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CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE

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Lesson Objectives:

At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:

 discuss how the ideas postulated by Copernicus, Darwin, and Freud
contributed to the spark of scientific revolution;
 analyze how scientific revolution is done in various parts of the world
like in Latin America, East Asia, Middle East, and Africa.

Development of Science in Mesoamerica

Mesoamerica or Abya Yala is a region and culture area in the Americas, extending approximately from
central Mexico to Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras,
Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, within which a number of pre-Columbian
societies flourished before the Spanish colonization of the Americas
in the 16th and 17th centuries.

Prehistoric groups in this area are characterized by agricultural

villages and large ceremonial and politico-religious capitals. This
culture area included some of the most complex and advanced
cultures of the Americas, including the Olmec, Zapotec, Teotihuacan,
Maya, Mixtec, Totonac, Inca and Aztec among others.

Map of Mesoamerica, with the

I. Maya Civilization borders of modern countries.

The Maya are an indigenous people who have continuously inhabited the lands comprising modern-day
Mexico and southward through Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, and Honduras. The designation Maya
comes from the ancient Yucatan city of Mayapan, the last capital of a Mayan Kingdom in the Post-Classic
Period.

Temple of the Inscriptions,

Palenque

Mayan Hieroglyphics

Maya script, also known as Maya glyphs, was the writing system
of the Maya civilization and is the only Mesoamerican writing
system that has been substantially deciphered. The earliest inscriptions found which are identifiably of
Mayan origin date to the 3rd century BCE in San Bartolo, Guatemala. Maya writing
was in continuous use throughout Mesoamerica until the Spanish conquest of the
Maya in the 16th and 17th centuries.

Maya writing used logograms complemented with a set of syllabic glyphs, somewhat

similar in function to modern Japanese writing. Maya writing was called
"hieroglyphics" or hieroglyphs by early European explorers of the 18th and 19th Pages from the Paris Codex,
centuries who did not understand it but found its general appearance reminiscent one of the few surviving Maya
scripts
of Egyptian hieroglyphs, to which the Maya writing system is not at all related.

When Spanish colonizers arrived, the Catholic Church and colonial officials notably
Bishop Diego de Landa, destroyed Mayan texts due to its polytheistic views which is against the teachings
of the church. Only three books of the Maya escaped- The Madrid Codex, Dresden Codex, and Paris
Codex (so named for the cities they were recovered).

Mathematics

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 Common with the other Mesoamerican civilizations, the Maya used a base 20 (vigesimal) system. The bar-
and-dot counting system that is the base of Maya numerals was in use in Mesoamerica by 1000 BC; the
Maya adopted it by the Late Preclassic, and added the symbol for zero. This may have been the earliest
known occurrence of the idea of an explicit zero worldwide, although it may have been predated by
the Babylonian system.

Calendar

The Maya calendrical system, in common with other Mesoamerican

calendars, had its origins in the Preclassic period. However, it was the Maya
that developed the calendar to its maximum sophistication, recording lunar
and solar cycles, eclipses and movements of planets with great accuracy. In
some cases, the Maya calculations were more accurate than equivalent
calculations in the Old World; for example, the Maya solar year was
calculated to greater accuracy than the Julian year. The Maya calendar was
intrinsically tied to Maya ritual, and it was central to Maya religious practices.

Architecture

Maya architecture is best characterized by soaring pyramid temples and

ornate palaces which were built in all Maya centers since Maya civilization was formed of independent
city-states. These people are known for their works in astronomy. They incorporated their advanced
understanding of astronomy in their temples and other religious structures. This allows them to use their
temples for astronomical observation. For example, the pyramid at Chichen Itza in Mexico is situated at the
location of the Sun during the spring and fall equinoxes.

Maya pyramids soaring above the surrounding jungle are amongst the most famous images from the
ancient Americas. Pyramids were used not only as temples and focal points for Maya religious practices
where offerings were made to the gods but also as gigantic tombs for deceased rulers, their partners,
sacrificial victims, and precious goods.

