LANDMARK UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE BUEA

AIR TRANSPORT
LEVEL 300

CHAPTER ONE:
INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS IN AIR TRANSPORT

A. THE INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANIZATION (ICAO)

The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) is a UN specialized agency, established by
States in 1944 to manage the administration and governance of the Convention on
International Civil Aviation (Chicago Convention).
ICAO works with the Convention’s 193 Member States and industry groups to reach consensus
on international civil aviation Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPs) and policies in
support of a safe, efficient, secure, economically sustainable and environmentally responsible
civil aviation sector.
The History of ICAO and the Chicago Convention 
The Convention on International Civil Aviation, drafted in 1944 by 54 nations, was established
to promote cooperation and “create and preserve friendship and understanding among the
nations and peoples of the world.
Known more commonly today as the ‘Chicago Convention’, this landmark agreement
established the core principles permitting international transport by air, and led to the creation
of the specialized agency which has overseen it ever since – the International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO).
The Second World War was a powerful catalyst for the technical development of the aircraft. A
vast network of passenger and freight carriage was set up during this period, but there were

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many obstacles, both political and technical, to evolving these facilities and routes to their new
civilian purposes.
Subsequent to several studies initiated by the United States, as well as various consultations it
undertook with its Major Allies, the U.S. government extended an invitation to 55 States to
attend an International Civil Aviation Conference in Chicago in 1944.
General aims and objectives of ICAO
ICAO's aims and objectives, as stated in the Chicago Convention, are to foster the planning and
development of international air transport so as to ensure the safe and orderly growth of
international civil aviation throughout the world; encourage the arts of aircraft design and
operation for peaceful purposes; encourage the development of airways, airports, and air
navigation facilities for international civil aviation; meet the needs of the peoples of the world
for safe, regular, efficient, and economical air transport; prevent economic waste caused by
unreasonable competition; ensure that the rights of contracting states are fully respected and
that every contracting state has a fair opportunity to operate international airlines; avoid
discrimination between contracting states; promote safety of flight in international air
navigation; and promote generally the development of all aspects of international civil
aeronautics.

B. INTERNATIONAL AIR TRANSPORT ASSOCIATION (IATA)

IATA was founded in Havana, Cuba, on 19 April 1945. It is the prime vehicle for inter-airline
cooperation in promoting safe, reliable, secure and economical air services - for the benefit of
the world's consumers. The international scheduled air transport industry is more than 100
times larger than it was in 1945. Few industries can match the dynamism of that growth, which
would have been much less spectacular without the standards, practices and procedures
developed within IATA.
At its founding, IATA had 57 members from 31 nations, mostly in Europe and North America.
Today it has some 290 members from 120 nations in every part of the globe. The modern IATA
is the successor to the International Air Traffic Association founded in The Hague in 1919 - the
year of the world's first international scheduled services.

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Objectives of IATA
IATA is purely a non-political, commercial regulatory organization and has powers to regulate
every act of its constituents. The main objectives of IATA are:
 To ensure the safe, regular and economical air transport for the benefits of people
worldwide.
 To provides a means of collaboration.
 To prevent economic waste caused by unreasonable competition.
 To encourage the art of aircrafts design and operation for peaceful purposes.
 To promote and develop international tourism.
 To provide a common platform for travel agencies and tour operators.
 To provide training and education facilities for members.
 To cooperate with the International Civil Aviation Organization and other international
and national organizations.

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 CHAPTER: TWO
INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS FOR THE CARRIAGE OF GOODS BY AIR
Warsaw Convention of 1929
 The Warsaw convention is a multilateral treaty, administered by the International Civil
Aviation Organization (ICAO)
 The convention (IATA) applies to international transport conducted by air carriers via the
national law of the signatory countries. It does not apply therefore, to domestic air transport.
Origin and background
 Warsaw Convention: The Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules to the
International carriage of by Air., is the first of its kind in international Air transport, introduced
in the conference held in Warsaw, Poland in 1929.
 The conference wanted to established a uniform system of, through limited liability for
air carriers in event of international accidents in order to protect the interests of international air
carriers. By 1929 the airline industry was in its infancy.
 The Warsaw convention therefore unifies the rules in respect to carriers’ liability limit
and defenses, ticketing, transport of baggage and goods as well as fast recovery for passengers’
claims.
Objectives of the Warsaw Convention
From the creation of the Warsaw Convention, it has two main goals.
 To establish a uniformity in the aviation industry with regards to the procedures dealing
with claims, the law applicable to such claims, and with regards to the documentation such as
tickets and waybills.
 To limit air carriers’ potential liability in the event of accidents.
Liability Scheme in Warsaw Convention
 The Warsaw Convention of 1929 gives the Air waybill a legal status as prima facie
evidence of the transport contract. The consignor will make out Air waybill.
 The consignor is also responsible for the correctness of the statements related to the
cargo.
 Detailed requirements as to what is to be contained in the Air waybill are also set forth in
the Convention

