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The Role of Self-Efficacy in Recovery From Serious Psychiatric Disabilities
The Role of Self-Efficacy in Recovery From Serious Psychiatric Disabilities
Copyright ©2007 Sage Publications London, Thousand Oaks, CA and New Delhi, Vol. 6(1): 49–74
www.sagepublications.com DOI:10.1177/1473325007074166
ARTICLE
The Role of Self-efficacy in
Recovery from Serious
Psychiatric Disabilities
A Qualitative Study with Fifteen
Psychiatric Survivors
Michael A. Mancini
St Louis University, USA
ABSTRACT
This qualitative analysis applied the theory of self-efficacy to
results from a study that used grounded theory to identify
the factors that influenced the recoveries of 15 psychiatric
survivors. Participants identified the development of a more
competent and efficacious sense of self as a central aspect
contributing to their recoveries. Analysis also revealed four
factors related to this development: meaningful activities,
supportive professional relationships, peer-support and
choice among a variety of treatment alternatives. Partici-
KEY WORDS:
pants’ description of the recovery process and how they were
consumer able to develop a competent sense of self, possessed several
narratives parallels with Bandura’s social cognitive theory of self-
efficacy. This article argues that self-efficacy may provide
psychiatric
practitioners with a useful guide for creating the contexts
rehabilitation
that facilitate the recovery process. Implications for practice
recovery and research will be explored.
self-efficacy
severe and
persistent mental
illness 49
INTRODUCTION
Studies have shown that people diagnosed with serious psychiatric disabilities
such as schizophrenia are able to recover and live satisfying and productive
lives in the community (Anthony, 1993; Anthony et al., 2002; Deegan, 1988;
deGirolamo, 1996; Harding et al., 1987a,b; US Department of Health and
Human Services [USDHHS], 1999).
The growing use of qualitative methodologies to understand how people
recover from serious psychiatric disabilities has taken many forms and has led
to numerous important discoveries (Davidson, 2003). For instance, several studies
have used personal accounts of psychiatric survivors to develop an in-depth,
first person understanding of the recovery process (Barham and Hayward, 1998;
Cohen, 2005; Corin and Lauzon, 1992, 1994; Davidson and Strauss, 1992;
Estroff, 1989; Jacobson, 2000; Mancini et al., 2005; Ochocka et al., 2005;
Ridgway, 2001; Sullivan, 1994). These studies as well as personal testimony from
leaders in the psychiatric survivor movement (Chamberlin, 1979; Deegan, 1988)
and psychiatric rehabilitation literature (Anthony, 1993; Anthony et al., 2002;
Corrigan and Ralph, 2005) have positioned recovery as a complex, subjective
and dynamic process dependent upon numerous factors (Davidson and Strauss,
1992; Estroff, 1989; Jacobson, 2000; Jacobson & Greenley, 2001; Ridgway, 2001).
Data from early studies suggests that the development of self-efficacy –
a view of the self as competent and agentic – may represent a significant and
important contributory factor in helping people with psychiatric disabilities
recover (Bandura, 1977, 1986, 2001; Watson and River, 2005). This discovery
may hold important practice implications because identifying frameworks that
effectively integrate the subjective aspects of the recovery process has been
difficult (Kelley and Gamble, 2005).
This study explored the subjective aspects of the recovery process with
15 psychiatric survivors. Participants were consumer providers of mental health
services meaning that they were diagnosed with serious psychiatric disabilities
(e.g. schizophrenia-spectrum disorders; bipolar disorder, major depression), have
utilized mental health services and provided mental health services to other
psychiatric survivors. Participants were asked to reflect and describe the key
factors that influenced their recoveries from serious psychiatric disabilities.