Temple of Kukulca at Chichen

Other Contributions Itza, Mexico

Furthermore, they used various tools and adapt themselves to innovations especially in the field of arts. The
Mayans built looms for weaving cloth and devised a rainbow glittery paints made from a
mineral called mica. They are also believed to be one of the first people to produce rubber
products 3,000 years before Goodyear received its patent in 1844.

Mysterious Decline of the Maya

From the late eighth through the end of the ninth century, something unknown happened to
shake the Maya civilization to its foundations. One by one, the Classic cities in the southern
lowlands were abandoned, and by A.D. 900, Maya civilization in that region had collapsed.
The reason for this mysterious decline is unknown, though scholars have developed several
competing theories. Among the theories are- overpopulation, overuse of the land, and endemic warfare and
drought- may have played a part in the downfall of the Maya.

II. Inca Civilization

The Inca civilization flourished in ancient Peru between c.1400 and 1533 CE, , and
their empire eventually extended across western South America making it the largest
empire ever seen in the Americas and the largest in the world at that time. Undaunted
by the often harsh Andean environment, the Incas conquered people and exploited
landscapes in such diverse settings as plains, mountains, deserts, and tropical jungle.
Famed for their unique art and architecture, they constructed finely-built and imposing
buildings wherever they conquered, and their spectacular adaptation of natural
landscapes with terracing, highways, and mountaintop settlements continues to impress
modern visitors at such world famous sites as Machu Picchu (see picture above).

Government and Administration

For tax purposes censuses were taken and

populations divided up into groups based on
multiples of ten (Inca mathematics was
almost identical to the system we use today).
As there was no currency in the Inca world,

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 taxes were paid in kind - usually foodstuffs, precious metals, textiles,
exotic feathers, dyes, and spondylus shell - but also in labourers who
could be shifted about the empire to be used where they were most
needed, known as mit'a service. To keep track of all these statistics, the
Inca used the quipu (as seen above), a sophisticated assembly of knots
and strings which was also highly transportable and could record
decimals up to 10,000.

Inca Architecture and Roads

Master stone masons, the Incas constructed large buildings, walls and fortifications using finely-worked
blocks - either regular or polygonal - which fitted together so precisely no mortar was needed. With an
emphasis on clean lines, trapezoid shapes, and incorporating natural features into these
buildings, they have easily withstood the powerful earthquakes which frequently hit the
region. The distinctive sloping trapezoid form and fine masonry of Inca buildings were,
besides their obvious aesthetic value, also used as a recognisable symbol of Inca
domination throughout the empire.

Terracing to maximise land area for agriculture (especially for maize) was
another Inca practice, which they exported wherever they went. These
terraces often included canals, as the Incas were expert at diverting water,
carrying it across great distances, channelling it underground, and creating
spectacular outlets and fountains.

Goods were transported across the empire along purpose-built roads using
llamas and porters (there were no wheeled vehicles). The Inca road
network covered over 40,000 km and as well as allowing for the easy
movement of armies, administrators, and trade goods, it was also a very
powerful visual symbol of Inca authority over their empire. The roads had
rest stations along their way, and there was also a relay system of runners (chasquis) who carried messages
up to 240 km in a single day from one settlement to another.

Collapse

The Inca Empire was founded on, and maintained by, force, and the ruling Incas were very often unpopular
with their subjects (especially in the northern territories), a situation that the Spanish conquistadores, led by
Francisco Pizarro, would take full advantage of in the middle decades of the 16th century CE.  Rebellions
were rife, and the Incas were engaged in a war in Ecuador where a second Inca capital had been
established. Even more serious, the Incas were hit by an epidemic of European diseases, such as smallpox,
which had spread from Central America even faster than the European invaders themselves, and the wave
killed a staggering 65-90% of the population.   It was this combination of factors - a perfect storm of
rebellion, disease, and invasion - which brought the downfall of the mighty Inca Empire, the largest and
richest ever seen in the Americas. 