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 A fault liability regime was established in the Warsaw Convention for the air carriers,
including his servants and agents.
 The carrier id liable to the damage to and/or loss of the cargo, as well as the damage
occasioned by delay, unless he can prove that the damage was caused by an error in piloting, in
the handling of the aircraft, and that in all other aspects, he and his agents have taken all
necessary measures to avoid the damage.
 The carrier’s liability is limited to 250 francs Poincare (approximatelyUS$20 or 17SDRs)
per kilogram of the cargo.
 There are exceptions to the liability limit. One is related to high valued cargo, in case the
shipper/consignor declares the (high) value of the cargo at delivery and as such, a special fee
against the goods is paid.
 Another example where the carrier can loss the protection of the liability limit is when
the damage is caused by the “willful misconduct” of the carrier or his agent.
Developments, Modifications and/or Amendments of the Warsaw Convention
 The coming of the Warsaw Convention, however, did not achieve the uniformity and
harmonization in air transport as it original intended.
 As time went by and the air industry began expanding, debates and criticism of the
Convention occurred throughout the world. One often heard criticism was about the carrier’s
liability limits.
 All these let to constant adjustments and changes to the 1929 Convention. In 1955, the
first effort to significantly adjust the Warsaw Convention was made, the result of which was The
Hague Protocol
 Over the years, the Warsaw Convention has had not less than 6 official amendments,
protocols and modifications
 In terms of cargo transport, the related documents, are The Hague protocols of 1955

The Hague Protocol 1955

 The Hague protocol in 1955 was the first amendment to the Warsaw Convention
 The most important change by The Hague protocol was a doubled limit of recovery of
passengers, up to 250,000 francs Poincare now.

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 The Hague protocol did not change the liability for carriers in the event of cargo damage
or loss, but simplified the requirements of documents of carriage, and extended its application to
the air carriers’ agents and servants.
 The Hague protocol also clarified and give more precise meaning of “willful
misconduct”, where the carrier is exempted from the limitation of liability.
 The Hague protocol was signed by the US but the later did not rectified it due to low
liability limits of the carrier towards passengers’ damage.

Montreal Agreement (MP4)

 Montreal protocol 1975 is another effort of amending the Warsaw Convention of 1929.
They were 4 protocols adopted namely Montreal Protocol 1 (MP1), Montreal Protocol 2 (MP2),
Montreal Protocol 3 (MP3), and Montreal Protocol 4 (MP4).
 MP4 is the most relevant in terms of cargo transport, while the other simply replaced the
unit of franc Poincare in previous protocols and the convention.
Special Drawing Rights (SDRs)
 Franc Poincare was defined in 1929 as such that it consists of 65.5 milligrams of gold at
the standard of finest of 900,000.
 Difficulties arose when the official gold price, as expressed in US dollars, were different
from the price in the free market price where goods were actually traded. Cases showed that
different courts adopted either official gold prices or free market prices in dealing with the
carriers’ liability.
 To eliminates such abnormalities, the SDRs was introduced.
 SDRs is a fixed sum base, since January 1 st 1981 on the basket of the values of 5
currencies;
-US dollar, UK pound, German mark, Japanese yen, French franc.
SDRs was introduced by the IMF in 1981.

 MP4 is based on The Hague Protocol of 1955 aside from the change of franc Poincare to
SDRs, MP4 further modernized the cargo provision.
 The MP4 established a Strict liability system replacing the faulty liability system in the
Warsaw Convention of 1929 and The Hague Protocol of 1955.

