3.6 PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION (MECHANICAL ANALYSIS) 3.

Percentage finer than any sieve, F

This classification test determines the range of sizes of particles in the
m−∑ mr
soil and the percentage of particles in each of these size ranges. This is
also called ‘grain-size distribution’; ‘mechanical analysis’ means the
separation of a soil into its different size fractions.
F=100−R=
Where
( m
x 100 )
The particle-size distribution is found in two stages:
(i) Sieve analysis, for the coarse fraction. mr = mass of soil retained
(ii) Sedimentation analysis or wet analysis, for the fine fraction. mr = cumulative mass retained on any sieve
‘Sieving’ is the most direct method for determining particle sizes, but m = total soil mass
there are practical lower limits to sieve openings that can be used for r = sum of percentages retained on all coarser sieves
soils. This lower limit is approximately at the smallest size attributed to
sand particles (75 or 0.075 mm).
Sieving is a screening process in which coarser fractions of soil are
separated by means of a series of graded mesh. Mechanical analysis is
one of the oldest test methods for soils.

1. USDA (United States – Department of Agriculture)

Particle size
diameter
Sand Silt Clay
mm 2.0 0.05 0.002

2. ASTM D422 or D653 (American Society for Testing and

Materials)
Sand

Boulder Cobble Gravel Coarse Medium Fine Silt Clay Colloids

Figure 3.1 Different types of Particle-Size distribution Curves
300 75 4.75 2.0 0.425 0.075 0.005 0.001 A particle-size distribution curve can be used to determine the following
four parameters for a given soil:
3. USCS (Unified Soil Classification System) 1. Effective Size (D10): This parameter is the diameter in the
Gravel Sand particle-size distribution curve corresponding to 10% finer.
Boulder Cobble Fines The effective size is a good measure to estimate the
Coarse Fine Coarse Medium Fine (Silt, clay)
hydraulic conductivity and drainage through soil.
300 75 19 4.75 2.0 0.425 0.075 2. Uniformity coefficient (Cu): This parameter is defined as
4. AASHTO (American Association of State Highway and Transportation D60
Officials) C u=
D10
Sand Where D60 = diameter corresponding to 60% finer.
Boulder Gravel Silt Clay Colloids
Coarse Fine
3. Coefficient of gradation (Cc): This parameter is defined as

75 2.0 0.425 0.075 0.005 0.001 D 302

C u=
D 60∗D 10
Comparison of 4 systems for describing soils based on particle Where D30 = diameter corresponding to 30% finer.
size 4. Sorting Coefficient (So): This parameter is another measure
of uniformity and is generally encountered in geologic works
expressed as
D 75
So =
Where
√ D 25
D75 = diameter corresponding to 75% finer
D25 = diameter corresponding to 25% finer.

Additional parameter:
5. Average grain size (D50): This parameter is the diameter in
the particle-size distribution curve corresponding to 50%
3.6.1 SIEVE ANALYSIS
finer.
US Standard Sieves
Designation Opening Designation Opening
mm mm EXAMPLE 3.3 A sieve analysis test was conducted on 650 grams of soil. The
2 in 50.80 35 0.50 results are as follows.
1-1/2 in 38.10 40 0.425 Mass of soil retained on each sieve
3/4 in 19.00 50 0.355 Sieve No.
3/8 in 9.51 60 0.250 (g)
4 4.75 70 0.212 3/8 in 0
8 2.36 80 0.180 4 53
10 2.00 100 0.150
14 1.40 120 0.125
10 76
16 1.18 170 0.090 20 73
18 1.00 200 0.075 40 142
20 0.85 270 0.052
30 0.60
100 85
200 120.5
Calculations needed: Pan 99.8
99. Percentage retained on any sieve, r Determine the following:
a. The amount of coarse-grained and fine-grained soils.
mr b. Amount of each soil type based on ASTM system.
r= x 100 % c. Particle size distribution (gradation) curve
m d. Effective size
2. Cumulative percentage retained on any sieve, R
e. Average particle size

R=∑ r=
∑ mr x 100 % f.
g.
Uniformity coefficient
Coefficient of curvature
m h. Description of gradation curve
 i. Classification of soil using USDA chart, AASHTO-CS and USCS

EXAMPLE 3.4 A sample of a dry, coarse-grained material of mass 500 grams

was shaken through a nest of sieves, and the following results were obtained:

a. Plot the particle size distribution (gradation) curve

b. Determine (1) the effective size, (2) the average particle size,
(3) the uniformity coefficient, and (4) the coefficient of
curvature
c. Determine the textural composition of the soil (i.e., the
amount of gravel, sand, etc.).
,
EXAMPLE 3.5 Classify the soil using AASHTO-CS and USCS.

