary action

As established in the standard UNE 41410 were adopted the procedures of the standard
EN 772-11:2002 [33].
After drying the samples in a stove until constant mass and respective weighing, they
were introduced into water and submerged at a height of 5 mm for 10 minutes . After
that time the wet samples were weighed. With the above data it was determined the
coefficient of water absorption by capillarity of each sample. It was obtained an average
absorption coefficient of 254,9 g/(m2 x s0,5) with a standard deviation of 60,3
corresponding to a percentage of 23,7 %, with a maximum of 323,8 g/(m2 x s0,5) and a
minimum of 153,4 g/(m2 x s0,5).

4.6 Bending tensile strength

Although it’s not included in the standard UNE 41410 it was decided to perform the
flexural tensile strength test provided in the French rules drawn up jointly by the
“Centre pour le développement industriel [CDI] and the group CRATerre –EAG.
The test was carried out according to the procedures of the NP EN 772-6: 2002 [34].
The press used was PROETI S. A. 08M7486 and the solid blocks were air dried at
the relative humidity and temperature conditions until constant mass was obtained . The
load was applied gradually and at a convenient rate so that the fracture occurred within
the period between 30 s and 90 s (fig. 11).
 13

Fig. 11. Bending tensile strength test.

It was obtained a flexural tensile strength value of 1,06 N/mm2, with a standard
deviation of 9,26 N/mm2, corresponding to 24,4 %, with a maximum value of 1,56
N/mm2 and a minimum value of 0,66 N/mm2.
In accordance with [35] the design minimum value for flexural strength, established
by New Zeland Standard NZS 4298 [31], is 0.25 N/mm2, and compressive strength will
be, about, 3.5 times the flexural strength (New Zeland Standard NZS 4297) [30].

5 Conclusions

Raw earth construction, linking the ancient knowledge of each culture with the
current technological development, can be considered, from now, as a consistent
alternative towards pernicious materials, nowadays hegemonic, from a construction
industry that contributes decisively to the deterioration that has coming to depredate
our world.
The use of raw earth offers two main possibilities. Firstly, it is, perhaps, the only
chance to provide a house to those who have economically nothing, where they and
their families, can live with dignity. Secondly, delivers the possibility to build very
attractive and refined constructions, with fantastic welfare and comfort conditions.
Nowadays, their aesthetic, ecological and economic potentialities, and their thermal,
acoustic and hygrometric properties, are unmistakable.
Beyond the obvious advantages, the material has, also, significant vulnerabilities,
particularly in relation to moisture and horizontal actions. In Algarve, there is a high
seismic hazard, and the consequences, although rare, cannot be avoided only with good
intentions. The brittle behaviour of the material recommends the use of a structural
solution with sufficient ductility to ensure effective performance under the effect of
seismic actions.
Nowadays, a growing number of people, especially foreigners, but also Portuguese,
are genuinely concerned about the quality of housing, refusing standard buildings and
seeking globally sustainable alternatives. The company Terracrua offers answers to this
demand through the use of raw earth as feedstock and according different construction
systems such as rammed earth and CEBs.
 14

The cooperation that is being established between the Department of Civil

Engineering of the University of Algarve and the company Terracrua will certainly
contribute to the provision of housing with superior construction quality, not only
through the control of materials and construction procedures used but also through
development Research on the optimization of the constructive and structural design
itself.

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