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 According to MP4, the carrier will be held liable for the damage to and/or loss of cargo
regardless of fault in the international carriage of cargo.
 Only in very limited cases, will the carrier be exempted from liability such as in an act of
war or an act of public authority, or loss resulted from the inherent defect of cargoes or the
defective packing by the consignor.
 The liability limits in MP4 remains the same, that is 17SDRs (about US$20) per
kilogram. The limit is unbreakable except in the case where the cargo has an official declared
value by the consignor who paid also a supplementary sum of the cargo.
 The MP4 also simplified the formalities if the Air waybill, allowing them to be replaced
by computer records. This is a step forward towards the development of the air transport into a
new era, where the costly paper work can be possibly eliminated.
 MP4 also reduced the lists of particulars on an Air waybill, and eliminated the sanctions
for omissions of particulars, Thus, maintaining the liability limitation in favor of the carriers.

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 CHAPTER THREE
LIABILITY TO AIRLINES
Introduction Airlines liability
It should be noted that over the years, the main issue in relation to the arguments or
disagreements internationally or over international convention, was about airlines liability.
Types of Liability Schemes pertaining to air carriers
1 Uniformed liability scheme
 The Warsaw Convention laid down a uniformed liability scheme for the air carriers for
the first time.
 The Uniformed liability scheme is very useful and effective in preventing claimants or
carriers from choosing the most favorable governing laws.
 By providing a Uniformed system, it avoids the legal conflicts that may arise from the
national governing laws applicable to different nations concerned in the international transport or
carriage of cargo.
2 Fault liability scheme
 The Warsaw Convention of 1929 and The Hague Protocol of 1955 adopted a “fault
liability” regime which means that the airlines should not be liable for damage unless the damage
is caused by the carrier.
 This fault liability however, is associated with a reversed burden of proof. It is therefore
the air carrier instead of the shipper or consignee, who should prove that the carrier is free from
fault in regard to the specific case of damages caused to, or loss of cargo during the transport.
the carrier is not liable if he proves that he and his employees have taken all necessary measures
to avoid the damage was occasioned by negligent pilotage or negligence in the handling of the
aircraft or in navigation and that, all necessary measures to avoid the damage have been taken.
This exception has slightly changed in The Hague Protocol of 1955.
3 Strict Liability scheme
 Strict liability system holds the carrier liable in case of cargo damage or loss, regardless
of the carrier’s fault. This means, the carrier will be liable also in cases where he bears no fault
or blame, for instance in the event of damage or loss of cargo resulting from hijacking or
sabotage.

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 Liability is not dependent on negligence or intent. The causal link between the fault and
the damage is no longer required.
 The strict liability System is therefore a higher risk system to the carrier than the fault
liability system.
 MP4 introduced the strict liability system to airlines with respect to cargo transport.
 Hence strict liability scheme is the widest applicable system in air transport, both in
passenger and cargo transport.
Liability limits
The limitation of air carriers’ liability remains unchanged in the Warsaw Convention, from the
Warsaw Convention of 1929 to The Hague Protocol of 1955 and the Montreal Protocol 4 (MP4).
The limit is set at 250 Franc Poincare, or 17SDRs which are at the same value (approximately
US $20 these days).

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POSSIBILITIES OF INCREASING LIABILITY OF AIRLINES
Learning objectives
 The student should be aware of the possibilities of increasing the liability of airline in the
modern world.
 The student should also have some knowledge of the Montreal Convention of 1999 as
well as the air carrier’s or airline’s liability scheme in the convention.

Introduction
 It is understandable that the more developed a society becomes the more willingness
there is to look sympathetic at a wider spectrum of complains because of development of
democracy and a greater protection of consumers.
 There is no exception in the airline industry. With the airline industry growing and more
applicable of high technologies, the air carriers are facing increasing pressure from the cargo
interests and passengers who demand a higher and wider liability.
Increase in passenger and cargo liability limits
 In respect to passenger transport, the Warsaw Convention in its amendments and
protocols has continuously increased the carrier’s limits of liability and later on, introduced the
strict liability system.
 Regarding cargo transport, the liability limits remains unchanged though the strict
liability system was introduced in the Montreal Protocol of 1975.

Montreal Convention of 1999

 Despite the increasing liability limits of the carrier and the introduction of the strict
liability system, the carriers are still facing more pressure from the cargo side. This resulted in
the Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules of International Carriage of Goods by Air
(Montreal Convention 1999), an initiative from the ICAO.
 The Montreal Convention has combined and inherited those provisions from the effective
and ineffective documents under the Warsaw System as well as from other international
agreements and regulations.