Responses were originally analysed using a grounded theory approach (Glaser
and Strauss, 1967) within the framework of symbolic interactionism (Blumer,
1969). Participants indicated that the heart of the recovery process was the trans-
formation from an illness-dominated identity to an identity of agency,
competence and well-being (see Mancini et al., 2005). Following this initial
finding the theory of self-efficacy was used to organize the data post hoc after
it was realized that: (1) the data possessed many parallels with the theory of self
efficacy; and, (2) this theory could provide useful information for practitioners
seeking to understand how they could create contexts that would facilitate
recovery in their clients. The theory of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1986) will then
be explored as a way to make sense of participants’ accounts of recovery and
to identify how practitioners may begin to think about how to construct their
practice in ways that acknowledge and value the subjective dimensions of the
recovery process.
successfully, they are more likely to develop positive self-efficacy beliefs about
their own abilities regarding that task (Bandura, 1986, 2000).
Third, the development of ‘mastery experiences’ is important in the
development of a competent sense of self (Bandura, 1986). Perceived success
on tasks can influence the creation of positive self-efficacy beliefs and can have
a positive influence on an individual’s competence, motivation and persistence
on tasks in the future.
Lastly, the ‘somatic and emotional states’ experienced while contemplat-
ing and engaging in a certain task can influence how one perceives his or her
competency regarding that task (Bandura, 1986). Experiencing a high level of
anxiety, fear or negative thoughts can lead to the development of negative
self-efficacy beliefs about a particular task (Bandura, 1986, 2000). Conversely,
experiencing excitement, positive thoughts or joy when performing a particu-
lar task is likely to increase self-efficacy (Bandura, 1986).
Since its development four decades ago (Bandura, 1966), the concept of
self-efficacy has been used to analyze, understand and predict human behavior
and cognition in a number areas including tobacco use (Colleti, 1985) and
academic performance (D’Amico and Cardaci, 2003). This theory has also been
used to examine and explain psychosocial well-being in children (Bandura et
al., 2003) and in the areas of clinical depression (Stanley and Maddux, 1986)
and substance abuse (DiClemente et al., 1995).
Self-efficacy has been less often utilized in research examining recovery
from severe and persistent psychiatric disabilities and its effects are less clear.
There is some weak empirical support for the relationship of self-efficacy and
increased psychosocial functioning. Ventura et al. (2004) found that self-efficacy
was related to better psychosocial coping responses in individuals with recent
onset schizophrenia when faced with negative life events. Mueser et al. (1997)
also found a relationship between self-efficacy and increased coping among
individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia.
In addition, Pratt et al. (2005) recently found that self-efficacy was
positively associated with psychosocial functioning in a sample of 85 adults
diagnosed with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. However, the nature
of this relationship was less clear. For instance, when compared to other pre-
dictors of psychosocial functioning such as premorbid functioning, negative
symptoms and cognitive functioning it was found that negative symptoms were
the most critical determinant of psychosocial functioning and not self-efficacy
(Pratt et al., 2005). Therefore, early evidence suggests that the influence of self-
efficacy on psychosocial functioning for people with schizophrenia spectrum
disorders may be indirect and contingent on and mediated by other important
factors (Pratt et al., 2005).
Although questions remain regarding the nature of self-efficacy’s role in
the recovery of people diagnosed with serious psychiatric disabilities evidence
does suggest that self-efficacy is in some way associated with improved outcomes.
Understanding how practitioners can construct the contexts necessary for the
successful development of self-efficacy is thus important for helping practitioners
facilitate the recovery process in their clients.
This analysis will apply the theory of self-efficacy to results from a study
that used grounded theory to identify the factors that influenced the recoveries
of 15 psychiatric survivors who provide consumer-based services. Results indi-
cated that environmental resources such as meaningful activities, professional and
peer support, and choice among a variety of treatment alternatives played a key
role in facilitating participants’ recoveries (Mancini et al., 2005). It was also
discovered that these environmental resources were associated with an identity
transformation that involved the development of a positive sense of self marked
by agency, competence, and well-being (Mancini et al., 2005). The question that
emerged from these original findings was: What frameworks exist that can be
used to translate these findings into ways that could help mental health
practitioners create the contexts necessary to facilitate this transformation?. The
author utilized self-efficacy theory in order to answer this question because the
personal and environmental factors participants identified as influencing their
recoveries possessed several parallels with the concept of self-efficacy just
described. These parallels will be outlined and discussed in the following sections
along with suggestions and implications for social work practice with individuals
diagnosed with psychiatric disabilities.