III. Aztec Civilization

The Aztec Empire flourished between c. 1345 and 1521 CE and, at its greatest extent,
covered most of northern Mesoamerica. Aztec warriors were able to dominate their
neighbouring states and permit rulers to impose Aztec ideals and religion across Mexico.
Highly accomplished in agriculture and trade, the last of the great Mesoamerican civilizations
was also noted for its art and architecture which ranks amongst the finest everTemple Mayor,
produced on Tenochtitlan
the continent. (Aztec Capital)

Tenochtitlan

The Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan flourished so that the city could boast at least 200,000 inhabitants by the
early 16th century CE, making it the largest city in the Pre-Columbian Americas. Not only the political and
religious capital, Tenochtitlán was also a huge trading centre with goods flowing in and out such as  gold,
greenstone, turquoise, cotton, cacao beans, tobacco, pottery, tools, weapons, foodstuffs (tortillas, chile
sauces, maize, beans, and even insects, for example) and slaves.

Tenochtitlan's water management was also impressive with large canals criss-crossing the
city which was itself surrounded by chinampas - raised and flooded fields - which greatly

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 increased the agricultural capacity of the Aztecs. There were also anti-flood dykes, artificial reservoirs for
fresh water, and wonderful flower gardens dotted around the city.

The main staple of the Aztec diet was corn, which was typically ground and made into tortillas. It was also
turned into popped corn, which was a tradition the Aztecs picked up from their Mayan predecessors.
Wealthy Aztecs enjoyed an early form of hot chocolate known as cacahuatl that they inherited from the
Mayans. One thing they didn't consume, however, was alcohol. It was illegal throughout the empire …
until the age of 70, that is, when it was fine to drink away.

Other Contributions

Floating garden called Mandatory Education. The Aztec puts value on education;
chinampas that is why their children are mandated to get education
regardless of their social class, gender, or age. It is an early
form of universal or inclusive education.

Chocolates. The Aztec in Mexico developed chocolate during their time. In the Maya culture, they used it
as currency. The Aztec valued the cacao beans highly and made it as part of their tribute to their gods.

Antispasmodic medication. They used a type of

antispasmodic medication that could prevent muscle spasm and
relax muscles, which could help during surgery.

Invention of the canoe. A light narrow boat used for traveling

in water systems.

Development of Science in Asia

Asia is the biggest continent in the world and the home of many ancient civilizations. It is a host to many
cultural, economic, scientific, and political activities of all ages. In the field of science, technology, and
mathematics, great civilizations have stood out: India, China, and the Middle East civilizations. These
civilizations were incomparable in terms of their contributions to the development of knowledge during
their time.

I. Ancient India

The history of India begins with the birth of the Indus Valley Civilization, more precisely known as
Harappan Civilization. It flourished around 2,500 BC, in the western part of South Asia, what today is
Pakistan and Western India. Nothing was known about this civilization till 1920s when the Archaeological
Department of India carried out excavations in the Indus valley wherein the ruins of the two old cities, viz.
Mohenjo-daro (shown at the right: excavation site) and Harappa were unearthed. The ruins of buildings
and other things like household articles, weapons of war, gold and silver ornaments, seals, toys, pottery
wares, etc., show that some four to five thousand years ago a highly developed Civilization flourished in
this region.

Medicine

India is famous in medicine. For example, Ayurveda, a system of

traditional medicine that originated in ancient India before 2500 BC, is
still practiced as a form of alternative medicine. They discovered some
medicinal properties of plants that led them to develop
medicines to cure various illness. Some ancient texts,
like the Susruta Samhita, describes different surgical
and other medical procedures famous in Ancient India.

Mathematics

Zero. Brahmagupta lucidly explained the use of zero as both a placeholder and a decimal digit Zero was
recognized as a number and not merely a symbol of separation amongst all other numbers in India. Basic
calculations – including multiplications and divisions were already carried out considering zero as any
other number from the 9th century AD.

Trigonometric functions. Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata in his Aryabhatiya, introduced
a number of trigonometric functions. The functions of sine and cosine can be traced back to India.

