Environ Earth Sci
DOI 10.1007/s12665-014-3959-1
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
2D to 3D geologic mapping transformation using virtual globes
and flight simulators and their applications in the analysis
of geodiversity in natural areas
A. M. Martinez-Graña • J. L. Goy •
C. Cimarra
Received: 25 August 2014 / Accepted: 10 December 2014
Ó Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2014
Abstract This work describes the transformation process
from 2D cartography to 3D, simply by overlapping images
in common formats (jpeg, bmp, tiff, png, etc.) on Google
Earth’s virtual globe. Arribes del Duero Natural Park,
located west of the province of Salamanca, Spain, was the
object of this part of the study. Other natural areas are also
discussed and were used to establish a procedure for
mapping geodiversity and for identifying areas of geolog-
ical uniqueness and naturalness within the natural areas. To
do this, different parametric indices were used to empiri-
cally generate different degrees of geological diversity in
the Quilamas Natural Area, located south of Salamanca,
Spain. Intermediate parametric maps were processed using
two types of GIS technical: graphical (neighbourhood
operations) and alphanumeric (calculated from the fields in
the attribute table). Intermediate parametric maps were
processed using two types of technical GIS: neighbourhood
operations (graphics) and alphanumeric (calculated from
the fields in the attribute table). These maps were used to
establish areas with the greatest concentration of geological
diversity elements and to define areas with a greater need
for protection when planning the management of human
activities in natural areas. Finally, the flight simulator tool,
which was implemented in the free virtual globe and
controlled using a keyboard or joystick, allows you to ‘‘fly’’
through the projected geological mapping of Arribes Del
Duero Natural Park or view the parametric mapping and
geodiversity in the newly created Quilamas Natural Area.
Interoperability with the Google Maps application allows
A. M. Martinez-Graña (&)  J. L. Goy  C. Cimarra
Geology Department, Sciences Faculty, University
of Salamanca, Caı́dos square s/n, 37006 Salamanca, Spain
e-mail: amgranna@usal.es
you to identify and observe the outcrops of the various
geological materials in natural or anthropic terrain cuts.
Keywords Geodiversity  3D mapping  Google earth 
Virtual globe  Flight simulators
Introduction
Spatial thematic analysis of the physical environment is a
good planning tool for environmental management. Ana-
lysis of geological mapping requires a high capacity for
spatial vision and an understanding of the distribution of
different materials and geological structures in an area
prior to performing geologic sampling and fieldwork
(Bailey and Chen 2011). The results of this analysis can be
used to develop the technical projects that are to be exe-
cuted and to develop the procedures for government
approval (strategic environmental assessment, environ-
mental impact assessment, etc.). The subjects covered in
each given sector are diverse in many ways: geological,
geomorphological, climate, water, etc. Specific 2D (paper)
maps are used to synthesize the information and later
incorporate it into an application of geomatics to define the
field of study. The 3D treatment is performed using specific
modules (i.e. ArcScene in ArcGIS, sextant in gvSig) for
which it is necessary to have a raster layer whose digital
pixel values correspond to the height values of each point
in the territory (De Paor and Whitmeyer 2011; Tavani et al.
2014; Pradhan et al. 2014). This information is available
free of charge for many parts of the world; therefore, we
have to use free browsers with 3D virtual globes to project
the mapping information from the paper maps. These maps
are produced at a given scale and can been downloaded
from a government agency.
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In the last decade, the analysis of the geological
heritage has begun to develop, in first stages by means of
the identification and cataloguing of geosites by means