METHODOLOGY
Data Collection
This study utilized in-depth, semi-structured interviews with 15 psychiatric
survivors active in the survivor movement and the consumer provision of mental
health services. An interview guide was constructed for this study. It emerged
from the psychiatric rehabilitation, community mental health and consumer
literature and through consultations and piloting with key informants within the
psychiatric survivor movement. These informants reviewed the structure, content
and language of the guide and provided insights into appropriate questions and
question-wording in relation to their personal understanding of recovery, thus
helping to contribute to the credibility and authenticity of the guide. For
instance, key informants reviewed the language of the interview guide in order
to ensure that it was clear, relevant and non-offensive. This information was
triangulated with information from the literature on recovery from psychiatric
disabilities. In order to further test the interview guide for relevance, clarity and
usefulness it was piloted with two additional consumer-providers.
In interviews lasting 1.5 to 2.5 hours, participants were asked to discuss
the experiences that helped and hindered their recoveries. For instance,
participants were asked to discuss the people and experiences that facilitated
their recovery as well as to identify and discuss setbacks or obstacles in their
recovery. They were then asked to reflect on how their view of themselves as
individuals has changed throughout the recovery process (if at all).
Sampling
Participants were recruited through convenience and purposive sampling
methods. Eligible participants (psychiatric survivors) in the study were defined
as persons diagnosed with a psychiatric disability; were users of mental health
services; currently provided services to other survivors in the form of advocacy,
self-help, counseling, training, and/or research; and, self identified as being in
recovery. As leaders in their field, the psychiatric survivors in this study had a
working knowledge and understanding of what helps people recover and were
able to apply that understanding in their current work. As a result, these indi-
viduals were viewed as a particularly rich and untapped source of information
regarding the recovery process.
Through a working relationship with consumer advocates within a
Statewide Department of Mental Health in the Northeastern part of the USA,
the author was able to identify and gain access to appropriate participants for
this study.
Participants were members of a statewide consumer advocacy advisory
panel. These individuals, by virtue of their position, had experienced serious
psychiatric disability and recovery. These experts were actively involved in
providing services to current mental health consumers and in promoting
statewide recovery-oriented services, practices, and policies.
Participant criteria for the purposes of this study were threefold. First,
participants had to be current or former consumers of psychiatric services and
experienced serious psychiatric disability. Second, participants had to have
experienced their own recovery from psychiatric disability via self-definition.
Third, participants in the study were consumer-providers of mental health
services. The author’s rationale for selecting participants diagnosed with serious
psychiatric disability and who had experienced recovery is self-evident and
contributes to the credibility of the sample. To discuss a personal account of
illness and recovery, one must have experienced both of these phenomena.
Persons who have experienced the phenomenon of recovery are best able to
explicate and communicate the nuances of the experience.
The rationale for selecting only consumer-providers was to gather expert
perspectives on the recovery experience. Consumer-providers are individuals
who possess vast knowledge and experience with the concept of recovery. A
key role of the peer advocate is to engage and assist other consumers in their
own recovery and act as a role model to the recovery process. In other words,
as a function of their position, they must have a working knowledge and
understanding of what helps people recover and be able to apply that under-
standing in their work. In order to do this they may routinely draw upon their
own experiences and as a result, represent a rich source of information regard-
ing the recovery process.
With the help of a key informant, eligible participants were identified
and recruited by telephone and asked to participate in an interview study that
would examine how they initiated, developed and maintained their recovery.
All participants enthusiastically agreed to participate during the initial phone
call. Because of scheduling constraints, one individual could not be interviewed
resulting in an additional participant being scheduled.
Participants were interviewed in four urban centers located throughout
the state. Two participants were interviewed in a large urban center in the
western part of the state. Two other participants were interviewed in a semi-
urban area in the central part of the state. Seven participants were interviewed
in an urban center in the eastern part of the state and four participants were
interviewed in a large metropolitan city in the southern part of the state.