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 Although the study of trigonometry can be dated back to the ancient times, there is evidence that these two
values were being used in the 5th century AD. Aryabhata also introduced the idea of algorithms of algebra.

Modern decimal system. What we use as the modern decimal system was compiled in its entirety in India.
Although other cultures had introduced some features of the numeric system beforehand, it was completed
in India by the 9th century AD.

Mathematical analysis. Another Indian named Madhava of Sangamagrama is also considered as the
founder of mathematical analysis. Mathematical analysis is the branch of mathematics dealing with limits
and related theories, such as differentiation, integration, measure, infinite series, and analytic functions.
These theories are usually studied in the context of real and complex numbers and functions.

II. China

Ancient China produced what has become the oldest extant culture in the world. The name `China’ comes
from the Sanskrit Cina (derived from the name of the Chinese Qin Dynasty, pronounced `Chin’) which was
translated as `Cin’ by the Persians and seems to have become popularized through trade along the Silk
Road from China to the rest of the world.

Government and Administration

Ancient China had a government ruled by dynasties, sometimes united under one dynasty but often
competing dynasties in controlling different regions. Ancient China’s resources, large areas and large
populations demanded a strong central government. When one of these regional dynasties became
dominant their king would become the emperor. The government these dynasties created tended to be very
autocratic and even despotic, ruthlessly enforcing their rule and conscripting massive armies and labor
forces. 

Zhou Dynasty

Under the Zhou, culture flourished and civilization spread. Writing was codified and iron metallurgy
became increasingly sophisticated. The greatest and best known Chinese philosophers and
poets, Confucius, Mencius, Mo Ti (Mot Zu), Lao-Tzu, Tao Chien, and the military strategist Sun-Tzu (if he
existed as depicted), all come from the Zhou period in China and the time of the Hundred Schools of
Thought. Also, the chariot, which was introduced to the land under the Shang, became more fully
developed by the Zhou.

Qin Dynasty

Shi Huangdi thus established the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BCE), also known as the Imperial Era in China.
He ordered the destruction of the walled fortifications which had separated the different states and
commissioned the building of a great wall along the northern border of his kingdom. Though little remains
today of Shi Huangdi’s original wall, The Great Wall of China was begun under his rule. Shi Huangdi also
strengthened the infrastructure through road building which helped to increase trade through ease of travel.

His desire to provide for himself an afterlife commensurate with his present one led him to commission
a palace built for his tomb and an army of over 8,000 terracotta warriors (pictured beside; The Terracotta
Army) created to serve him in eternity. This ceramic army, buried with him, also included terracotta
chariots, cavalry, a commander in chief, and assorted birds and animals. He is said to have died while on a
quest for an elixir of immortality.

Han Dynasty

Liu-Bang, known to posterity as Emperor Gaozu of Han, ruled the Han dynasty after the fall of Si
Huangdi’s Qin dynasty. The Yellow Emperor’s Canon of Medicine, China’s earliest written record on
medicine was codified during the Han Dynasty. Gunpowder, which the Chinese had already invented,
became more refined. Paper was invented at this time and writing became more sophisticated.  Gaozu
embraced Confucianism and made it the exclusive philosophy of the government, setting a pattern which
would continue on to the present day. Even so, unlike Shi Huangdi, he practised tolerance for all other
philosophies and, as a result, literature and education flourished under his reign. He
reduced taxes and disbanded his army who, nevertheless, rallied without delay
when called upon.

Wu Ti, also known as Han Wu the Great, officially opened the commercial
relationship with the West through the formation of the Silk Road in 130 BCE. The
Silk Road was an ancient network of trade routes that connected the East and West.

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 It was central to cultural interaction between the regions for many centuries. The Silk Road primarily refers
to the terrestrial routes connecting East Asia and Southeast Asia with East Africa, West Asia and Southern
Europe. Confucianism was further incorporated as the official doctrine of the government and Wu Ti
established schools throughout the empire to foster literacy and teach Confucian precepts. He also reformed
transportation, roads, and trade and decreed many other public projects, employing millions as state
workers in these undertakings. 

