Principles of Communication

1. Principle of Clarity:

The idea or message to be communicated should be clearly spelt out. It should be worded in such
a way that the receiver understands the same thing which the sender wants to convey. There
should be no ambiguity in the message. It should be kept in mind that the words do not speak
themselves but the speaker gives them the meaning. A clear message will evoke the same
response from the other party. It is also essential that the receiver is conversant with the
language, inherent assumptions, and the mechanics of communication.

2. Principle of Attention:

In order to make communication effective, the receiver’s attention should be drawn towards
message. People are different in behaviour, attention, emotions etc. so they may respond
differently to the message. Subordinates should act similarly as per the contents of the message.
The acts of a superior also draw the attention of subordinates and they may follow what they
observe. For example, if a superior is very punctual in coming to the office then subordinates
will also develop such habits. It is said that ‘actions speak louder than words.

3. Principle of Feedback:

The principle of feedback is very important to make the communication effective. There
should be a feedback information from the recipient to know whether he has understood
the message in the same sense in which the sender has meant it.

4. Principle of Informality:

Formal communication is generally used for transmitting messages and other information.
Sometimes formal communication may not achieve the desired results, informal
communication may prove effective in such situations. Management should use informal
communication for assessing the reaction of employees towards various policies. Senior
management may informally convey certain decisions to the employees for getting their
feedback. So this principle states that informal communication is as important as formal
communication.

5. Principle of Consistency:

This principle states that communication should always be consistent with the policies,
plans, programmes and objectives of the organization and not in conflict with them. If the
messages and communications are in conflict with the policies and programmes then there
will be confusion in the minds of subordinates and they may not implement them properly.
Such a situation will be detrimental to the interests of the organization.
6. Principle of Timeliness:

This principle states that communication should be done at proper time so that it helps in
implementing plans. Any delay in communication may not serve any purpose rather decisions
become of historical importance only.

7. Principle of Adequacy:

The information communicated should be adequate and complete in all respects. Inadequate
information may delay action and create confusion. Inadequate information also affects
efficiency of the receiver. So adequate information is essential for taking proper decisions and
making action plans.

CONCEPTS OF COMMUNICATION

1. Senders & Receivers

There’s no communication without someone to send a message and someone to receive it.
Whether it’s a lecturer orating to their students or an individual making eye contact with
someone across a crowded bar, communication is about making a connection. The role of sender
and receiver may be fixed, as in a superior officer delivering orders to a private, or fluid, as in an
animated conversation between equals.

2. The Message

What is being said, signed, gestured or read? Whether verbal or non-verbal, this is what the
sender is attempting to communicate to the receiver. In the previous example of an officer giving
orders to a private, the order is the message.

3. The Code

While the term “code” may put you in mind of sailors in a World War II submarine trying to
crack enemy communiques, in communications theory a code is simply the system used to
formulate the message. Oral language is a code, and so is the written word. For a code to be
effective, it must be mutually intelligible to speaker and receiver.

4. The Channel

A message is formatted in code, but what do we call the means of passing or transmitting that
code? Channels. In a sense, the most basic channel is the human voice — the vibration of one’s
vocal cords allows the message, encoded in language, to be captured by the receiver. Most of the
time when we refer to channels, we’re looking at tools that expand the capacity of our bodies to
communicate. Examples of channels include fibre-optic cables, radio signals, print materials or
even simple semaphore flags.
5. The Medium

If the channel is the means of transmission, the medium is the means of communication. The
difference between them is easier to understand by looking at examples. A television show is a
medium, while television itself is a channel. A poem is a medium, whereas the book which holds
it is a channel.

Each medium exerts a powerful influence on the message which it communicates; we would
likely be struck by lightning if we didn’t allude to theorist Marshall McLuhan’s revolutionary
maxim “The medium is the message.” What McLuhan meant, in its simplest formulation, is that
each medium has powerful tropes, strengths and limitations which profoundly shape the way a
message is created and received.