Sample Characteristics
Participants ranged in age from approximately 40–55 years old. Six participants
held administrative positions in community agencies, while six participants
engaged in direct service provision. Three were involved in program develop-
ment, policy, training and/or research. Nine participants were women and 13
were Caucasian. One participant was an African American woman and one was
a Latino woman.
Participants voluntarily reported diagnoses of schizophrenia, schizo-
affective disorder, major depression, and bipolar disorder. Many stated that they
received several diagnoses over the course of their treatment histories. In
addition, all participants reported at least one hospitalization, while the majority
reported more than one such incident. A decision was made not to formally
ask participants their diagnosis after key informants had warned that this might
be considered offensive and jeopardize the research relationship as many partici-
pants rejected the relevance and validity of these diagnoses.
Analysis
Commonalities in participant responses were identified and explored using a
grounded theory approach (Charmaz, 2000; Glaser and Strauss, 1967; Miles and
Huberman, 1994; Strauss, 1987; Strauss and Corbin, 1990). Grounded theory is
an inductive method of cross-comparative analysis ideal for providing a ‘thick’
description of subjective and complex phenomena (Glaser and Strauss, 1967;
Miles and Huberman, 1994; Strauss, 1987; Strauss and Corbin, 1990). Analysis
using a grounded theory approach is also a credible means for understanding
how individuals perceive themselves within a particular context (Charmaz, 2000).
In short, grounded theory allows for the inductive and systematic exploration of
the processes individuals engage in to develop meaning and action from their
experiences (Charmaz, 2000).
Therefore, themes and categories from interviews were not defined
beforehand and emerged from the data through a process of ‘open-coding’ and
were refined through a process of ‘memo-writing’ and ‘theoretical sampling’
(Charmaz, 2000). The analysis process consisted of the investigator reading each
interview three to four times prior to coding. During this immersion the in-
vestigator took memo notes based on observations of the data. Memo notes
were taken during the coding process as well. Interviews were audio-recorded,
transcribed and coded by hand. Codes and themes emerged inductively from
the data itself and did not originate from other outside sources (Charmaz, 2000;
Glaser and Strauss, 1967). As the codes developed, sensitizing concepts emerged
through the background literature and theoretical frameworks that informed
the study. These sensitizing concepts were used to develop interpretations and
organize an understanding of the data (Charmaz, 2000).
Common codes were then collapsed into broader categories and sub-
categories through a constant comparison method within and between cases
(Miles and Huberman, 1994). The memo notes taken during this process
assisted in the identification and interpretation of these categories. Based on
these observations, case summaries of each interview were constructed. These
summaries were then used to make comparison both within and between cases.
Categories and subcategories were then constructed and reconstructed through
this process.
Through these comparisons, individual codes eventually developed into
larger categories. These categories then developed into the analytic frameworks
that help to better understand or describe the larger phenomenon under study
(Charmaz, 2000; Glaser and Strauss, 1967). In this study, four main categories
emerged: recovery definitions; recovery turning points; recovery barriers; and,
recovery facilitators. There were approximately 102 initial codes across all inter-
views, which were further grouped and collapsed. Following this initial analysis
the categories and sub-categories were then re-synthesized using the theoreti-
cal framework of social cognitive theory of self-efficacy as a guide.
The analysis in this study followed the grounded theory approach with
some modifications. Grounded theory is distinctive in that data analysis and
collection occur simultaneously (Charmaz, 2000). As data are refined through
the coding and memo writing process, gaps or holes in the data often emerge.
When this occurs the researcher then returns to his or her data sources and asks
focused and specific questions that are limited to addressing these gaps. This
allows researchers to further their understanding of the phenomena they are
studying, refine ideas, and develop more valid understandings of their data
(Charmaz, 2000; Strauss and Corbin, 1990).
LIMITATIONS
Due to the exploratory nature of this study, important limitations exist. First,
the participants in this study represent a small and highly specialized group of
recovered individuals. Their responses, beliefs and experiences may not be repre-
sentative of the general population of individuals diagnosed with psychiatric
disabilities. In addition, convenience sampling will prohibit the results from being
generalized outside of this study’s data set, as responses may have been
influenced by gender, geography, culture, age and a host of other characteristics.