Sui Dynasty

The Sui Dynasty (589-618 CE) finally succeeded in reuniting China in 589 CE. The importance of the Sui
Dynasty is in its implementation of highly efficient bureaucracy which streamlined the operation of
government and led to greater ease in maintaining the empire. Under the Emperor Wen, and then his son,
Yang, the Grand Canal was constructed, the Great Wall was enlarged and portions rebuilt, the army was
increased to the largest recorded in the world at that time, and coinage was standardized across the realm.
Literature flourished and it is thought that the famous Legend of Hua Mulan, about a young girl who takes
her father’s place in the army, was composed, or at least set down, at this time.

Tang Dynasty

The Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE) is considered the `golden age’ of Chinese civilization. Gao-Tzu prudently
maintained, and improved upon, the bureaucracy initiated by the Sui Dynasty while dispensing with
extravagant military operations and building projects. With minor modifications, the bureaucratic policies
of the Tang Dynasty are still in use in Chinese government in the modern day.

Trade flourished within the empire and, along the Silk Road, with the West. Rome having now fallen,
the Byzantine Empire became a prime buyer of Chinese silk. By the time of the rule of Emperor Xuanzong
(712-756 CE) China was the largest, most populous, and most prosperous country in the world. Owing to
the large population, armies of many thousands of men could be conscripted into service and military
campaigns against Turkish nomads or domestic rebels were swift and successful. Art, technology,
and science all flourished under the Tang Dynasty and some of the most impressive pieces of
Chinese sculpture and silver-work come from this period.

Other Contributions: Medicine

The Chinese are known for traditional medicines, a product of centuries of experiences and discovery of the
Chinese people. They discovered various medical properties and uses of different plants and animals to
cure human illness. An example is the practice of acupuncture.

Technology

The Chinese are known to develop many tools. Among the famous discoveries and inventions of the
Chinese civilizations were compass and printing tools that became known to West only by the end of the
Middle Ages. They also invented other tools like iron plough, wheelbarrow, and propeller among others.
They developed a design of different models of bridges, invented the first seismological detector, and
developed a dry dock facility.

China made substantial contributions in various fields. The list of their discoveries and inventions is
overwhelming. These contributions were made along with mathematics, logic, philosophy, and medicine.
However, cultural factors prevented these Chinese achievements from developing into modern science.
According to Needham (1986), it may have been the religious and philosophical framework of Chinese
intellectuals that made them unable to accept the ideas of laws of nature.

III. Ancient Near East

The ancient Near East was the home of early civilizations within a region roughly corresponding to the

modern Middle East: 
 Mesopotamia (modern Iraq, southeast Turkey, southwest Iran, northeastern Syria and Kuwait),
 ancient Egypt, ancient Iran (Elam, Media, Parthia and Persia), 
 Anatolia/Asia Minor and Armenian Highlands (Turkey's Eastern Anatolia Region, Armenia,
northwestern Iran, southern Georgia, and western Azerbaijan),
 the Levant (modern Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel, and Jordan), Cyprus and the Arabian Peninsula.

The history of the ancient Near East begins with the rise of Sumer in the 4th millennium BC, though the
date it ends varies. The term covers the Bronze Age and the Iron Age in the region, until either the conquest

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 by the Achaemenid Empire in the 6th century BC, that by Macedonian Empire in the 4th century BC, or
the Muslim conquests in the 7th century AD.

The ancient Near East is considered one of the cradles of civilization. It was here that intensive year-
round agriculture was first practiced, leading to the rise of the first dense urban settlements and the
development of many familiar institutions of civilization, such as social stratification, centralized
government and empires, organized religion and organized warfare. It also saw the creation of the
first writing system and law codes, early advances that laid the foundations of astronomy and mathematics,
and the invention of the wheel.

During the period, states became increasingly large, until the region became controlled by militaristic
empires that had conquered a number of different cultures.