6. The Noise

“Noise” in communication is both literal and figurative. Sometimes noise is physical interference
in a signal, as when a storm disrupts a satellite uplink. Sometimes noise is mental: For example,
a prejudice or bias against the sender may impair the receiver’s ability to accept their message.
Finally, there is semantic noise. This can be thought of as an issue in the code. If a lecturer
bombards their first-year students with jargon, their message will be lost because the receivers
lack the specialized knowledge to comprehend it.

Noise is at the heart of many of the problems our online Communications Master’s degree
students seek to resolve. Check out our post on conflict resolution for more on this point!

7. The Environment

This is the context in which communication takes place. It influences how messages are sent and
received. Think of how cultural context affects what can and can’t be spoken publicly. Imagine
trying to have an intimate conversation with a total stranger while a train rolls by. Context
matters!

8. Feedback

It is important to avoid becoming so involved in the act of explaining something that feedback
from the receiver is overlooked. Feedback helps us to calibrate how our message is being taken,
and to make adjustments based on whether this feedback is positive or negative. Most humans
have a certain innate capacity for this, but this capacity must be developed via socialization (or in
the case of students, through study) to reach full fruition.
QN2)VARIABLE is a measurable characteristic that varies. It may change from group to group,
person to person, or even within one person over time. There are six common variable types:

DEPENDENT VARIABLES

These show the effect of manipulating or introducing the independent variables. For example,
if the independent variable is the use or non-use of a new language teaching procedure, then
the dependent variable might be students' scores on a test of the content taught using that
procedure. In other words, the variation in the dependent variable depends on the variation in
the independent variable.

INDEPENDENT VARIABLES

Are those that the researcher has control over. This "control" may involve manipulating
existing variables (e.g., modifying existing methods of instruction) or introducing new
variables (e.g., adopting a totally new method for some sections of a class) in the research
setting. Whatever the case may be, the researcher expects that the independent variable(s) will
have some effect on (or relationship with) the dependent variables.

INTERVENING VARIABLES

These refer to abstract processes that are not directly observable but that link the independent
and dependent variables. In language learning and teaching, they are usually inside the
subjects' heads, including various language learning processes which the researcher cannot
observe. For example, if the use of a particular teaching technique is the independent variable
and mastery of the objectives is the dependent variable, then the language learning processes
used by the subjects are the intervening variables.

MODERATOR VARIABLES

These affect the relationship between the independent and dependent variables by modifying
the effect of the intervening variable(s). Unlike extraneous variables, moderator variables are
measured and taken into consideration. Typical moderator variables in TESL and language
acquisition research (when they are not the major focus of the study) include the sex, age,
culture, or language proficiency of the subjects.

CONTROL VARIABLES

Language learning and teaching are very complex processes. It is not possible to consider
every variable in a single study. Therefore, the variables that are not measured in a particular
study must be held constant, neutralized/balanced, or eliminated, so they will not have a
biasing effect on the other variables. Variables that have been controlled in this way are called
control variables.
EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES

Are those factors in the research environment which may have an effect on the dependent
variable(s) but which is not controlled. Extraneous variables are dangerous. They may damage
a study's validity, making it impossible to know whether the effects were caused by the
independent and moderator variables or some extraneous factor. If they cannot be controlled,
extraneous variables must at least be taken into consideration when interpreting results.

QN2a) Information can be thought of as the resolution of uncertainty; it is that which answers
the question of "What an entity is" and thus defines both its essence and nature of its
characteristics.

Information is associated with data, as data represent values attributed to parameters, and
information is data in context and with meaning attached. Information also relates to
knowledge, as knowledge signifies understanding of an abstract or concrete concept.

b) DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INFORMATION AND DATA;

Data is the raw, unorganized, unprocessed information. For eg., the information collected for
writing a research paper is data until it is presented in an organized manner.

WHILE

Information is the processed, organized data that is beneficial in providing useful knowledge.
For e.g., the data compiled in an organized way in a research paper provides information about
a particular concept.

Below are other differences between information and data;

Difference between Data and Information

1. Significance

The very first key difference between the data and information depends on the significance.
Information is significant. Whereas, the data is not significant.