RESULTS
A significant theme in participants’ responses with regard to the factors that
hindered and facilitated their recovery was that their recovery hinged on the
development of competent and agentic identities. The factors that participants
stated facilitated those identities will be presented via the lens of self-efficacy
theory. Specifically, all participants reported four factors that helped facilitate
I was given a message early on by everybody around me that I could get better
. . . that recovery is possible . . . (Vincent)
[She would say] ‘Kelly, I know in my heart of hearts you’re going to recover . . .
you’ve got so much love of life and so many talents . . . borrow my belief in
you until you can feel it again in yourself.’ . . . (Kelly)
Through contact with other peers she learned that there were oppor-
tunities to develop as a person. She learned that she could be ‘something more’
than a patient and could do many activities she was told were not possible. Self-
help and peer support has also been cited in the literature as extremely useful
in helping clients move forward in their lives and in their recovery (Cohen,
2005; Mead and Copeland, 2000; Mowbray and Tan, 1993; USDHHS, 1999).
Participants stated they often encountered an overall lack of understand-
ing from their families and professionals and that this translated to further
confusion and despair. Self-help groups provided participants with a sense of
shared understanding and acceptance as evidenced by the following quote from
Paul describing his first experience of a self-help meeting:
People were talking about their experiences . . . what was going on with them
. . . what helped and what didn’t help . . . I consider that the turning point of
my life . . . moving from an extremely dark, lonely isolated place to finding an
environment where people weren’t going to judge me or tell me that I was lazy
and they understood some of the things that I was going through. (Paul)
Self-help provided Paul with hope and with information about how to
achieve recovery. Peers provided undeniable proof that recovery was possible.
Acting as recovery consultants or role models, they offered acceptance and ideas
about how to best set and achieve recovery goals. As a result, participants were
offered a road map for how to navigate their recovery journeys. The develop-
ment of a collaborative and communal network of support provided partici-
pants with a sense of agency and purpose that they stated was important in
their recovery processes. The importance of self-help in the recovery process,
both in this study and in the literature, suggests that helping clients access peer
support networks may represent a useful practice in facilitating recovery.
Everything comes out of choice . . . I think when you are making your own
choices and you’re determined that they’re yours and you’re doing what feels
right for you then even when you’re in a lousy job that’s stressing you out making
you symptomatic it’s the right way to go . . . (Sarah)
he states, ‘my mind was shot’. Despite this, Robert accepted the internship and
over time became successful. Robert describes the confidence he was able to
build through his successful negotiation of his internship.
[I] started to pick up on the stuff that I needed to learn and started to make
some friends there and I was pretty well accepted among the other interns so
that that success allowed me to build . . . and [I] sort of learned that I could do
a lot and at the same time I was getting sharper mentally and feeling fairly normal
. . . it was succeeding in a sense I was doin’ it as well or better than most. (Robert)
exercise, hobbies, leisure, nutrition and lifestyle adjustments such as getting the
right amount of sleep or limiting alcohol consumption to establish and maintain
recovery.
Many participants described alternative ways in which they maintained
their well-being. Kelly, in the following quote, described the ways she main-
tains her well-being through alternative approaches:
A lot of us have explored and utilized the alternative therapies in our recovery.