of several methodologies of qualitative and quantitative
valuation. Recently with the proliferation of the figure of
the geoparks different zones put in value with big on
diversity of processes and geological structures. This
geodiversity of every territory promotes a very active
geotourism, which in occasions generates important
possibilities of employments in rural zones, where the
geological didactic resources promote a source of eco-
nomic income for the naturalists’ call. The innovation of
this work is the development of resources implemented
in virtual globes 3D free on the geodiversity natural
spaces facilitating its utilization by means of the new
technologies: smartphone, tablets, ipods, etc. (González-
Delgado et al. 2014). The objective of this work was to
generate a 3D geological mapping view using the free
Google Earth virtual globe browser, although this pro-
cedure can be applied to any type of thematic map. The
ability to start your own implementation using a browser
tool is useful for spatially visualizing the distribution of
different cartographic and thematic units and for more
precisely determining the topographic landforms through
cuts. The flight simulator application shows areas of high
diversity and geomorphology (river canyons, cliffs,
alluvial fans, etc.) whose presence affects the configu-
ration of the relief and is of great importance in sus-
tainable land management (Abiye and Kebede 2011;
Phuong et al. 2013).
The Google Earth virtual globe also allows you to add
information captured while performing geologic fieldwork,
such as strike and dip, etc. Then, using scripts developed by
different authors, this geo-referenced data can be displayed
in real time on smartphones and tablets (Weng et al. 2012;
Lee et al. 2013; Shen et al. 2013; Wang et al. 2013;
Cracknell and Reading 2014).
This methodology has been applied to the Arribes del
Duero Natural Park, which is located west of the Salam-
anca province. The park is a protected area of great
uniqueness due to the great irregularity of the relief at its
centre, which highlights the engagement of the Duero
River. The stretch of the Duero River in this area is
international waters and forms a border between Spain and
Portugal.
Geodiversity analysis has been applied to the Quilamas
Natural Area, which is located south of Salamanca. It is
important to establish the great geodiversity of certain
sectors so they can be better protected and managed. This
mapping tool is useful for making sustainable land use
decisions when commissioning various human activities in
these areas (Martı́nez-Graña et al. 2011).
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Environ Earth Sci
Methodology
2D to 3D geologic mapping transformations using
the Google Earth virtual globe
In this section, we will explain how you can overlay a
series of geo-referenced geological maps using 2D to 3D
analysis in the Google Earth digital model. This procedure
is valid for any 2D thematic map. First, one has to down-
load the geological maps of the Arribes Del Duero Natural
Park at a scale of 1:50,000. There are 6 map sheets for this
area: numbers 422, 423, 448, 449, 474 and 475; those
numbers correspond to the numbering sequence on the
National Geological Map) of the Geological and Mining
Institute of Spain (IGME). The geodetic reference system
of the cartography is ETRS89 Zone 30 and the globe
presents WGS 84, the projection introduces a distortion
permissible. These images can be downloaded for free
from the Geological Survey of Spain website. Registration
is required to use the site. If thematic maps cannot be
downloaded from the Internet, simply scan the paper map
then trim it using any drawing or photography program
(Corel Draw, Corel photo paint, Photoshop, etc.). The flow
chart showing the steps is indicated as follows:
Homogenize units (geomorphological domain) = The-
matic maps = GIS technical/Virtual Globe = Geodiversi-
ty analysis (graphic and alphanumeric intersection using
fields algebra) = Calculation Geodiversity (Gd
index) = Fly simulator/Street view.
Maps that are to be relocated to the virtual globe are
loaded into Google Earth using a command found in the