3.7 CONSISTENCY OF CLAY SOILS

‘Consistency’ is that property of a material which is manifested by its
resistance to flow. In this sense, consistency of a soil refers to the
resistance offered by it against forces that tend to deform or rupture the
soil aggregate; in other words, it represents the relative ease with which
the soil may be deformed. Consistency may also be looked upon as the
degree of firmness of a soil and is often directly related to strength. This
is applicable specifically to clay soils and is generally related to the
water content.

Figure 3.2 Variation of volume of soil mass with variation of water

EXAMPLE 3.6 Classify the soil using AASHTO-CS and USCS. content

CONSISTENCY LIMITS (Atterberg Limits) and INDECES

a. Liquid Limit
‘Liquid limit’ (LL or wL) is defined as the arbitrary limit of water content
at which the soil is just about to pass from the plastic state into the
liquid state. At this limit, the soil possesses a small value of shear
strength, losing its ability to flow as a liquid. In other words, the liquid
limit is the minimum moisture content at which the soil tends to flow as
a liquid.
Laboratory Definition 1 (ASTM D 4318): Using Cup Device or the
Casagrande Apparatus, the moisture content corresponding to 25
blows from the flow curve is taken as the liquid limit of the soil. From
the figure, LL = 31.5%.
 w2 (% )−w 1(%)
FI =
d
log 2
d1 ( )
Where
w1, w2 = moisture contents at cone penetrations of d1 and d2,
respectively

b. Plastic Limit
‘Plastic limit’ (PL or wp) is the arbitrary limit of water content at which
the soil tends to pass from the plastic state to the semi-solid state of
consistency. Thus, this is the minimum water content at which the
change in shape of the soil is accompanied by visible cracks, i.e., when
Figure 3.3 Flow Curve (x – No. of blows, y – moisture contents) worked upon, the soil crumbles.
Laboratory Definition 1: By rolling on glass through bare hands, the
Flow Index (FI) – slope of the flow curve moisture content at which the soil crumbles when rolled into threads of
3.2 mm (1/8 in) in diameter is taken as the plastic limit of the soil.
w 2−w1
FI = Ww
N PL= x 100 %
log 1
N2( ) Ws
Most probable value of PL
One-Point Method
x PL=
∑ PLs
¿=w N ( 25N ) n
Laboratory Definition 2: Using cone penetrometer (fall cone method)
50% < LL < 120%, N: from 20 to 30 blows or drops with two masses of cone (80 g and 240 g), PL can be determined by
LL < 50%, N: from 15 to 35 blows or drops this equation:
2∆w
Where PL=¿− =¿−4.2 ∆ w
N = number of drops required to close the groove at the moisture M2
content, wN log
x = 0.092 for soils with LL less than 50%
M1
x = 0.120 for soils with LL more than 50% Where
Δw = separation in terms of moisture content between liquid
Laboratory Definition 2: Using Fall Cone penetrometer, the water state lines of two cones
content corresponding to a 80-g cone penetration of 20 mm defines the liquid M1 = 80-g cone
limit. M2 = 240-g cone

Laboratory Definition 3: By Feng, 2000

PL=C ¿
Where
m = slope (taken as positive) of the best-fit straight line.