I have studied Tai Chi and studied Chi Quong and that really just gave me the
awareness of subtle energy and just really learning to be able to kind of manipu-
late that energy, to utilize that energy, to draw in that energy, to release energy
really become conscious of the mind-body-spirit connection. (Kelly)
Some participants stated that getting the right type and dosage of medi-
cation(s), sometimes after years of trial and error, had a major impact on
initiating and maintaining their recovery. Nancy, a consumer-provider and
rights activist, described her experience with medication and the impact it had
on her recovery:
I brought a shoe box full of medication I think I was taking seventeen different
things I was taking stuff for pain I was takin’ stuff for my depression they were
given me stuff to go to sleep they were given me stuff to get me up in the
morning I mean just it was craziness/I was a freakin’ zombie. (Terry)
However, those that did rely on medications stated that what was
important was that their practitioners worked closely with them in helping
ensure that they were fully educated about the various aspects of their medi-
cations including side effects and their management, long-term effects, inter-
actions, contraindications, dosages and alternative medications. Participants were
therefore, well informed and supported in their decisions regarding their treat-
ment regimen, a key factor in recovery advocated elsewhere (Mead and
Copeland, 2000). Likewise, all participants in this study reported that taking
responsibility for their health was a key factor in helping facilitate and maintain
their recovery. They advocated that mental health clients should not be overtly
or covertly encouraged to maintain a passive stance in their treatment. Rather,
clients, presumably with the help of their practitioners should learn strategies
designed to help them understand their diagnosis, realize what helps and hinders
their well-being, learn how to recognize when symptoms may be returning or
escalating and develop a crisis plan for action.
DISCUSSION
The development of self-efficacy played a key role in participants’ recoveries.
Explicating how practitioners can enhance recovery in people diagnosed with
serious psychiatric disabilities has been difficult and the exact nature and magni-
tude of self-efficacy’s relationship with improved psychosocial functioning and
recovery for people with serious psychiatric disabilities remains unclear and
requires further study.
However, evidence from this study demonstrates that understanding the
contexts that facilitate self-efficacy development may provide social workers and
other mental health practitioners with valuable information regarding how
professionals can positively influence the recovery process in people diagnosed
with serious psychiatric disabilities. This study suggests that contexts that facili-
tate self-efficacy beliefs are those in which clients: (1) are encouraged to take
risks and engage in meaningful and challenging activities; (2) have warm and
egalitarian professional relationships; (3) have access to self-help and peer-
support networks; and, (4) can make informed choices among a variety of formal
and alternative treatments. The following discussion will frame what partici-
pants said helped their recovery within the context of self-efficacy and position
these findings as preliminary suggestions for how social workers might facili-
tate the recovery process in their clients.
research is needed that explores the contexts that facilitate recovery and self-
efficacy in diverse populations.
Quantitative methodologies should continue to explore the causal
pathways of recovery and establish whether self-efficacy has a direct effect or
is mediated by other factors. Pratt et al. (2005) recently found that although
self-efficacy was associated with higher levels of psychosocial functioning, this
association was influenced by other factors, namely, the presence of negative
symptoms and premorbid functioning. Further research is needed in this area
as few studies have examined the role of self-efficacy in the recovery process.
Doing so will better explicate how self-efficacy influences recovery and may
lead to the discovery of other important factors associated with recovery.
In addition, there appears to be much overlap and confusion regarding
concepts such as empowerment, self-efficacy, self-esteem and agency when
discussing recovery. Further research that untangles these concepts and deciphers
their individual influences may be especially important in further developing and
explicating a recovery model. Likewise, developing more precise models of
recovery will assist in the development of interventions that are complimentary
to the contexts that facilitate recovery. For instance, Resnick et al. (2005) have
recently proposed that interventions should be designed that enhance ‘recovery
attitudes’ identified as consisting of: empowerment, hope and optimism, knowl-
edge and life satisfaction.
Research on recovery should embrace a bio-psychosocial approach as it
is becoming clear that psychological factors such as self perception and person-
ality may be as important as biological (e.g. genetics, vulnerability) or social
(income, housing, healthcare access) factors in determining outcomes for people
diagnosed with serious psychiatric disorders (Shahar et. al, 2004). Further
research that explores recovery contexts should be linked with intervention
research in order to develop interventions that facilitate, compliment or enhance
the bio-psychosocial factors found to facilitate recovery. Integrating objective,
outcome oriented intervention research with what is known about the sub-
jective aspects of recovery may help move beyond interventions that simply
improve concrete research-oriented outcomes such as a reduction in hospital-
ization days or number of symptoms, to interventions that help people with
psychiatric disabilities become active citizens living fuller, more satisfying and
productive lives.
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