top menu: ‘‘Add/Image Overlay’’. This command opens a
new window to indicate the name of the theme layer to
load (e.g. 474_Geologia). Without closing the window, the
layers are loaded and named. In this window, you have the
option of establishing a degree of transparency for the
layer. In principle, it is better not to set the transparency, as
this will be completed at a later step, after all of the layers
are loaded. By clicking ‘‘ok’’, the layer is superimposed
onto the virtual globe and is delineated with green lines.
Placing the cursor over the green lines, such as in the
corners, allows us to move the image to better fit the dif-
ferent points of reference in the orthophotography (urban
centres, drainage, etc.). The layer is stored in the Table of
Content—TOC—on the left menu of Google Earth. The
process is simple, but it may take some time to obtain the
correct setting. To facilitate the setting, it may be beneficial
to use the zoom ‘‘ ? ’’ and ‘‘-’’ functions to display the
map. If the setting is incorrect in an area, you can return to
it by right-clicking on the file in the TOC. This will take
you back to the window, and the green crosses will be
turned on. For the adjustment, it should be noted that the
Environ Earth Sci
central cross can be used to move the entire image.
Dragging the mouse to one of the corners or on the sides
results in the movement of only that sector image and not
the entire image. A rhombus, which serves to rotate the
entire picture, also appears on the left side of the green box
(Fig. 1). To demonstrate this procedure of 2D to 3D geo-
logic mapping transformations using the Google Earth
virtual globe, a layer with a mapping grid scale of
1:50,000, Spain, is loaded (Fig. 2) in the ‘‘kmz’’ format.
The layer contains an associated attribute table. When
clicking the mouse on each individual grid, a dialog box
appears with the name and number of the sheet. This
facilitates searching for the map that we want to project.
The adjustment of the corners and sides is faster and easier,
and a better fit is established when directly using the zoom
‘‘-’’ and then the zoom ‘‘ ? ’’ functions at each corner and
in the centre of the sides of the green rectangle. In the
‘‘location’’ tab of the overlay image, you can indicate the
coordinates of the corners of the grid map for use with
autotune and you can change the data type to be entered:
geographic or projected coordinates (Fig. 3).
Then, we have all of the layers in the TOC and a pro-
jected geological mapping. To select each layer, click on
the square box below the ‘‘Places’’ in the TOC. This allows
us to move the adjacent scroll button, which serves to
Fig. 1 View of the geological mapping protocol, with the option to add an image overlay; the green box indicates where the map was set onto
Google Earth
adjust the opacity. This process is performed for each of
the layers with the same percentage of opacity and results
in a three-dimensional spatial vision of the geological
context.
Calculation of geodiversity and analysis using
the virtual globe flight simulator
Geodiversity can be defined as the number and variety of
structures that are made up of the bedrock of a region, upon
which sits the organic and anthropogenic activity (Nieto
2001). Geodiversity can also be defined as the variety of
geological and geomorphological environments that are
considered the basis for biodiversity on Earth. Geodiversity
is the natural range of diversity of geological, geomor-
phological and soil features as components of the abiotic
environment, including their relationships, properties,
interpretations and systems (Gray 2004). This natural
variety of the earth’s surface, based on geology, geomor-
phology, soils, water and other created systems, is the
result of natural processes and human activity. Therefore,
geodiversity can be understood as the variability of abiotic
nature. This includes lithology, tectonic, geomorphologi-
cal, edaphic, hydrological, and topographical features, as
well as the physical processes of land, seas and oceans.
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 Environ Earth Sci

