Urinary System

 Kidney
The kidneys excrete a variety of waste products produced by metabolism into the urine. The
microscopic structural and functional unit of the kidney is the nephron. It processes the blood supplied
to it via filtration, reabsorption, secretion and excretion; the consequence of those processes is the
production of urine. These include the nitrogenous wastes urea, from protein catabolism, and uric acid,
from nucleic acid metabolism. The ability of mammals and some birds to concentrate wastes into a
volume of urine much smaller than the volume of blood from which the wastes were extracted is
dependent on an elaborate countercurrent multiplication mechanism. This requires several independent
nephron characteristics to operate: a tight hairpin configuration of the tubules, water and ion
permeability in the descending limb of the loop, water impermeability in the ascending loop, and active
ion transport out of most of the ascending limb. In addition, passive countercurrent exchange by the
vessels carrying the blood supply to the nephron is essential for enabling this function.

The kidney participates in whole-body homeostasis, regulating acid-base

balance, electrolyte concentrations, extracellular fluid volume, and blood pressure. The kidney
accomplishes these homeostatic functions both independently and in concert with other organs,
particularly those of the endocrine system. Various endocrine hormones coordinate these endocrine
functions; these include renin, angiotensin II, aldosterone, antidiuretic hormone, and atrial natriuretic
peptide, among others.

 Ureter
The ureter is a tube that carries urine from the kidney to the urinary bladder. There are two
ureters, one attached to each kidney. The upper half of the ureter is located in the abdomen and the
lower half is located in the pelvic area. 
 Bladder
The urinary bladder is a temporary storage reservoir for urine. It is located in the
pelvic cavity, posterior to the symphysis pubis, and below the parietal peritoneum. The size and shape of
the urinary bladder varies with the amount of urine it contains and with the pressure it receives from
surrounding organs.

The inner lining of the urinary bladder is a mucous membrane of transitional epithelium that is

continuous with that in the ureters. When the bladder is empty, the mucosa has numerous folds
called rugae. The rugae and transitional epithelium allow the bladder to expand as it fills.

 Urethra
In females, the main urethra functions are the transportation of urine out of the body,
prevention of urine reflux, and protection against pathogenic bacteria. In males, the urethra has four
functions – the expulsion of urine, the expulsion of sperm, the prevention of either of these fluids from
traveling back into the lower urinary tract, and protection against bacteria entering from outside of the
body.

The lumen of the urethra of both genders is surrounded by a layer of stratified columnar
epithelium.  This epithelium layer is protected from the high acidity environment of the urethra by
mucus which also keeps the urethra moist and supple. The next layer that makes up the urethral wall is
the mucus-secreting submucosa or spongy coat. This layer is surrounded by an inner
longitudinal muscle, which is itself surrounded by an outer circular muscle. This combination of
longitudinal and circular muscles provides stronger contraction power.