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 The Montreal Convention of 1999, adopted a strict liability system for other cargo and
passenger transport, though the liability limits for the cargo transport still remain at 17 SDRs per
kilogram (approximately US$ 20).
 The Montreal Convention entered into force in 2003. The US also signed and ratified the
Montreal Convention 1999.

Liability increase trends (Scope of application)

 The moment the application of Montreal Convention is subject to the condition that both
the departure country and the destination country are members of the convention, it becomes
binding to both parties.
 In case one of the countries is not a state party to the Convention, but a member of the
other international treaties such as the Warsaw Convention, according to a recent court case in
the United States, the other convention should apply.
 The ruling of this case indicated a lower liability exposure of airlines, realizing that
Montreal Convention has so far the highest liability scheme for the carrier.
 This may however, remain temporarily in light of the evolving needs of legal uniformity
in the air industry and the increasing defectiveness observed from the Warsaw Convention
system.
END

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 CHAPTER FOUR
CARRIAGE OF DANGEROUS BY AIR
General introduction of Dangerous goods.
The carriage of dangerous goods has increased substantially since 1945 owing to the enormously
increased use of many of these goods. Transport of dangerous goods is regulated in order to
prevent injury to persons, damage to the property, harm to the means of transport, or harm to the
environment. Because they are dangerous, government and other agencies regulate them.
Various parties are involved in the transport of dangerous goods. To provide the safe transport of
dangerous goods, everyone involved shall properly prepare, handle, and transport the goods. Due
diligence is necessary for all the parties. Based on the role it plays in the transport chain, every
party assumes different responsibilities.
Definition of dangerous goods
Dangerous goods can be defined as goods which can damage the health and safety of persons, or
which could bring damage to property, to the environment, to the means of transport and to other
equipment employed, or to other goods
International Regulations Governing the Carriage of Goods by Air
There are two international organizations that are related to international civil aviation. They are
The International Civil Aviation (ICAO), set up by 52 states in Chicago, USA, and The
International Air Transport Association (IATA), which was founded in Havana, Cuba, in April
1945.
Both ICAO and IATA have laid down regulations concerning the transport of dangerous by air.
Respectively, they are Dangerous Goods Regulations (DGR) from IATA and Technical
Instructions for the Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air (ICAO-TI’s) from ICAO.
Since IATA’DGR is stricter in terms of requirements than the ICAO TI’s, in business practice
the DGR is simply and widely used. The DGR also comprises the text of ICAO TI’s as well as
the additional requirements and information from IATA. DGR is known as a “field manual”
version of the Technical Instructions
ICAO TI’s (International Civil Aviation Organization’s Technical Instructions)
The conference laid the foundation for a set of rules regarding air navigation as a whole which
brought safety in promoting a great step forward and paved the way for the application of a
common air navigation system throughout the world.

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Annex 18 to the Convention of Chicago agreed on the broad principles governing the
international transport of dangerous goods by air. The detailed and technical requirements are
concluded in the ICAO TI’s.
The ICAO TI’s are based on material produced by the United Nations, and for Radioactive
Materials, the International Atomic Energy Agency Regulations for safe Transport of
Radioactive Material. Modifications are made to the system to take account the peculiarities of
air transport, while keeping in mind the need to ensure modal compatibility.
IATA DGR (International Air Transport Association’s Dangerous Goods Regulations)
Since its foundation in Cuba in 1945, IATA is the prime vehicle for inter-airline corporation in
promoting safe, reliable, secure and economical air services for the benefit of world’s consumers.
IATA had 57 Members from 31 nations, mostly in Europe and North America at its foundation,
Today, IATA has grown to include over 270 Members from more than 140 nations in every part
of the globe.
IATA recognized in the early 1950’s that there was a need to standardize the rules governing the
transport of dangerous by air. In consequence, a team of airline and technical expertise
developed the IATA “Restricted Article Regulation” (RAR) in 1956; meanwhile IATA continues
publishing its Regulations in the form known as Dangerous Regulations (DGR). DGR is
published annually with the latest riles on air mode dangerous goods from states, operators and
the ICAO.
DGR list for dangerous goods (for Air transport)
Contrary to the UN Model Regulations, the IATA DGR contains a list of dangerous goods is
made up of 14 columns in alphabetical order in subsection 4.2. The UN numerical list can be
found in subsection 4.3.
At the beginning of the list in subsection 4.1.6 of the DGR you are able to find the explanation of
the data in the columns and the references to the detailed provisions in the relevant sections and
subsections.
Below is an example of the dangerous goods list from DGR.
Acceptance of dangerous goods
Before accepting dangerous goods for shipment, the IATA Cargo agent and /or the airline will
check whether or not the shipper compiled with all the applicable regulations of the latest edition
of the DGR. (stricter requirement for DGR)