Fig. 2 The 1:50,000 grid in Spain (top) and associated information of the name and number of leaf on Google Earth, in ‘‘kmz’’ format (below)

These systems are generated by natural, anthropogenic, law of Natural Heritage and Biodiversity (BOE 2007)
endogenous and exogenous processes and include the defined geodiversity as the variety of geological features,
diversity of particles, elements and places. In this sense, the including rocks, minerals, fossils, soils, landforms,

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Environ Earth Sci

Fig. 3 Window display of where to set the vertices of each image (above). Projection onto the virtual globe of some leaves of the mountainous
Douro region. The border with Portugal can be observed (below)

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landscapes and geological formations and units, that are the
product of and record the evolution of Earth. In recent
years, the concept of geodiversity has been established and
consolidated with the interaction of geological heritage and
geoconservation.
The study of geodiversity is independent of geological
heritage, though both are related. Geological heritage is
not involved in the definition of the classes of geodiver-
sity, or in the analysis of variety, frequency and distri-
bution of the same, but is involved in the assessment of
quality or interest. The values of variety, frequency and
distribution of geodiversity classes can define points of
geological interest; in other words, geodiversity can be
equity itself. Geodiversity and geological heritage share a
relationship between the range and the number of places
of geological interest, but not in the value thereof. The
difference is that geological heritage inventories are a
selection of the most significant geosites and geology of
an area. The geosites are based on various parameters,
such as intrinsic value or representativeness, whereas
geodiversity analyses the variability and number of geo-
logical features of a region, regardless of the value.
Therefore, analysis of the geological factor is used to
Fig. 4 Visual modelling of the Arribes Del Duero Natural Area.
Wide surface where erosion has been observed; granite ledges, aura
quartz dikes and quaternary debris can be seen on its slopes (above).
In the countryside, the same encasement of the Duero River and the
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Environ Earth Sci
establish the fundamental parameters of the value of the
elements to be compared, and geodiversity is established
to differentiate sectors of the territory based on the ele-
ments that are present, taking into account variety, fre-
quency and distribution.
Independent analysis of geological heritage and geodi-
versity allows these results to be intersected by providing
information on the distribution and relevance of the points
of interest in the study area. Therefore, geodiversity reports
on the geological variety of the location and the geological
heritage of the value of the elements present. By combining
both, we can obtain the geological value of the sectors
defined in any geodiversity study.
When assessing geodiversity, diversity indices and dis-
tribution models are applied to the number and variability
of geological elements on the surface of the study area
(Kozlowski 2004).
This paper presents a methodology for the calculation
and mapping of geodiversity as it is applied to the Quila-
mas Natural Area. GIS techniques were applied, based on
graphical analysis (neighbourhood operations and mapping
intersections) and alphanumeric analysis (calculated fields
from the attribute table of each map).
distribution of the different geological materials, faults and shear zone
on the margin of Spain and the semi-transparent white observed in the
area of Portugal (middle and bottom)
Environ Earth Sci

Fig. 5 Several sheets projected at 1:50,000 and joined together using activated from the same browser (middle), and different outcrops
different transparencies on the virtual globe (above). Overlapping can be observed ‘‘in situ’’ using Google Maps (below)
administrative boundaries and photographs of the area can be

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Fig. 6 Procedure graphical and alphanumeric interoperability between homogeneous units and thematic maps