It means that the stand-alone data is of no use. There is no meaning that can be derived from raw
data and it cannot be utilized anywhere.

On the other hand, the Information is significant as it has some context and provides some
meaning. With the information allows taking some action on behalf of it.

With a meaningful data i.e Information, an organization or a business entity can take a decision.
For example, The costs and selling statistics of a product of an E-commerce website when
presented in the raw tabular form is not significant. But, when this data is represented within the
context of the target customer and the behavior of the customer of purchasing or not purchasing
the product. Then this stats become significant as a decision can be taken out on this information.

2. Representation

You can visualize data in a structured form such as tabular data, data tree, data graph etc…

In the tabular format, there is a table with different rows and columns and each column or row
represent a data entity.

The data tree format stimulates a hierarchical tree structure with a root node and a number of
child nodes.

3. Form

The data is in raw form. Basically, the data is in the form of  Numbers, letters or a set of
characters. It also includes the symbols, picture or audio data. This raw data is scattered and is
not aligned with some context.

Whereas the Information is in the form of idea and conclusions that are based on the data. The
raw data is analyzed and organized in the whatever context and only the necessary data is kept
and the rest is discarded.

For instance, consider the below number:

02011994

This figure is a data entity and doesn’t provide any meaning.

To convert this data into information we need to keep it in some context. Let’s think of a context
like a birthdate – 02/01/1994 i.e;  Jan 02 1994.

You can interpret the same number as an account number or a mobile number.

4. Reliability

If we talk in the term of reliability then obviously the information wins on this. The information
is reliable as it conveys some meaning and there are proper organization and dedication to a
single context.

On the other hand, as data is raw and can be provided in any context. Moreover, with every
context and structure the output or the meaning of the data changes. Hence, the data is unreliable
when compared to Information.
Consider the example above of the number 02011994.

When it is in the form of the date of birth i.e; 02/01/1994 then it depicts a straightforward
meaning. This has a clear context.

But if we consider the number only, then it converts into any form and provides a number of
meanings that change according to the context.

5. Dependency

In the terms of dependency, the data is independent. As you know the data is raw and data can
contain anything. Hence, the data does not depend on any sort of condition or circumstances. It
can stand alone.

But, the information depends completely on the data. You cannot process the
information without the data. Data is the very basic building block of the information.

If there is no data then there will be no information.

This is the easiest way to differentiate between the two. Data is something that you give as an
input for processing. After processing what you get as output is the information.

Let’s take an example of a collage maker application. You provide different photographs that
you want to arrange in the collage as the input to the application. After providing the images, the
images are processed and aligned according to the chosen theme. In the end, You get a single
collage image as the output from the application.

7. Decision Making

You cannot take a decision based on the data while you can take a decision based upon the
information.

To take a decision on a situation the very first thing is that you must know and understand the
conditions and the circumstances correctly. This is possible only if you have the correct
information.

Information plays a vital role in the process of decision making. The actions that a person takes
is based on the information that it has.

But if we say about data, as data is raw and is meaningless so it is useless in decision making.
You can not take a decision on the basis of raw fact and figures. And if you do so then there is a
high priority that the decision may be wrong as it will rely on assumptions.
8. Based on observations

Data is based on the observations and records. The statistics and the tables of collections of
figures are the sources of data.

And the source of information is data. Moreover, the information is based on the context that is
in the alignment of data.

9. Analysis

The Data is never analyzed in its initial form. Once data is analyzed nor the analysis of data is
done, the data becomes information at the same moment.

It means that the information is always analyzed. whereas, the data is never in the analyzed form.
Once data is analyzed it is converted into information.

10. Usefulness

The last term of differentiation is the matter of usefulness. Both the data and information are
useful in their own terms as the data is the base to create the information. Without the data, there
is no information.

But if you see it from the perspective of a business. Then, the data is not so much important as
there is a whole lot of processing needs to be done on data to make it useful or understand
something out of it.

On the other hand, the Information is always useful as it provides some meaning for further
decision making.