Modern Middle East Countries

The modern Middle East countries are dominantly occupied by Muslims. With the spread of Islam in the 7 th
and 8th centuries, a period of Muslim scholarships, or what is called the Golden Age of Islam lasted until
the 13th century. The common language of Arabic, access to Greek texts from the Byzantine Empire, and
their proximity to India were contributory to the intellectualization of the Muslims and provided their
scholars knowledge to create innovations and develop new ideas. But contrary to the Greeks, Muslim
scientists placed greater value on science experiments rather than plain thought experiments. This led to the
development of the scientific method in the Muslim world, and made significant improvements by using
experiments to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical
orientation. A Muslim scientist named Ibn-al-Haytham is also regarded as the ‘Father of Optics’,
especially for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light.

In mathematics, the mathematician Muhammad Ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi gave his name to the concept of
the algorithm while the term algebra is derived from al-jabr, the beginning of the title of one of his
publications. What is now known as the Arabic Numerical System originally came from India, but Muslim
mathematicians did make several refinements to the number system, such as the introduction of decimal
point notation.

Muslim chemists and alchemists also played an important role in the foundation of modern chemistry. In
particular, some scholars considered Jabir ibn Hayyan to be the ‘Father of Chemistry’.

In the field of medicine, Ibn Sina pioneered the science of experimental medicine and was the first
physician to conduct clinical trials. His two most notable works in medicine, the Book of Healing and The
Canon of Medicine, were used as standard medical texts in both the Muslim world and in Europe during the
17th century. Among his many contributions are the discovery of the contagious nature of infectious
diseases and the introduction of clinical pharmacology.

There are numerous Muslim scholars who made significant contributions in the field of science,
mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, and even in the field of social sciences. The decline of this golden
age of Islam started in the 11th to 13th century due to the conquest of the Mongols whereby libraries,
observatories, and other learning institutions were destroyed.

Development of Science in Africa

Africa is blessed with natural and mineral resources. Science also emerged in this part of the planet long
before the Europeans colonized it. The history of science and mathematics show that similar to other
ancient civilizations, the early civilizations in Africa are knowledge producers, too.

Ancient Egypt

Egypt is a country in North Africa, on the Mediterranean Sea, and is home to one of the oldest civilizations
on earth. The name 'Egypt' comes from the Greek Aegyptos which was the Greek pronunciation of the
ancient Egyptian name 'Hwt-Ka-Ptah' ("Mansion of the Spirit of Ptah"), originally the name of
the city of Memphis. Memphis was the first capital of Egypt and a famous religious and trade centre; its
high status is attested to by the Greeks alluding to the entire country by that name.

To the ancient Egyptians themselves, their country was simply known as Kemet which means 'Black Land'
so named for the rich, dark soil along the Nile River where the first settlements began. Later, the country
was known as Misr which means 'country', a name still in use by Egyptians for their nation in the present
day.

One of the reasons for the enduring popularity of Egyptian culture is its emphasis on the grandeur of the
human experience. Their great monuments, tombs, temples, and art work all celebrate life and stand as
reminders of what once was and what human beings, at their best, are capable of achieving.
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 The Old Kingdom

During the period known as the Old Kingdom (c. 2613-2181 BCE), architecture honoring the gods
developed at an increased rate and some of the most famous monuments in Egypt, such as the pyramids and
the Great Sphinx at Giza, were constructed. The king Djoser, who reigned c. 2670 BCE, built the first
Step  Pyramid at Saqqara c. 2670, designed by his chief architect and physician Imhotep (c. 2667-2600
BCE) who also wrote one of the first medical texts describing the treatment of over 200 different diseases
and arguing that the cause of disease could be natural, not the will of the gods. The Great Pyramid of
Khufu (last of the seven wonders of the ancient world) was constructed during his reign (2589-2566 BCE)
with the pyramids of Khafre (2558-2532 BCE) and Menkaure (2532-2503 BCE) following.