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Environ Earth Sci
To do this, we first identified three homogeneous units
that fulfil the geomorphological criteria based on physio-
graphic characteristics. These three units are: ‘‘water-
sheds’’, ‘‘link surfaces’’ and ‘‘valleys’’. The watershed unit
includes the morphostructural unit of the mountains and the
river dividing the surfaces of the summits and slopes, with
or without colluvium. The link surface unit includes flat
surfaces that form the link between the domains of
watersheds in the mountains and those belonging to the
river valleys: the pediment, the raña (Plio-Quaternary
alluvial fans) and the foothills. Finally, the valley unit
consists of the valleys, river terraces alluvial fans and
valley floors.
Second, an inventory of the existing physical elements
in each homogeneous unit was established. The inventory
took into account a number of natural components
(lithology, hydrology, geosites, soil science, hydrogeology
and geological structures) and roughness (Serrano Cañadas
and Ruiz Flaño 2007).
Third, the rate of geodiversity was assessed. The ge-
odiversity index, Gd, relates to the variety of physical
elements within the unit and the surface roughness of the
unit. Areas with the highest number of physical elements
and the roughest terrain are more complex to generate and
have an increased geodiversity (Serrano Cañadas and Ruiz
Flaño 2007). The index of geodiversity, Gd, is expressed as
following equation:
Gd ¼ Eg  R= ln S
where Eg index is the sum of the number of different
physical elements (lithology, hydrology, geosites, soils,
hydrogeology and geological structures) that are present in
each unit; R index is the roughness coefficient of the unit,
and S is the surface area of the unit, measured in Km2.
Geodiversity using the virtual globe flight simulator
Using the Google Earth flight simulator browser any of the
maps presented in the previous sections can be projected
using the free Google Earth virtual globe browser. As we
observed in the first part of this work, 3D modelling allows
us to spatially orient the different elements of the physical
environment and identify the areas of greatest geodiversity.
This can be accomplished by observing partial thematic
maps displaying the distribution of the identified physical
elements or by studying the map generated as the result of
applying the Gd index. Specific navigation tools are used to
fly over an orthophoto, delineate the geodiversity of a
natural area and analyse the potential impacts of human
activities that modify the area (mining, gravel pits, indus-
trial plants, wind farms, etc.).
In Google Earth, we can find the flight simulator by
pressing the ‘‘tools’’ command in the top menu of the main
window of the application and activating the ‘‘enter flight
simulator’’ function. The popup allows you to select a type
of aircraft. You will have the ability to start flying within
the sector that is currently displayed on the virtual globe.
You can take off from one of the airports loaded into the
browser database or you can use preloaded maps or the-
matic maps displaying the geodiversity (lithology,
hydrology, etc.) data. When you ‘‘run’’ the scenario, after
clicking ‘‘ok’’, a dashboard similar to the dashboard of a
real plane is displayed. The plane is controlled using the
arrow keys on the computer keyboard or you can instal a
joystick that improves flight management and facilitates
zooming of the land that was transparently mapped
(Fig. 4).
Results and discussion
By taking advantage of the Google Earth virtual globe, we
are able to observe the different structures, structure posi-
tions and formations projected on the orthophoto and to
view them as geological landscapes of the countryside
(Fig. 5).
The interoperability of the Google browsers and viewers
allows us to analyse an outcrop in Google Maps ‘‘Street
View’’ in a timely manner. We can check the different
lithologies, as well as the quality of the outcrops on the
ground, before going to the field. This allows for more
effective time management and gives us the power to
identify the characteristics (slopes, accessibility, etc.) of
the different study areas. On an educational level, it allows
us to identify the geology in the territory where we live
(Fig. 6).
For the calculation and mapping of geodiversity in the
Quilamas Natural Area, the lithological component dis-
plays the number and variety of lithologies contained
within each homogeneous unit. Twelve different litholo-
gies were obtained from the watershed unit: Armorican
quartzite, conglomerate, intricate shale greywacke, Qua-
ternary deposits, microbanded shales, slates, leucogranites,
sandstone, biotite granites, limestones, basic rocks and
quartz. The link surface unit features 11 link surface
lithologies: Armorican quartzite, conglomerate, shale
greywacke complex, Quaternary deposits, microbanded
shales, slates, leucogranites, sandstone, biotite granites,
limestones, basic rocks and quartz. The valley unit features
12 lithologies: Armorican quartzite, conglomerate, shale
greywacke complex, Quaternary deposits, microbanded
shales, slates, leucogranite, sandstone, biotite granites,
limestones, basic rocks and quartz.
The hydrological component consists of the number of
major watersheds in each homogeneous unit. The water-
shed unit features 6 basins: Alagon, Agadon, Morasverdes,
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 Environ Earth Sci