Hence, the information is always way more useful than the data.

QN3)COMMUNICATION THEORIES;

Communication Theories

Actor-Network Theory (ANT)

Actor-Network Theory suggests that human and non-human factors are equally influential in the
success of technological innovation and scientific knowledge-creation. The theory looks at how
networks are formed and how these networks contribute to these successes. It suggests that no
one person or thing is solely responsible for these advancements. Therefore, both an actor and a
network are responsible for achieving these outcomes.

Adaptive Structuration Theory (AST)

Groups and organizations create rules and resources which are defined as structures. These
structures form social systems which develop a life of their own. The quality of the structure
affects decision making, and decisions also affect the structure.
Agenda Setting Theory
Agenda Setting Theory states that mass media organizations determine what the general
population considers newsworthy by deciding how much attention a news story receives. The
term salience transfer is commonly used and refers to the ability of the media to transfer their
agendas onto the public.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Cognitive Dissonance is the psychological conflict that results from holding two contradictory or
incompatible beliefs or attitudes. For example, one can like a person, but disapprove of their
habits. The theory suggests that a person looks for balance in their beliefs. Therefore, in order to
reduce dissonance, one will avoid hearing opposing viewpoints or change their beliefs to match
their actions.

Communication Accommodation Theory

Communication Accommodation Theory describes when people accommodate or adjust their
communication styles to others. These changes in verbal and nonverbal styles are done through
two ways: divergence and convergence. Divergence is used to highlight group identity through
touting the differences of the group they identify with. Divergence is often used by groups with
strong ethnic or racial pride. Convergence is used more often by powerless individuals for social
approval and focuses on matching the communication styles of the person with whom they are
speaking to.

QN4)

The following is the responsibility rank of KABODE PORK JOINT located in kasatiro,kisubi.

Responsibility rank refers to the flow of activities in a business starting from the top
management to the lower employees.

In KABODE PORK JOINT,I got to learn that the managing director kabode henry was the overall
manager and was responsible for all the activities and transactions that are carried out in the
business.He further told me that he had two employees that were his two sons kabenge and
mukomazi whose roles were to prepare the pork for sale and also ensuring that the meat is
readily available at the pork joint.

Regardless of size, industry or structure, a business must maintain a clear and precise internal
communication structure that allows managers to issue directions to front-line workers and allows
workers to give feedback so managers can adjust their plans.
KABODE PORK JOINT also uses the following communication structure as shown below;

Chain Communication Structure

The "chain" or "line" communication structure involves direct lines of communication between
members of each rank directly above and below the message's origin point, but not with
members on any other point in the chain.

For instance at the pork joint,mr kabode directly communicates to his workers on the various
activities that are to be carried out in the business hence using a chain communication structure.

Furthermore,mr kabode told me that as a small business owner, you'll need to communicate
effectively with customers, employees and other businesspeople to run an effective operation.

The following are forms of communication he uses in his business;

1.Face to face ;Mr kabode discusses the work situation together with his employees and he told
me that this an effective way of passing on directions to them since he physically tells them what
to do.

2.Telephone calls;Mr kabode told me that he always makes purchasing orders using phone calls
to ensure that suppliers provide the quantity of pork required by the business.

The following are the media of communication that kabode uses;

Text messages;He uses message bundles from airtel Uganda to message to his
suppliers,employees and customers on several activities of the business.

Verbal communication which is applied in business when passing on directions to employees

and also when handling customers of the business.
REFERENCES;

Daniel Chandler, "The Transmission Model of Communication", Aber.ac.uk

Berlo, D.K. (1960). The process of communication. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Trenholm, Sarah; Jensen, Arthur (2013). Interpersonal Communication Seventh Edition. New
York: Oxford University Press.

Harper, Douglas. "Communication". Online Etymology Dictionary.

FACULTY OF SOPSY.
COURSE UNIT:

COMMUNICATION SKILLS
NAME

KINENE MICHEAL SSERUNJOJI

REGISTRATION NUMBER

17BAFD009