The grandeur of the pyramids on the Giza plateau, as they originally would have appeared, sheathed in
gleaming white limestone, is a testament to the power and wealth of the rulers during this period. Many
theories abound regarding how these monuments and tombs were constructed but modern architects and
scholars are far from agreement on any single one. Considering the
technology of the day, some have argued, a monument such as the Great
Pyramid of Giza (pictured above) should not exist.

There is absolutely no evidence that the monuments of the Giza plateau -

or any others in Egypt - were built by slave labor nor is there any evidence
to support a historical reading of the biblical Book of Exodus. Most
reputable scholars today reject the claim that the pyramids and other
monuments were built by slave labor although slaves of different
nationalities certainly did exist in Egypt and were employed regularly in
the mines. Egyptian monuments were considered public works created for
the state and used both skilled and unskilled Egyptian workers in
construction, all of whom were paid for their labor. Workers at the Giza site, which was only one of many,
were given a ration of beer three times a day and their housing, tools, and even their level of health care
have all been clearly established. 

Middle Kingdom

The Middle Kingdom is considered Egypt’s `Classical Age’ when art and culture reached great heights and
Thebes became the most important and wealthiest city in the country. The first standing army was created
during the Middle Kingdom by the king Amenemhat I (c. 1991-1962 BCE) the temple of Karnak was
begun under Senruset I (c. 1971-1926 BCE), and some of the greatest art and literature of the civilization
was produced. 

Hyksos, people who were most likely descended from Syria or Palestine, settled in vast areas of the Lower
Egypt. Though hated by Egyptians, they introduced many great improvements to the culture such as the
composite bow, the horse, and the chariot along with crop rotation and developments in bronze and
ceramic works. 

The New Kingdom

Ahmose I initiated what is known as the period of the New Kingdom (c.1570- c.1069 BCE) which again
saw great prosperity in the land under a strong central government. The title of pharaoh for the ruler of
Egypt comes from the period of the New Kingdom.  Many of the Egyptian sovereigns best known today
ruled during this period and the majority of the great structures of antiquity such as the Ramesseum, Abu
Simbel, the temples of Karnak and Luxor, and the tombs of the Valley of the Kings and Valley of the
Queens were either created or greatly enhanced during this time.

Queen Hatshepsut and Pharaoh Tuthmosis III greatly enhanced the prosperity of the nation which led to,
among other things, an increase in the brewing of beer in many different
Death mask of Pharaoh
varieties and more leisure time for sports. Advances in medicine led to
Tutankhamun
improvements in health.

Bathing had long been an important part of the daily Egyptian’s regimen as it was encouraged by their
religion and modeled by their clergy. At this time, however, more elaborate baths were produced,
presumably more for leisure than simply hygiene. The Kahun
Gynecological Papyrus, concerning women’s health and
contraceptives, had been written c. 1800 BCE and, during this
period, seems to have been made extensive use of by doctors.
Surgery and dentistry were both practiced widely and with great
skill, and beer was prescribed by physicians for ease of symptoms
of over 200 different maladies.

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 The most recognizable Egyptian ruler in the modern day, Tutankhamun, who reigned from c.1336- c.1327
BCE. His reign was cut short by his death and, today, he is most famous for the intact grandeur of his tomb,
discovered in 1922 CE, which became an international sensation at the time.

The greatest ruler of the New Kingdom, however, was Ramesses II (also known as Ramesses the Great,
1279-1213 BCE) who commenced the most elaborate building projects of any Egyptian ruler and who
reigned so efficiently that he had the means to do so. His temple of Abu Simbel (built for his queen
Nefertari) depicts the battle of Kadesh and the smaller temple at the site, following Akhenaten’s example,
is dedicated to Ramesses favorite queen Nefertari. Under the reign of Ramesses II the first peace treaty in
the world (The Treaty of Kadesh) was signed in 1258 BCE and Egypt enjoyed almost unprecedented
affluence as evidenced by the number of monuments built or restored during his reign.

Ramesses II's fourth son, Khaemweset (c.1281-c.1225 BCE), is known as the "First Egyptologist" for his
efforts in preserving and recording old monuments, temples, and their original owner's names. It is largely
due to Khaemweset's initiative that Ramesses II's name is so prominent at so many ancient sites in Egypt.
Khaemweset left a record of his own efforts, the original builder/owner of the monument or temple, and his
father's name as well.