Huebra, France and Yeltes. In the link surface unit, there

are 4 basins: Yeltes, huebra, Alagon and France. The valley
unit has 4 basins: Alagon, France, Yeltes and Huebra.
Analysis of the geosites (LIGs) in each homogeneous
unit shows that are 10 geosites in the watershed unit, 2
geosites in the link surface unit and 5 geosites in the valley
unit (Martı́nez-Graña et al. 2013).
The soil analysis shows six different soils in the
watershed unit: cambisols, leptosols, regosols, fluvisols,
acrysols and luvisols. The soils are the same in the link
surface unit. The valley unit has seven different soils:
cambisols, leptosols, regosols, fluvisols, acrysols, luvisols
and antrosols.
The different lithological units were reclassified into
hydrogeological units according to their degrees of per-
meability and porosity. The watershed unit has 6 hydro- Fig. 7 Empirical calculation of the areas of geodiversity from the
geological units: granitic unit, metasedimentary, quartzite different indices used
unit, carbonated unit, detrital unit and quaternary unit. The
link surface unit has 4 hydrogeological units: granitic unit,
Table 1 Weighing roughness value according to the slope
metasedimentary and quaternary detrital unit. The valley
unit has 5 units: granitic unit, metasedimentary, quartzite Slope 0–5 % 6–15 % 16–25 % 26–50 % [50 %
unit, quaternary unit and detrital unit. Roughness 1 2 3 4 5
The abundance of geological structures (faults, folds,
contacts, etc.) in each homogeneous unit was also deter-
mined. There are three different types of geologic struc- Table 2 Classification of geodiversity as Gd Index
tures in the watershed unit, one type of geologic structure Geodiversity Very low Low Medium High Very high
in the link surface unit, and three types in the valley unit.
Gd index \15 15–25 25–35 35–45 [45
The physical elements index value (Eg) for each
homogeneous unit was then calculated:
Watershed unit = 12 (lithology) ? 6 (hydrology) ? 10
(geosites) ? 6 (soils) ? 6 (hydrogeology) ? 3 (geological Watershed unit S ¼ 406 Km2 ; Gd ¼ 43  3= ln 406;
structures). Eg = 43. Gd ¼ 21:5Þ;
Link surface unit = 11 (lithology) ? 4 (hydrology) ? 2
(geosites) ? 6 (soils) ? 4 (hydrogeology) ? 1 (geological Link surface unit S ¼ 87:52 Km2 ; Gd ¼ 28  2= ln 87:52;
structures). Eg = 28. Gd ¼ 12:5Þ and
Valley unit = 12 (lithology) ? 4 (hydrology) ? 5
(geosites) ? 7 (soils) ? 5 (hydrogeology) ? 3 (geological Valley unit (S = 153 Km2; Gd = 36 9 5/ln 153;
structures). Eg = 36. Gd = 36).
For the calculation of the physical elements in each The geodiversity value is divided into five classes
homogeneous unit, GIS techniques were applied using according to the Gd index value (Table 2; Fig. 8).
neighbourhood operations (intersection graph) and alpha-
numeric operations (algebra of fields applied to the attri-
bute table of each layer) (Fig. 7). Subsequently, we Conclusion
calculated the roughness index, R, representing the topog-
raphy and climate variations in the area. The R value is This paper presents a fast and efficient method for trans-
shown in percentages, using data from the slope map forming traditional 2D maps to 3D maps using the tools
(Table 1). available within the Google Earth virtual globe. It also
We can determine the index of geodiversity, Gd, for allows for the analysis of outcrops and interoperability with
each homogeneous unit by multiplying the two parameters other applications, such as Google Maps, which contains its
calculated in the previous sections: physical elements, Eg, own virtual flight simulator; this function provides geo-
and roughness, R, and dividing the resulting value by the logical spatial observation at the regional level and the
natural logarithm of the surface area of each homogeneous ability to view the different thematic maps of the Arribes
unit: del Duero Natural Park, located west of Salamanca, and the

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Environ Earth Sci
Fig. 8 Flight simulator in the geological map of the Arribes del Duero Natural Area projected onto the virtual globe
Quilamas Natural Area, located south of Salamanca. The
thematic map analysis over the virtual globe and the
application of GIS techniques (graphic and alphanumeric
intersection using fields algebra) allows the definition of
homogeneous units and empirically establishes the spatial
distribution of geodiversity, which can be beneficial for the
management of natural areas. The Quilamas Natural Area
has very low geodiversity in the link surface unit and the
watershed unit, whereas the valley unit has high values of
geodiversity, constituting 23.67 % of the study area This is
associated with steep slopes and river valleys in the
mountains, along with a large number of physical elements,
especially geological (geosites and structures) and soil
elements.
Finally this work establishes a methodology for the
putting in value and the calculation of the geodiversity of
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any natural space, implementing the analysis of the the-
matic cartography and the results of the zoning of the ge-
odiversity in a virtual free globe (Google Earth) for its use
on the part of the different users by means of the new
technologies (Smartphone, tablets, etc.) favouring the
geotourism and the geoconservation.
Acknowledgments Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness:
Projects CGL2012-33430/BTE and CGL2012-37581/BTE.
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