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Some dangerous goods are too dangerous to be carried by aircraft, some may be carried on cargo
aircrafts only while others may be acceptable on mix aircrafts (both cargo and passenger). To
know whether or not a dangerous good is acceptable for transportation by aircraft, reference
must be made to the IATA-DGR Classification.
NB: For safety reasons, dangerous goods must not be packed in checked or cabin (unchecked)
baggage except as specifically permitted.
Classification and Identification of dangerous goods
Dangerous goods are allocated to one of the nine hazard classes, according to the type of danger
they pose. Some classes have a wide scope and for this reason, these classes are further
subdivided into divisions. Some classes/divisions have packing groups which show the level of
hazard within the class. As such:
Packing group I = high danger
Packing group II = medium danger
Packing group III = minor danger
Classes of dangerous goods
Class 1: Explosives
Class 2: Gases
Class 3: Flammable liquids
Class 4: Flammable solids
Class 5: Oxidizing substances and organic peroxides
Class 6: Toxic and infectious substances
Class 7: Radioactive materials
Class 8: Corrosives
Class 9: Miscellaneous dangerous goods

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Generally speaking, dangerous items are usually moved by surface transport rather than
by air. However, regulations are in place to allow safe air transport if required, which
enables dangerous goods to be carried on commercial airlines, private charters and cargo
flights.
In order to carry dangerous goods safely, certain principles must be adopted that prevent the
aircraft and itss's occupants from being put at risk.
Dangerous items can be carried safely when appropriate measures have been taken and they are
deemed safe.
No matter how cargo is being transported, it must comply with The United Nations (UN) nine
hazard classes for dangerous goods.
 
Explosive.png

Explosive materials (Class 1)

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Class 1 items are not usually shipped by air and are divided into 6 subdivisions. They cover
substances that have an explosion hazard, explosions that may project fragments and firebrands,
and fire hazards. 
FlammableGas.png

Gases (Class 2)
This class is divided into three subdivisions that include flammable gases, toxic gases and gases
that are neither flammable or toxic such as helium and oxygen.
FlammableLiquid.png

Flammable Liquids (Class 3)

Class 3 comprises liquids or mixtures of liquids that will give off flammable vapours at specific
temperatures and have a flash point of not more than 60.5 degrees Celsius / 140.9 degrees
Fahrenheit.
DangerousWhenWet.png

Flammable Solids (Class 4)

Flammable solids are divided into 3 subdivisions that include highly flammable solids, solids
that are likely to spontaneously and substances that, if they come into contact with water, emit
flammable gases.

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Oxidizer.png

Oxidising Substances and Organic Pesticides (Class 5)

This class is divided into two subdivisions and covers agents that react with oxygen and organic
pesticides.
 
Toxic.png

Toxic and Infections Substances (Class 6)

Class 6 is divided into two subdivisions and includes substances such as cyanide, arsenic,
vaccines and pathology specimens. 
Radioactive.png

Radioactive Materials (Class 7)

Class 7 covers materials that have a specific activity greater than 70 kilobecquerels per kilogram.
Corrosive.png

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Corrosive Materials (Class 8)
Class 8 does not have any subdivisions and comprises corrosive liquids and solids that will cause
severe damage when in contact with living tissue; or, in the case of leakage, will materially
damage or even destroy other goods or the aircraft itself. Corrosive items include battery acids,
sulfuric acid and mercury.
Miscellaneous.png

Miscellaneous (Class 9)
Class 9 is for miscellaneous dangerous items. The class does not have any subdivisions but
comprises any substance that may pose a danger during air transport that isn't covered by the
other classes. This includes items with anaesthetic properties, solid dry ice, asbestos, life rafts
and chain saws.

Shippers Declaration for Dangerous Goods

Before packing any dangerous for air transportation, the Shipper must;
i) Identify, correctly and fully, and dangerous articles and dangerous substances within
the consignment.
ii) Classify each item of dangerous goods by determining under which of the nine
classes it falls and where necessary, determine the subsidiary hazards.
iii) where necessary, assign each item of dangerous to one of the 3 packing groups within
the assigned class.
iv) Complete a shipper’s declaration for dangerous goods.
The Shipper’s declaration must be completed in duplicate and duly signed.

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1 signed copy is retained by the accepting carrier; the other signed copy is forwarded with the
shipment to destination.

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 CHAPTER FIVE
PACKAGING OF AIR FREIGHT
Introduction
Shipments must be properly packed to ensure damage-free transportation with ordinary care in
handling. The proper packaging of goods for transportation requires a good understanding of the
product and distribution environment. It also requires
knowledge of packaging materials, experience and patience. Understanding
and following these packaging pointers can help you ensure damage-free
freight movement.
Definition of Air Freight
Air freight is the transfer and shipment of air cargoes via an aircraft, which may be charter or
commercial. Such shipments travel out of commercial and passenger aviation gateways to
anywhere planes can fly and land.
Hazards Distribution

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Below are the most common hazards present in distribution. These are “normal” hazards of
distribution and therefore must always be considered when preparing your air freight shipment.
Punctures and Abrasion: Occurs when the package shifts or comes in contact with other
packages or material handling equipment during sorting and other shipping operations. They can
also be the result of improper or insufficient internal packaging that does not prevent the contents
from shifting, resulting in the product being damaged or the package failing to contain the
product.
Compression: Occurs when external forces are applied to the sides, faces or corners of a
package. Stacking, shock, vibration, material handling equipment and tie-down straps all
generate compression forces that may result in package or product damage. Proper packaging
offers the necessary level of protection against these forces.
Environmental exposures: High and low atmospheric pressures are not restricted to air transit
and can have a dramatic effect on some products or packages. High and low humidity can result
in condensation or corrosion, and it can greatly reduce the stiffness and compression resistance
of paper-based products. Temperature extremes globally can range from -80º F to +160º F and
can dramatically affect the performance characteristics of packaging material. Other common
environmental exposures include, but are not limited to, dirt, dust, odors and precipitation. If a
product or package would be considered damaged if exposed to these hazards, then the shipper
must take extra measures to ensure the package can protect the shipment from these known
hazards.
Shipment Handling: Proper cushioning can reduce damage caused by the shock incurred during
shipment handling. It is important to note that your shipment will most likely be handled with a
forklift at some point during distribution. Proper packaging must be able to protect the contents
from the drops and impacts commonly associated with handling operations.
Shock: Occurs during handling and transportation as a result of impacts with forklifts, racks,
containers, floors and other shipments. Proper cushioning can reduce damage caused by shock.
Most products will require some level of shock protect ion to prevent damage during normal
distribution.
Vibration: Occurs in transport vehicles like trucks, planes or ships and on virtually anything else
that moves, such as forklifts or conveyor belts. Proper cushioning can absorb and reduce the
negative effects vibration can have on your product.

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Pre-Shipment testing
It is highly recommended that you conduct some type of package performance test to verify if
your air freight package can withstand the normal rigors of transportation and protect the
product. The major advantage of pre-shipment performance testing yourself is the opportunity to
evaluate the product protection performance of the packaging and to make any necessary
changes to the packaging before you invest money into new packaging materials or methods.
Conducting pre-shipment performance tests in a laboratory setting will help you evaluate the
package’s ability to protect the product from the normal hazards of distribution. When
determining your testing protocol, remember that shock, compression, vibration and atmospheric
conditioning can all have very different effects on your packaged product, so your testing should
not focus on just one hazard, such as the shock incurred when a package is dropped.
Marking and Labeling Shipments
All air freight packages must be properly labeled per the Terms and Conditions of Contract.
Each piece must be legibly and durably marked with the name and address, including correct ZIP
code of the shipper and consignee. If a package is reused, all old labels, tags, markings, etc.,
must be removed, and the container must still retain adequate strength for transportation. Failure
to follow these basic requirements result in the denial of a cargo claim.
Handling labels should be highly visible and, with few exceptions, on all sides of the package.
This can reduce the chances that a package is flipped, rolled or tumbled in search of shipping
labels. It is recommended that both pictorial markings and text be used for each of the special
handling requirements. For a complete list of acceptable markings, please refer to Standard
Practice for Pictorial Markings for Handling of Goods and/or ISO 780 Pictorial Marking for
Handling of Goods. Below are a few examples of handling markings commonly used by our
customers.
Do Not Fork
Place on all sides of package where forklift entry is restricted. Depending on package size and
space availability in aircraft containers or semitrailers, it is not always possible to honor this
request.
Top Heavy

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Place on all sides of package. Recommended any time a package height is more than 48" and the
center of gravity is higher than 24" or when the package falls over when tipped 22º or less in any
direction.
Fragile
Place in the upper left corner of all side panels.
Center of Gravity
Place on all side panels and on the cover or top panel. Forklift access points should allow
handlers to keep the center of gravity between the fork blades.
Perishables and Other Thermal-Sensitive Products
As Per the Terms and Conditions of an air carriage Contract, air freight shipments must be
packed to travel without spoilage for 72 hours from the time of pickup. All international
shipments must be packed to travel without spoilage for 24 hours beyond an agreed delivery
deadline. As stated in the Hazards of Distribution section, ambient temperatures during
transportation are not always controllable and can be extreme, so special care must be taken to
ensure the package can provide the necessary protection in a variety of environments. Shipments
requiring special care or attention between origin and destination are not acceptable.
Expanded Polystyrene (Styrofoam) containers are not acceptable as an outer packaging material.
These types of coolers must be over packed to protect them from the ordinary rigors of
transportation. If a corrugated fiberboard box is used as the overpack, we recommend a
minimum of double wall corrugated be used to fabricate the box.
CARGO SECURITY
The best approach to reduce theft in transit is to start with new, well-constructed packaging. Do
not place the description of the goods, either text or graphics, on the exterior of the box. If this is
not possible, then consider overpacking into a larger outer container, Freight glove cargo bag, or
stretch wrap the loads with black or opaque film. Further steps include the use of security tape
and seals.
Cargo Bags
These completely enclose the shipment, protecting it not only from pilferage but also from rain,
sleet and snow. Quality cargo bags will be tough and tear-resistant and can accommodate some
type of security seal.
Strapping Seals

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These one-time use seals are crimped over intersecting straps. If the straps are cut to gain access
to the package or load, the crimp cannot be reused on new strapping and there will be a visual
indication that the package or load was tampered with or opened.
Tamper Evident Tape
These tapes come in a number of styles and colors and can be very effective. As the tape is
removed, a portion of the tape is left behind, creating a visual flag that tampering has occurred.
Stretch Wrap
Opaque stretch wrap is available in a number of colors and can effectively hide the contents of a
shipment. Although a common material used to prevent pilferage, it can also hide evidence of
pilfering from the load if the wrap was lifted and then pulled back in place. Always use banding
to secure the bundled load to the pallet.
UPS Supply Chain Solutions offers different levels of service for customers requiring higher
levels of security from pickup to delivery. The level of security selected during transit should be
as high or higher than your own internal security procedures. Certain restrictions apply, so
contact your UPS Supply Chain Solutions sales representative to discuss your requirements.
Overpacking
When shipping multiple pieces on pallets, consider overpacking them. This can be done using a
standard container such as the Air Transport Associations (ATA) sizes or by using custom sizes
designed for your specific packages. The advantages of overpacking include reduced pilferage,
reduced damage and ease of handling. These are ideal for large shipments of small packages and
high value shipments or retail-type packages that would be considered damaged if soiled,
scuffed, torn or punctured.
Stretch Wrapping
Stretch wrapping is a common and effective method of keeping all pieces of a shipment together,
increasing the chances of damage-free, on-time delivery. However, 70 percent of all wrapped
shipments are incorrectly wrapped. The stretch wrap should first be applied around the pallet and
continued around the load
and upward. Do not wrap only the cartons or load. Stretch wrap is designed to stabilize the
load, not secure it to the pallet, so strapping should be used in conjunction with stretch wrap to
secure the load.
Securing Pails to Pallets

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Securing pails to pallets allows us to handle them efficiently with forklifts and gives us the
ability to easily block and secure them during transit. It also helps us maintain the proper
orientation, reducing the chances of spills.