Agriculture

A combination of favorable geographical features contributed to the success of ancient Egyptian culture,
the most important of which was the rich fertile soil resulting from annual inundations of the Nile River.
Farming in Egypt was dependent on the cycle of the Nile River. The Egyptians recognized three
seasons: Akhet (flooding), Peret (planting), and Shemu (harvesting). 

Writing
Hieroglyphic writing dates from c. 3000 BC, and is composed of hundreds of symbols. A hieroglyph can
represent a word, a sound, or a silent determinative; and the same symbol can serve different purposes in
different contexts. Hieroglyphs were a formal script, used on stone monuments and in tombs, that could be
as detailed as individual works of art. In day-to-day writing, scribes used a cursive form of writing,
called hieratic, which was quicker and easier. While formal hieroglyphs may be read in rows or columns in
either direction (though typically written from right to left), hieratic was always written from right to left,
usually in horizontal rows. A new form of writing, Demotic, became the prevalent writing style, and it is
this form of writing—along with formal hieroglyphs—that accompany the Greek text on the Rosetta Stone.
Around the first century AD, the Coptic alphabet started to be used alongside the Demotic script. Coptic is
a modified Greek alphabet with the addition of some Demotic signs.
Burial Customs

The ancient Egyptians maintained an elaborate set of burial customs that they believed were necessary to
ensure immortality after death. These customs involved preserving the body by mummification,
performing burial ceremonies, and interring with the body goods the deceased would use in the afterlife.
Wealthy Egyptians bury their dead in stone tombs and use artificial mummification, which involved
removing the internal organs, wrapping the body in linen, and burying it in a rectangular stone sarcophagus
or wooden coffin. By the New Kingdom, the ancient Egyptians had perfected the art of mummification; the
best technique took 70 days and involved removing the internal organs, removing the brain through the
nose, and desiccating the body in a mixture of salts called natron. The body was then wrapped in linen with
protective amulets inserted between layers and placed in a decorated anthropoid coffin.

Medicine

The medical problems of the ancient Egyptians

stemmed directly from their environment. Ancient
Egyptian physicians were renowned in the ancient
Near East for their healing skills, and some, such
as Imhotep, remained famous long after their deaths.
The Greek philosopher Herodotus remarked that
there was a high degree of specialization among
Egyptian physicians, with some treating only the head
or the stomach, while others were eye-doctors and
dentists. Training of physicians took place at the Per
Ankh or "House of Life" institution, most notably
those headquartered in Per-Bastet during the New
Kingdom and at Abydos and Saïs in the Late period. Medical papyri show empirical knowledge of
anatomy, injuries, and practical treatments.

References

GESCIE: Science, Technology, and Society

First Asia Institute of Technology and Humanities
Handouts
Serafica, Janice Patricia J., Greg Tabios Pawilen, Bernado Nicolas Caslib, Jr., Eden Joy Pastor Alata. (2018).
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Dr. Kilroy-Ewbank, Lauren. (n.d). A beginner’s guide to the art of the Americas: Mesoamerica, an introduction.
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Mark, Joshua J. (2012). Maya civilization. Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved from:
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Cartwright, Mark. (2015). Maya architecture. Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved from:
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Cartwright, Mark. (2014). Inca civilization. Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved from:
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Mark, Joshua J. (2012). Ancient india. Ancient Histroy Encyclopedia. Retrieved from:
https://www.ancient.eu/india/

BBC Focus Magazine. (2010). Five of india’s contribution to science. Science Focus: The Online Home of BBC
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Needham, J. (1986). Science and civilization in China. In Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the
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Mark, Joshua J. (2012). Ancient china. Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved from:
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http://knowindia.gov.in/culture-and-heritage/ancient-history.php

GESCIE: Science, Technology, and Society

First Asia Institute of Technology and Humanities
Handouts