If you use a spreadsheet program, you can obtain C and m from a

power trend line function that gives the best-fit equation

c. Shrinkage Limit
‘Shrinkage limit’ (SL or ws) is the arbitrary limit of water content at
which the soil tends to pass from the semi-solid to the solid state. It is
that water content at which a soil, regardless, of further drying, remains
constant in volume.
Laboratory Definition: SL can be calculated from this equation
m 1−m 2 V 1−V 2
SL= ( m2
−
m2
ρw x 100 % )
Where
Flow Index (FI) – slope of the flow curve
m1 = mass of wet soil
m2 = mass of oven-dried soil
V1 = volume of wet soil
V2 = volume of oven-dried soil
d. Plasticity Index
‘Plasticity index’ (PI or Ip) is the range of water content within which
the soil exhibits plastic properties; that is, it is the difference between
liquid and plastic limits.
PI =¿−PL

Table: Plasticity Characteristics Determine the following:

a. LL and PL (in %)
e. Shrinkage Index b. Plasticity Index
‘Shrinkage index’ (SI or Is) is defined as the difference between the c. Liquidity index and Consistency Index, if the natural water content
plastic and shrinkage limits of a soil; in other words, it is the range of is 27.4%. Describe the consistency.
water content within which a soil is in a semisolid state of consistency. d. Void ratio at the LL if Gs = 2.7
e. Shrinkage limit of the soil if the void ratio of this soil is at the
SI =PL−SL minimum volume reached on shrinkage is 0.405
f. Consistency Index If the soil were to be loaded to failure, would you expect a brittle failure?
‘Consistency index’ or ‘Relative consistency’ (CI or Ic) is defined as
the ratio of the difference between liquid limit and the natural water EXAMPLE 3.8 A fall cone test was carried out on a soil to determine liquid
content to the plasticity index of a soil: limit and plastic limit using cones of masses 80 g and 240 g. The following
¿−w results were obtained.
CI = 80-g cone 240-g cone
PI Penetration
Where 8 15 19 28 9 18 22 30
(mm)
w = natural moisture content of the soil (water content of a Moisture
43.1 52 56.1 62.9 37 47.5 51 55.1
soil in the undisturbed condition in the ground Content %

If CI = 0, w = LL
CI = 1, w = PL
CI > 1, the soil is in semi-solid state and is stiff
CI < 0, the natural water content is greater than LL, and the soil
behaves like liquid

g. Liquidity Index
‘Liquidity index (LI or IL)’ or ‘Water-plasticity ratio’ is the ratio of the
difference between the natural water content and the plastic limit to the
plasticity index:
w−PL
LI =
PI
If LI = 0, w = PL
LI = 1, w = LL
LI > 1, the soil is in liquid state
LI < 0, the soil is in the semi-solid state and is stiff

Table: Consistency Classification

h. Toughness Index
‘Toughness Index’ (TI) is defined as the ratio of the plasticity index to
the flow index:
PI
TI =
FI
EXAMPLE 3.7 A liquid limit test, conducted on a soil sample in the cup
device, gave the following results:
Number of blows 10 19 23 27 40
Water Content (%) 60.0 45.2 39.8 36.5 25.2 EXAMPLE 3.9 The following results were recorded in a shrinkage limit test
Four determinations for the plastic limit gave water contents of 20.3% 20.55%, using mercury.
20.8% and 11.26%.
Initial volume of saturated soil = 32.4 cc

Determine the following:

a. Shrinkage limit of soil
b. Specific gravity of grains
c. Bulk unit weight of soil
d. Initial and final dry unit weight of soil
e. Void ratio

EXAMPLE 3.10 The Atterberg limits of a clay soil are: Liquid limit =
75%; Plastic limit = 45%; and Shrinkage limit = 25%. If a sample of this
soil has a volume of 30 cm3 at the liquid limit and a volume 16.6 cm 3 at
the shrinkage limit, determine the specific gravity of solids.

EXAMPLE 3.11 The mass specific gravity of a saturated specimen of

clay is 1.84 when the water content is 38%. On oven drying the mass
specific gravity falls to 1.70. Determine the specific gravity of solids and
shrinkage limit of the clay.

EXAMPLE 3.12 A saturated soil sample has a volume of 23 cm 3 at

liquid limit. The shrinkage limit and liquid limit are 18% and 45%,
respectively. The specific gravity of solids is 2.73. Determine the
minimum volume which can be attained by the soil.

EXAMPLE 3.13 Two soils S1 and S2 are tested in the laboratory for the
consistency limits. The data available is as follows:

a. Which soil is more plastic?

b. Which soil is better foundation material when remolded?
c. Which soil has better strength as a function of water content?
d. Which soil has better strength at the plastic limit?
e. Could organic matter be present in these soils?