18.
GRASS AND FORAGE CROPS
18.1 PASTURES AND GRAZING ANIMALS
- the simplest pastures are those created by sowing
a single species of pasture plant, which may be a
grass such as Italian ryegrass or a legume such as
lucerne (alfalfa)
 TEMPORARY PASTURES – pastures that
have limited life (1-4 yrs)
 PERMANENT PASTURES – normally
include grasses and legumes
 NATURAL GRASSLANDS - have an even
greater spread of species, which will include
herbs and shrubs (some of which may be
regarded as weeds)
 GRAMINEAE – grasses
 LEGUMINOSEAE – legumes
- The nutrition of the grazing animal is different
from that of housed livestock, for several reasons:
1. Diet is variable
2. The grazing animal is that it has to spend
time and energy in harvesting its food.
 PASTURE HERBAGE - is a food of high
nutritive value for ruminants
o the nutritive value of herbage often
falls far below its optimum;
o soil and climate may be unsuitable for
growing the most nutritious pasture
plants, and the grazing management
system employed may fail to ensure
that herbage is consistently grazed at
the stage of growth when its nutritive
value is at its highest.
18.2 GRASSES
PATTERN OF GROWTH
- In cold and temperate climates, grass starts to grow
in the spring when soil temperatures reach 4–6 °C
- As the grass grows in the spring, the concentration
of DM in the crop increases, at first slowly and then
more rapidly as the stems grow and the ears emerge
and, finally, more slowly as the ears begin to ripen.
- In hot climates, soil temperature is likely to be high
enough to allow grass growth throughout the year,
but growth is commonly restricted by lack of
water.
- grass growth is very rapid during a warm wet
season
 STANDING HAY – feed resource left when
the soil dries out the herbage matures and
dies
- Even in wetter conditions, plants in deep shade at
the base of the sward may die, thus giving senescent
herbage of inferior nutritive value.
- The rate at which grass grows is dependent
upon:
1. Environment
2. Nutrients available
3. Amount of leaf within the sward that is
intercepting light
- Immediately after harvesting there is a period of
slow regrowth, followed by an accelerated rate and
finally a period of decreasing growth as the herbage
matures.
- As grass swards increase in leaf area, the
photosynthetic capacity of successive newly
expanded leaves is progressively reduced because
of the increasing shade in which they develop.
- The rate at which regrowth occurs depends upon
the maturity of the crop at the time of harvesting.
- If the grass is young and leafy, it recovers more
quickly and starts regrowth earlier than when
mature herbage is harvested.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
- .The fibre content is related inversely to the crude
protein content.
- The moisture content of grass is of particular
importance when a crop is being harvested for
conservation; it is high in very young material and
falls as the plant matures.
- The composition of the dry matter is dependent on
the relative proportions of cell walls and cell
contents.
- The cell walls consist of cellulose and
hemicelluloses, reinforced with lignin
- The cell contents include the water-soluble
carbohydrates and much of the protein.
- WATER-SOLUBLE CARBOHYDRATES OF - The main components of the non-protein nitrogen
GRASSES: fraction are amino acids, and amides such as
glutamine and asparagine, which are concerned in
1. Fructans
protein synthesis; nitrates may also be present, and
2. Glucose these may be toxic for grazing animals.
3. Fructose
4. Sucrose Lipid content of grasses
5. Raffinose
6. Stachyose - triacylglycerols, glycolipids, waxes, phospholipids
and sterols

 TRIACYLGLYCEROLS - occur only in small

 TEMPERATE GRASSES - the storage
carbohydrate fructan is the most abundant of
the soluble carbohydrates and is found
mainly in the stem,
 TROPICAL & SUBTROPICAL GRASSES –
accumulate starches (instead of fructans) in
their vegetative tissues and these are stored
primarily in the leaves.
Protein content of grasses
- Proteins are the main nitrogenous compounds in
herbage, with true protein accounting for about 80
per cent of total nitrogen
- the total protein content decreases with maturity,
the relative proportions of amino acids do not alter
greatly.
- the amino acid composition of proteins varies little
among grass species
 RIBULOSE BIPHOSPHATE
CARBOXYLASE
o half of the cellular protein in grasses
is in the form of this single enzyme
o plays an important role in the
photosynthetic fixation of carbon
dioxide
- Grass proteins are particularly rich in the amino
acid arginine and also contain appreciable amounts
of glutamic acid and lysine.
 METHIONINE – first limiting a.a for growth
 ISOLEUCINE – second limiting a.a for
growth
- protein contents of tropical grasses tend to be lower
than those of temperate species.
- the most important characteristics of forage
proteins are their rumen degradability and their
overall digestibility
amounts and the major components are
galactolipids, which constitute about 60 per
cent of the total lipid content.
 ALPHA-LINOLENIC ACID – most abundant
fatty acid (50%)
o important in animal nutrition because
it is the precursor of longer-chain
polyunsaturated acids, which in
human nutrition are regarded as
being beneficial to health
Mineral content of pasture
- variable; depending upon the species, stage of
growth, soil type, cultivation conditions and fertiliser
application
Vitamin content of pasture
 GREEN HERBAGE - an exceptionally rich
source of β-carotene, a precursor of vitamin
A
o Herbage of this type supplies about
100 times the vitamin A requirement
of a grazing cow when eaten in
normal quantities.
 GREEN FORAGE CROPS - good sources of
vitamin E and of many of the B vitamins,
especially riboflavin.
 VIT D - growing plants do not contain this
vitamin
o The greater vitamin D content of
mature herbage than of young
material may be caused in part by the
presence of dead leaves in which
vitamin D2 has been produced from
irradiated ergosterol.
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE NUTRITIVE
VALUE OF HERBAGE
1. Stage of Growth
- most important factor influencing the composition
and nutritive value of pasture herbage
- As plants grow there is a greater need for fibrous
tissues to maintain their structure, and therefore the
main structural carbohydrates (cellulose and
hemicelluloses) and lignin increase, and the
concentration of protein decreases
- inverse relationship between the protein and fibre
contents
 PERENNIAL RYE GRASS (Lolium
perenne)
 PURPLE MOOR GRASS (Molinea
caerulea)
- The total ash content decreases as the plant
matures.
- This is reflected in the calcium content, which
follows a similar pattern to that of the total ash in
grasses.
- The magnesium content is generally high in the
early spring but falls off sharply; during the summer
it rises, reaching high values in the autumn.
 PLANT ANATOMY - basic determinant of
forage digestibility
o Plant cell contents, being mainly
soluble carbohydrates and proteins,
are almost completely digestible, but
cell walls vary in digestibility
according to their degree of
reinforcement with lignin.
- digestibility decreases as plants increase in
maturity.
 PLATEAU – period where the relationship is
complicated by there being a spring period of
up to a month during which the herbage
digestibility remains fairly constant.
- Digestibility of grasses is also influenced by
leaf/stem ratios.
- As plants mature, the stem comprises an
increasing proportion of the total herbage and hence
has a much greater influence on the digestibility of
the whole plant than the leaf.
2. Species
 GRAMINEAE - form a very large family that
has been subdivided into 28 tribes
- In temperate areas with a reasonably uniform
distribution of rainfall:
 grasses grow and mature relatively slowly
and thus can be utilised at an early stage of
growth when their nutritive value is high.
- In warmer climates:
 grasses mature more rapidly, their protein
and phosphorus contents falling to very low
levels, and their fibre content rising
- In the wet tropics:
 the herbage available is commonly fibrous
but lush
- in drier areas:
 the mature herbage becomes desiccated
and is grazed as ‘standing hay’
- Anatomy of leaves:
 tropical grasses: there are more vascular
bundles and thick-walled bundle sheaths,
and hence more lignin and in the central
tissue of the leaf the mesophyll cells are
more densely packed than those in
temperate grasses.
Soils, fertilisers and weather
- The type of soil may influence the composition of
the pasture, especially its mineral content.
- Plants normally react to a mineral deficiency in the
soil either by a) limiting their growth or by b)
reducing the concentration of the element in
their tissues, or more usually by both.
- The most common mineral deficiencies of grass
herbage are those of phosphorus, magnesium,
copper and cobalt.
- The acidity of the soil is an important factor that
can influence, in particular, the uptake of many trace
elements by plants.
 Mn and Co - poorly absorbed by plants from
calcareous soils
 Mo - low molybdenum levels of herbage are
usually associated with acid soils
  TEART - induced copper deficiency;
associated with high herbage molybdenum
levels, generally occurs on pasture grown on
soils derived from Lower Lias clay or
limestone
- Liberal dressings of fertilisers can markedly affect
the mineral content of plants; it is also known that the
application of nitrogenous fertilisers increases leaf
area and rate of photosynthesis. As a consequence,
the crude protein content, and frequently the amide
and nitrate contents, are increased.
- Application of nitrogenous fertilisers also
depresses the water-soluble carbohydrate content
of temperate grasses, which may have an adverse
effect on fermentation if the crop is preserved as
silage.
- Such factors as climate and season may influence
the nutritive value of pasture. The concentration of
sugars and fructans, for example, can be influenced
markedly by the amount of sunshine received by the
plant.
3. Grazing system
 ROTATIONAL GRAZING SYSTEMS -
pastures are grazed for short periods at a
high stocking rate and grazing pressure;
animals harvest most of the herbage on offer,
and the pastures are then rested for longer
periods of recovery
 ZERO GRAZING - grass may be cut by
machine and transported to housed animals.
o allows greater control over the diet of
grass-fed livestock.
4. Nutrient balance
3 MAJOR GROUPS OF NUTRIENTS IN
GRASSES:
1. Protein
2. Fiber – high fiber, low digestibility and energy
value
3. Soluble Carbohydrates – high contents of
water-soluble carbs are rapidly fermented in
the rumen and may depress the ph, reduce
fiber digestion (high solu. carb, low fiber
digestion)
 low contents of these carbohydrates
reduce microbial protein synthesis in
the rumen, leading to an increased
uptake of ammonia, with consequent
energy costs of urea synthesis
NUTRITIONAL DISORDERS ASSOCIATED WITH
GRASSES
Nitrate poisoning
- nitrate can accumulate in grasses.
- The toxic effect in ruminants is caused by the
reduction of nitrate to nitrite in the rumen.
 NITRITE - oxidises the ferrous iron of
haemoglobin to the ferric state, producing a
brown pigment, methaemoglobin, which is
incapable of transporting oxygen to the body
tissues.
- Toxic signs include trembling, staggering, rapid
respiration and death.
- Cereal grasses, maize and weeds such as thistles
and docks may also contain toxic concentrations of
nitrate.
Mycotoxicoses
 MYCOTOXINS – substances produced
when grasses are invaded by fungi
 RYEGRASS STAGGERS – condition that
occurs in ruminants and horses grazing
perennial ryegrass.
o Affected animals are uncoordinated
and may collapse, although mortality
is low.
o Acremonium loliae – endophytic
fungus involved.
o produces the neurotoxic alkaloid
lolitrem B.
 PASPALUM STAGGERS - associated with
the Paspalum (tropical pasture plant)
o Claviceps paspali – fungus
involved; related to the ergot fungus
o Toxins – Paspalinine and
Paspalitrem A and B
 FESCUE FOOT - in which grazing animals
become lame and develop gangrene at their
extremities owing to vasoconstriction
o Acremonium coenophialum -
infects the grass tall fescue; produces
ergovaline
o ERGOVALINE – causes fescue foot
 FACIAL ECZEMA - causes liver damage in
grazing animals, which leads to the release
into the circulation of bile and the chlorophyll
 breakdown product phylloerythrin. These
compounds cause jaundice and
photosensitisation of the skin.
o Pithomyces chartarum – fungus
that produces sporidesmin; grows in
the pasture litter.
o SPORIDESMIN – mycotoxin
Grass sickness
 EQUINE DYSAUTONOMIA – scientific
name;
o Horses grazing pasture after a dry
period can develop this condition
o characterised by muscular tremors,
difficulty or inability in swallowing,
regurgitation of stomach contents,
abnormal stance, impaction of the
colon and loss of weight.
o CAUSE – not known; however,
BOTULINUM TOXIN is involved.
o Clostridium botulinum type C –
produces botulinum toxin.
18.3 LEGUMES
PASTURE AND FIELD CROP LEGUMES
 FAMILY LEGUMINOSEAE - contains about
18000 species, which are valued for their
ability to grow in a symbiotic relationship with
nitrogen-fixing bacteria and for their drought
resistance.
 CLOVERS (Trifolium spp.) – most common
legumes found in pastures
o Red Clover (T. pretense)
o White Clover ( T. repens)
o Subterranean Clover (T.
subterraneum)
- the clovers are superior to grasses in protein and
mineral content (particularly calcium, phosphorus,
magnesium, copper and cobalt), and their nutritive
value falls less with age.
- sugars present in clover:
 SUCROSE – main sugar foun in clovers
 FRUCTANS – absent
 STARCH – present
- tropical legumes are similar anatomically to
temperate legumes, they differ much less in
digestibility than do tropical and temperate grasses
 LUCERNE / ALFALFA (Medicago sativa)
o occurs in pastures, but like many
other legumes it is more commonly
grown on its own.
o found in warm temperate areas and
in many tropical and subtropical
countries
o protein content is comparatively high
and declines only slowly with maturity
 BERSEEM / EGYPTIAN CLOVER
(Trifolium alexandrinum)
o an important legume grown in the
Mediterranean area and India.
o It is valued for its rapid growth in the
cooler winter season in the subtropics
and for its good recovery after cutting
or grazing.
o It has a nutritive value very similar to
that of lucerne.
 SAINFOIN (Onobrychis viciifolia)
o a legume of less economic
importance than Lucerne
o the leaf is richer than the stem in
crude protein, ether extract and
minerals, especially calcium.
 PEAS (Pisum sativum), BEANS (Vicia
faba), VETCHES (Vicia sativa)
o grown as green fodder crops.
o When cut at the early flowering stage,
they are similar in nutritive value to
other legumes.
LEGUMINOUS TREES AND SHRUBS
- Animals grazing mature grass pastures are often
able to supplement their diet by consuming the
foliage of trees and shrubs, many of which are
legumes.
 BROWSE - collective term applied to food
obtained in this way.
 LEUCAENA (Leucaena leucocephala)
o one of the best-known browse
species
o also known as ipil-ipil
o a valuable source of protein and
minerals and is also rich in β-
carotene.
o it also contains the toxic amino acid
mimosine
CONDENSED TANNINS IN LEGUMES
- Many legumes, especially the browse species,
contain appreciable concentrations of condensed
(i.e. non-hydrolysable) tannins whose role in
nutrition is problematical.
- Low to moderate concentrations precipitate soluble
plant proteins and thus protect them against
degradation in the rumen, but if the proteins are too
firmly bound to the tannins they are not digested in
the small intestine.
- lower levels of condensed tannins, found typically
in some pasture legumes such as sainfoin and
birdsfoot trefoil, are considered to be beneficial to
ruminants.
NUTRITIONAL DISORDERS ASSOCIATED WITH
LEGUMES
1. BLOAT
o frequently encountered in cattle and
sheep grazing on legume dominated
pastures
o the most serious problems are
associated with clovers and
lucerne.
o primary cause of bloat is the retention
of the fermentation gases in a stable
foam (frothy bloat), preventing their
elimination by eructation
o SOLUBLE LEAF PROTEINS -
thought to play the major role in the
formation of the foam
o Frothy bloat can be treated by
administration of vegetable oils or
chemical surfactants.
2. REDGUT
o is a sudden death syndrome
associated with grazing sheep on
pure lucerne
o thought to be caused by the rapid
passage of highly digestible forage
through the rumen that causes
increased fermentation in the large
intestine
o the incidence was reduced when the
lucerne was supplemented with
meadow hay
3. OESTROGENIC ACTIVITY
o a large number of species of plants
are known to contain compounds that
have oestrogenic activity
o Pasture plants containing these
phytoestrogens are mainly of the
species Trifolium subterraneum
(subterranean clover), T. pratense
(red clover), Medicago sativa
(lucerne) and M. truncatula (barrel
medic).
o oestrogens in Trifolium sp. are mainly
isoflavones, whereas those in
Medicago sp. are usually
coumestans.
o Naturally occurring isoflavones and
coumestans have relatively weak
oestrogenic activity, but this activity
can be increased as a result of
metabolism in the rumen.
o FORMONONETIN - main isoflavone
in subterranean clover
o consumption of oestrogenic pasture
plants by sheep leads to severe
infertility and postnatal death in
lambs.
o main cause of the infertility is a cystic
glandular hyperplasia of the uterus,
which causes an increased flow of
mucus and hence poor sperm
penetration to the oviduct
4. MIMOSINE
o Toxic amino acid from leucaena
o In the rumen this is converted to
dihydroxypyridine (DHP), a
compound with goitrogenic
properties.
o Ruminants consuming large
quantities of leucaena may suffer
weight loss, thyroid dysfunction and
loss of hair or wool (alopecia)
18. 4 OTHER FORAGES
CEREALS
- Cereals are sometimes grown as green forage
crops, either alone or mixed with legumes.
- Like the grain, the forage is rich in carbohydrate
and low in protein, its nutritive value depending
mainly on the stage of growth when harvested.
- At the time of ear formation, the concentration of
crude fibre falls as a result of the great increase in
starch, which tends to maintain the digestibility
value.
SUGARCANE (Saccharum officinarum)
- a tropical or subtropical perennial grass that grows
to a height of 4.5–6.0 m or more
- The crop is processed for its sugar, which leaves
two by-products: a) molasses and b) bagasse.
 BAGASSE – fibrous residue; high-fibre,
lowprotein product of very low digestibility
that is sometimes mixed with the cane
molasses for cattle feeding.
 SUGARCANE MOLASSES - is a high-
energy, low-protein food similar in
composition to the molasses obtained as a
by-product from sugar beet.
BRASSICAS
 BRASSICA – genus; a comprises some 40
species, of which the following are of
agricultural importance: kales, cabbages,
rapes, turnips and swedes
o are grown primarily as root crops
Kales (Brassica oleracea)
- kales include a very wide variety of plant types,
which range from short leafy plants 30 cm high, to
types 2 m tall with stems strong enough to be used
in building.
 THOUSANDHEAD KALE (var, fruticosa)
o Most common short type
 MARROWSTEM KALE (var, acephala)
o Most common tall type
o Also known as chou moelier
- grown in temperate parts of the world to provide
green fodder during winter, but in drier areas they
may also be used to supplement summer grazing.
- The woody stems of marrowstem kale are lower in
digestibility than the rest of the plant and may be
rejected by animals.
Rapes
 SWEDE-RAPES – rapes grown in Britain
Cabbages (B. oleracea, var. capitata)
- grown for both human and animal consumption and
range in type from open-leaved to drumhead.
- All have a low proportion of stem and hence are
less fibrous than either kales or rapes.
Toxicity of brassica forage crops
- all brassicas contain goitrogenic substances
 THIOCYANATE
o In forage crops
o interferes with the uptake of iodine by
the thyroid gland and whose effects
can be overcome by increasing the
iodine content of the diet.
o May develop goiter; lambs may be
born dead or deformed
 FORAGE BRASSICAS
o may also cause a haemolytic
anaemia in ruminants
 HAEMOGLOBINURIA
o Hemoglobin appears in urine
GREEN TOPS
- Mangel, fodder beet, sugar beet, turnip and swede
tops may all be used for feeding farm animals
- Care is required when feeding with mangel, fodder
and sugar beet tops, since they contain a toxic
ingredient that may lead to extensive scouring and
distress and, in extreme cases, death
- The toxicity has been attributed to oxalic acid and
its salts, which are supposed to be reduced or
removed by wilting.