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 CHAPTER 6
DOCUMENTS USE IN AIR TRANSPORT
General Cargo Documents Flow
The following business process overview describes the physical flow of goods and the
information flow between the different stakeholders involved in the air cargo supply chain. The
figure depicts a process wherein a forwarder consolidates shipments from various shippers into a
single consignment at origin and performs
brokerage activities and delivery at the final destination. There are 14 main documents that may
be used along the entire supply chain.
1. Air cargo manifest
A document issued by an aircraft operator, and available in hard copy or electronic form. This
document contains the details of consignments loaded on to a specified flight and provides a list
of all the air waybill and master air waybill numbers referring to the goods loaded on to an
aircraft. The nature of the goods, weight, and number of pieces composing each consignment on
a specified flight, and the unit of loading used, are also identified in this document.
2. Air waybill
A document prepared by or on behalf of a shipper that evidences the contract between the
shipper and aircraft operator(s) for the carriage of goods over routes of the operator(s). Air
waybills have several purposes, but their two main functions are as a contract of carriage (behind
every original air waybill are the conditions of contract for carriage), and as evidence of the
receipt of goods. An air waybill is the most important document issued by an aircraft operator
either directly or through its authorized agent (freight forwarder), and covers the transport of
cargo from airport to airport. Air waybills have eleven-digit numbers used to make bookings and
to check the status of a delivery and the current position of the shipment. The first three digits are
the aircraft operator prefix.
3. House air waybill
A freight forwarder offering a consolidation service will issue its own air waybill to the shipper,
called a house air waybill, which may act as a multimodal transport document. The house air
waybill and the forwarder’s general conditions may be seen as a part of the contract between the
freight forwarder and each shipper whose goods have been consolidated. There are two reference
numbers on a house air waybill, the number of the master air waybill to which it is linked and the

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house air waybill number itself, which is always different from one freight forwarder to another,
without limitations or standard digits, and which may be used to trace a shipment through the
freight forwarder.
4. Master air waybill
Master air waybills are issued by or on behalf of freight forwarders offering a consolidation
service. This document specifies the contract between a freight forwarder (or consolidator) and
aircraft operator(s) for the transportation of goods originated by more than one shipper but
destined for the same final State, airport or other destination. Master air waybills are linked to
several house air waybills, and the master number can be used to trace a shipment with an
aircraft operator.
5. Certificate of Origin
A specific form identifying the goods, in which the authority or body empowered to issue it
certifies expressly that the goods to which the certificate relates originate in a specific State. This
certificate may also include a declaration by the
manufacturer, producer, supplier, exporter, or other competent person.
6. Consignment security declaration (CSD)
A consignment security declaration is a document used to establish the security status of cargo. It
allows tracking of the security status of cargo and mail throughout its movement within the
secure supply chain. This document helps to ensure that regulated agents, known consignors, and
aircraft operators are held accountable regarding the security controls applied to cargo. A
consignment security declaration, which may be in hard copy or electronic form, should be
issued by the entity that renders and maintains the cargo secure. A CSD template can be found in
the ICAO Aviation Security Manual (Doc 8973 — Restricted).
7. Customs release export
A document whereby a Customs authority releases goods under its control to be placed at the
disposal of the party concerned for export (also called a Customs delivery note).
8. Customs release import
Same as above but for import Dangerous Goods Declaration Document(s) issued by the
consignor or shipper to certify that the dangerous goods being transported have been packaged,
labelled, and declared in accordance with the provisions of international standards and
conventions.

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9. Export cargo declaration(departure)
A generic term applied to the document, also referred to as a freight declaration, providing the
particulars required by Customs concerning outbound cargo carried by commercial means of
transport.
10. Export goods declaration
A document whereby goods are declared for export Customs clearance. House cargo manifest A
document containing the same information as a cargo manifest as well as additional details on
freight amounts, etc.
11. Import cargo declaration(arrival)
Same as above but for inbound cargo
12. Import goods declaration
A document whereby goods are declared for import Customs clearance.
13. Invoice
A document required by Customs in an importing State in which an exporter states the invoice or
other price (e.g. selling price or price of identical goods), and specifies costs for freight,
insurance, and packing, as well as terms of delivery and payment, for the purpose of determining
the Customs value of goods in the importing State.
14. Packing list
Documents specifying which goods are in each package.

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 IATA CONDITION FOR CARRIAGE
CHAPTER 7

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