CHAPTER I:
- systematic developments
A. What is Mathematics?
Historical Perspective
Mathematics – “mathemata” – entirety
of knowledge or subject of instruction or
study.
Numeration – first embodiment of
mathematics.
➢ Hunters > Farmers > Larger community
w/ Government
“Mathematics came into existence for a
need to address their practical quantitative
necessities.”
Philosophical Perspective
▪ Intuitionism
- Not inherent in the physical world, but
came from the human mind. Mind
possess forms of space and time, called
modes of perception or intuition.
(Immanuel Kant)
- Every mathematical construction are
mental construction. (Luitzen Egbertus
Jan Brouwer)
- rejects the idea of non-constructive
existence proof
- Law of Excluded Middle and the Law
of Evolution
▪ Logicism
- derivable from principles of logic;
activity to be developed
- Mathematics is logic in disguise
- Primitive concepts
o Strong Logic – truth in a particular
branch of mathematics.
o Weak Logic – truth only within the
scope of a theorem.
▪ Formalism
- should be developed through axiomatic
systems.
- self-evident statements ▪ Isometry – preserver distance
between any two points
Dilation – every point is moved
“Mathematics stands on the ▪
from its original position along the
establishments of reality and truth.” line connecting the origin and the
Conceptual Perspective point.
▪ Quantity – various operations with 𝑑((𝑥, 𝑦)) = 𝑘(𝑥, 𝑦)
number mathematic sets. 𝑘≠0
▪ Structure – interconnections of thee k is the scale of dilation
1. 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 = (2,1)
properties of various mathematical
𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑘 (𝑥, 𝑦)
objects. (Linear Algebra, Abstract
𝑑 (2,1) = 2 (2,1)
Algebra) 𝑑 (2,1) = (2 (2), 2 (1))
▪ Space – introduction and non- 𝑑 (2,1) = (4,2)
introduction of measurements and 2. 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 = (2,1)
coordinates (Geometry, Trigonometry) 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) = −1/2 (𝑥, 𝑦)
𝑑 (2,1) = −1/2 (2,1)
▪ Change – existence, treatments and 𝑑 (2,1) = (−1/2 (2), −1/2 (1))
organization of infinitesimals observe in 1
finite dimensions (Calculus) 𝑑 (2,1) = (−1, − )
2
▪ Foundation – theoretical base of Symmetry
entirety of math (Set theory, Math o Translation - shifts figure from one
Logic) place to another along the direction
“Mathematical concepts are interlocking ℎ
of a vector [𝑘 ]
and overlapping blocks.” 1. 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 = (−4, −2) ℎ = 1 𝑘 = 3
𝑡((𝑥, 𝑦)) = (𝑥 + ℎ, 𝑦 + 𝑘)
Practical Perspective 𝑡 ((−4, −2)) = (−4 + 1, −2 + 3)
▪ Home 𝑡 ((−4, −2)) = (−3,1)
▪ School o Rotation - if it moves a point along
▪ Work a circular arc at a prescribed angle
▪ Community with respect to a fixed point Q. Given
“Mathematics is a tool to address a rotation R with angle and fixed
particular problems or concerns in our point, Q, we call angle as the angle of
rotation and Q as the rotocenter.
everyday living.” 1. 𝑟 = 90° − 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 = (−4, −3)
B. Patterns and Numbers in 𝑟 (−4, −3) = (−(3), −4)
Nature and in World 𝑟 (−4, −3) = (3, −4)
2. 𝑟 = 180° 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
𝑟 (𝑥, 𝑦) = (−𝑥, −𝑦)
Transformations – change of location; 𝑟 (5, −2) = (−(5), −(−2))
giving the points new location 𝑟 (5, −2) = (−5,2)
▪ Identity – simplest transformation o Reflection – with respect to a line
1. 𝑖 ((3,1)) = (3,1) if it moves a point to a position
2. 𝑖 ((−5,2)) = (−5,2) exactly the opposite of its original
 position such that the segment
joining the point and its
perpendicular with the given line.
Given reflection defined by any line,
that line is called mirror axis.
1. 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑚 𝑏𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑦 =
𝑥.
𝐼𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎
𝑚 (𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝑦, 𝑥)
𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 = (3,1)
𝑚 (3,1) = (1,3)
2. 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑚 𝑏𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑥 −
𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎
𝑚(𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝑥, −𝑦)
𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 = (−3, −2)
𝑚 (−3, −2) = (−3, −(−2))
𝑚 (−3, −2) = (−3,2)
o Glide Reflection – with respect to
the line if it is a reflection about the
given line followed by a translation by
a vector with direction parallel with
the given line (combination of
reflection and translation). Given a
glide reflection g defined any line,
that line is called the glide axis.
1. 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑔 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑦 =
−𝑥 𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 [−2/2]
𝑔 ((𝑥, 𝑦)) = (−𝑦 + ℎ, −𝑥 + 𝑘)
𝑔 ((𝑥, 𝑦)) = (−𝑦 + (−2), −𝑥 + 2)
𝑔 ((𝑥, 𝑦)) = (−𝑦 − 2, −𝑥 + 2)
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐴 (−1, −2), 𝐵 (−2,0), 𝐶 (−3, −1)
𝑔 ((−1, −2)) = (−(−2) − 2, −(1) + 2)
= (2 − 2, 1 + 2)
= (0,3)
𝑔 ((−2,0)) = (−(0) − 2, −(−2) + 2)
= (−2, 2 + 2)
= (−2, 4)
𝑔 ((−3, −1)) = (−(−1) − 2, −(−3) + 2)
= (1 − 2,3 + 2)
= (−1,5)
Patterns
➢ A collection of one or more families of
symmetries.
▪ Rosette Patterns – has unique
fixed point
o Cyclic Order – n if its only
symmetries come from a family
rotations of angle 360°.
o Dihedral Order – n if its only
symmetries come from a family of
rotations of angle 360°/n and a
family of reflections about n lines
meeting at angles 180°/n
▪ Border Patterns/Frieze
Patterns – if its families of
symmetries does not contain a
fixed point but has a fixed line.
All border patterns have one
direction of translation vector.
o Type 11 (Hop)
- exactly one family of
translations.
o Type 1m (Jump)
- exactly one family of
translations.
- Horizontal reflection
o Type m1 (Sidle)
- exactly one family of
translations.
- Exactly one family of vertical
reflections
o Type 12 (Spinning Hop)
- Exactly one family of translation
- Exactly one family of half-turn
(180° rotation)
o Type 1g (Step)
- Exactly one family of translation
- Exactly one family of glide
reflections
o Type mg (Spinning Sidle)
- exactly one family of
translations.
- Exactly one family of vertical
reflections
- Exactly one family of half-turn
(180° rotation)
- Exactly one family of glide
reflections
o Type mm (Spinning Jump)
- exactly one family of
translations.
- Exactly one family of vertical
reflections
- