Introduction

Our story has its being in the beginning of the Enlightenment, the Age of Reason, a
time of our intellectual awakening. The Enlightenment began when the Dark Ages
ended, a time when the minds of men were cowed by the great mystery of the
universe and their minds, through ignorance, were ruled by fears. The
Enlightenment was a time when man, stepping out of his shackles, began to use his
rational facilities and pulled himself out of the medieval pits of mysticism and in the
process shoved aside the state and church authorities of the day. It was a spontaneous
and defused movement which fed upon itself and led to the great scientific
discoveries from which we all benefit today. Beliefs in natural law and universal
order sprung up, which not only promoted scientific findings and advancements of a
material nature, but which also gave a scientific approach to political and social
issues. Thinkers expressed their thoughts in writing and read the thoughts of others,
these brilliant lights of the Enlightenment included the likes of: Francis Bacon (1561-
1626), Montesquieu (1689-1755), Voltaire (1694-1766), Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-
88), David Hume (1711-76), and Adam Smith (1723-1790). One, foremost among their
ranks, was John Locke (1632-1704) the life and works of whom we now proceed to
briefly examine.

Locke’s Life
Locke's mother died while he was still in infancy. His father was a "country lawyer"
and a captain in the Parliamentary Army during the Civil War; he died while John
was still young.

John Locke was elected to a life of studentship at Christ Church, Oxford.2 As a young
man Locke cast about somewhat for a position in life. He might have become a cleric
except for the fact that the authorities did not appreciate his anti-Aristotelian views
that matter and life was static, was not something to which Locke could subscribe.3
Having studied medicine (he did not receive a degree) Locke was willing to help out
those who saw him with a medical problem, indeed, he become known as "Dr
Locke." In 1666, Anthony "Ashley" Cooper was referred to Locke with a medical
complaint. (Ashley was Locke's senior by eleven years.) "Dr Locke" successfully
operated, much to Ashley's relief, and cleaned out "an abscess in the chest." This was
to be a most fortunate turn of events for Locke, for Ashley was no ordinary man, he
was the first Earl of Shaftesbury, a Lord of the realm. Thus, Locke was swept into the
halls of power, perched confidently on the tails of Lord Shaftesbury (1621-83). In
1672, Shaftesbury became the lord chancellor and Locke, his friend, was appointed to
be the secretary of a very powerful Board.4

These were interesting historic times; political fortunes would shift in and out (more
than once was Shaftesbury sent to the Tower). Locke -- he did not subscribe to the
"Divine Right Theory" -- found it, at times, best to put some distance between
himself and the political foes of Lord Shaftesbury; indeed, Locke, during the years
1684-1689, was out of the country, in France and in Holland.5

Upon his return to England, in 1689, Locke adopted a life style that allowed him to
compile his works and make them ready for the press.6 Thus, we see, in 1690, the
publication of Locke's two principal works: Essay Concerning Human
Understanding and Two Treatises of Government7.

On October 28th, 1704, Locke died; he was buried in the church yard of High Laver.8

I now pass on to Locke's works  ; for -- as much as the life of Locke may be of
interest to us -- it is to the study of his books we should turn. Briefly, the core of
Locke's beliefs are to be found in his Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690).
It is with this book that there was established the principles of
modern Empiricism (the human mind begins as a tabula rasa, and we learn through
experience). It is in this book, Human Understanding, that we see Locke attacking
the rationalist doctrine of innate ideas. His other work naturally follows: Two
Treatises of Government(1690). Locke's Treatises were written in defense of
the Glorious Revolution: that government rests on popular consent and rebellion is
permissible when government subverts the ends - the protection of life, liberty, and
property - for which it is established.

Idealists, Materialists and dualists

The elementary question to be asked by all philosophers is, "what is the nature and
ultimate significance of the universe." As things developed in philosophy, three
camps emerged: there were those who hold reality subsists only in thought -- these
are idealists; those who hold reality to subsist in only matter -- these are materialists;
and those who hold that reality subsists both in thought and in matter -- these
are dualists.

Tabula Rasa and Empiricism

Ultimately, in his acceptance of the existence of God, Locke was a dualist -- though
only barely so; he did not consider man to be a divine creature fixed with ideas on
coming into this world. Locke was an empiricist, viz., all knowledge comes to us
through experience. "No man's knowledge here can go beyond his experience." There
is no such thing as innate ideas; there is no such thing as moral precepts9; we are
born with an empty mind, with a soft tablet (tabula rasa) ready to be writ upon by
experimental impressions. Beginning blank, the human mind acquires knowledge
through the use of the five senses and a process of reflection. Not only has
Locke's empiricism been a dominant tradition in British philosophy, but it has been
a doctrine which with its method, experimental science, has brought on scientific
discoveries ever since, scientific discoveries on which our modern world now
depends.
Locke’s View on Government
Locke's views on government, as the title will tell, are expressed in his work Two
Treatises of Government. In summary, with this work, Locke defended the
proposition that government rests on popular consent and rebellion is permissible
when government subverts the ends (the protection of life, liberty, and property) for
which it is established.

Locke's First Treatise was a systematic and almost labored attack in detail on Sir
Robert Filmer (1590-1653), and especially on Patriarcha, a work published in
1680. Patriarcha was a sustained attack in defense of divine monarchy. It seems that
Locke was not so much interested in Filmer but rather was using him as a stalking
horse to attack the far more powerful political teachings ofThomas Hobbes, the
author of Leviathan (1651).

Locke's Second Treatise, by far, is the more influential work. In it, he set forth his
theory of natural law and natural right; in it, he shows that there does exist a rational
purpose to government and one need not rely on "myth, mysticism, and mystery."
Against anarchy, Locke saw his job as one who must defend government as an
institution. Locke's object was to insist not only that the public welfare was the test
of good government and the basis for properly imposing obligations on the citizens
of a country; but, also, that the public welfare made government necessary.

Hobbessian Pre social man

In uncivilized times, in times before government, Hobbes asserted there existed
continual war with "every man, against every man." A time of "no arts; no letters; no
society; and which is worst of all, continual fear and danger of violent death; and the
life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." On this point Locke and Hobbes
were not in agreement. Locke, consistent with his philosophy, viewed man as
naturally moral.10 The reason man would willingly contract into civil society is not
to shake his brutish state, but rather that he may advance his ends (peace and
security) in a more efficient manner. To achieve his ends man gives up, in favour of
the state, a certain amount of his personal power and freedom.

Lockeian Pre Social Man

Locke maintained that the original state of nature was happy and characterized by
reason and tolerance. He further maintained that all human beings, in their natural
state, were equal and free to pursue life, health, liberty, and possessions; and that
these were inalienable rights.11 Pre-social man as a moral being, and as an
individual, contracted out "into civil society by surrendering personal power to the
ruler and magistrates," and did so as "a method of securing natural morality more
efficiently." To Locke, natural justice exists and this is so whether the state exists, or
not, it is just that the state might better guard natural justice.

Raison d’etre of Government

And, so, we have the raison d'etre of government as developed by Locke. Professor
W. H. Hutt explains:

"In Civil Government Locke expounds the Individualistic view of private property,
and again lays down the quintessence of Individualism. 'The great and chief end,
therefore, of men's uniting into commonwealths, and putting themselves under
government, is the preservation of their property.' He qualifies his theory of a Social
Contract, Compact, or Covenant, by pointing out that 'men when they enter into
society give up ... liberty of a kind; yet it being only with an intention in every one
the better to preserve himself, his liberty and property,' the power conferred 'can
never be supposed to extend farther than the common good, but is obliged to secure
everyone's property,' etc., etc. This artful qualification of the common good, serves as
a complete defence of the 'Glorious Revolution,' which gave us effective
parliamentary government."12

I should add that this role of government described by Locke remained pretty well
unchallenged until the Fabian Essays of 1889.
The Extent of Government Power
Locke in his works dwelt with and expanded upon the concept of government power:
it is not, nor can it possibly be, absolutely arbitrary over the lives and fortunes of the
people. For it being but the joint power of every member of the society given up to
the legislative assembly, the power vested in the assembly can be no greater than that
which the people had in a state of Nature before they entered into society, and gave it
up to the community. For nobody can transfer, to another, more power than he
possesses himself, and nobody has an absolute arbitrary power over any other, to
destroy, or take away, the life or property of another. Thus, the power of our
legislators13:

"... is limited to the public good of the society. It is a power that hath no other end but
preservation, and therefore can never have a right to destroy, enslave, or designedly
to impoverish the subjects... To this end it is that men give up all their natural power
to the society they enter into, and the community put the legislative power into such
hands as they think fit, with this trust, that they shall be governed by declared laws,
or else their peace, quiet, and property will still be at the same uncertainty as it was
in the state of Nature." (Second Treatise, Ch. 11.)

Separation of Powers
The question of whether man would voluntarily put himself under government is
but the first question: there then follows along the next, "What form of government is
best." Hobbes, not surprisingly, given his view of the nature of man, preferred that
there should be one supreme authority, a monarchy. While Hobbes could tolerate
government by legislative assembly alone, as opposed to a monarch, he thought that
power in the assembly should be absolute and not to be shared. Locke's view, more
consistent with the social contract theory, was that there was no need for government
to have great powers, which, in the final analysis, would only be needed to keep
people down; at any rate, Locke recognized the real danger of leaving absolute power
to any one individual, or group of individuals. Locke thought that government's
power was best limited by dividing government up into branches, with each branch
having only as much power as is needed for its proper function

The Ends of Government

For people to quit to government their natural rights and to give to government
"absolute arbitrary power" is, indeed, a very dangerous step; but, take it they do, so
that the ends of society might be met. The ends to be met are to better "secure their
peace and quiet" and to see that the "lives, liberties, and fortunes" of all citizens,
under stated rules (law), might be better protected.

"It cannot be supposed that they should intend, had they a power so to do, to give
any one or more an absolute arbitrary power over their persons and estates, and put a
force into the magistrate's hand to execute his unlimited will arbitrarily upon them;
this were to put themselves into a worse condition than the state of Nature, wherein
they had a liberty to defend their right against the injuries of others, and were upon
equal terms of force to maintain it, whether invaded by a single man or many in
combination. Whereas by supposing they have given up themselves to the absolute
arbitrary power and will of a legislator, they have disarmed themselves, and armed
him to make a prey of them when he pleases..." (Locke.)

The Taxing Power of Government

“It is true governments cannot be supported without great charge, and it is fit every
one who enjoys his share of the protection should pay out of his estate his proportion
for the maintenance of it. But still it must be with his own consent- i.e., the consent of
the majority, giving it either by themselves or their representatives chosen by them;
for if any one shall claim a power to lay and levy taxes on the people by his own
authority, and without such consent of the people, he thereby invades the
fundamental law of property, and subverts the end of government. For what property
have I in that which another may by right take when he pleases to himself?" (Locke.)
Revolution
If a government subverts the ends for which it was created then it might be deposed;
indeed, Locke asserts, revolution in some circumstances is not only a right but an
obligation. Thus, Locke came to the conclusion that the "ruling body if it offends
against natural law must be deposed." This was the philosophical stuff which
sanctioned the rebellions of both the American colonialists in 1775, and the French in
1789.

Locke’s Quotes
ducation:-
§ "Good and evil, reward and punishment, are the only motives to a rational creature:
these are the spur and reins whereby all mankind are set on work, and guided."
(Some Thoughts Concerning Education, 1693, sec. 54.)
§ "Virtue is harder to be got than knowledge of the world; and, if lost in a young
man, is seldom recovered." (Some Thoughts Concerning Education, sec. 64.)
§ "The only fence against the world is a thorough knowledge of it." (Some Thoughts
Concerning Education, sec. 88.)

Error:-
§ "All men are liable to error; and most men are, in many points, by passion or
interest, under temptation to it." (Essay Concerning Human Understanding, bk. IV, ch.
20, sec. 17.)
§ "It is one thing to show a man that he is in error, and another to put him in
possession of truth." (Essay Concerning Human Understanding, bk. IV, ch. 7, sec. 11.)

Government:-
§ "Government has no other end than the preservation of property."

Ideas:-
§ " There seems to be a constant decay of all our Ideas, even of those which are struck
deepest." (Essay Concerning Human Understanding, ii. x. 5.)
Law:-
§ "Wherever Law ends, Tyranny begins." (Second Treatise of Government, sec. 202.)
§ "Law, in its proper Notion, is the Direction of a free and intelligent Agent to his
proper Interest." (Government, ii. vi. 57.)
§ "The Legislative cannot transfer the Power of making Laws to any other hands."
(Government, ii. 141 xi. (1694) 276.)
§ "We must, wherever we suppose a Law, suppose also some Reward or Punishment
annexed to that Rule." (Essay Concerning Human Understanding, ii. xxviii. (1695) 192.)

Opinions:-
§ "New opinions are always suspected, and usually opposed, without any other
reason but because they are not already common." (Essay Concerning Human
Understanding, dedicatory epistle.)

Property:-
§ "He is willing to join in Society with others for the mutual Preservation of their
Lives, Liberties and Estates, which I call by the general Name, Property."
(Government, ii. ix. 123.)

Understanding:-
§ "He is certainly the most subjected, the most enslaved, who is so in his
Understanding." (Essay Concerning Human Understanding, iv. xix. 6.)
§ "'Tis Ambition enough to be employed as an Under-Labourer in clearing the
Ground a little." (Essay Concerning Human Understanding.)
§ "... we are utterly uncapable of universal and certain Knowledge." (Essay
Concerning Human Understanding, iv. iii. 28.)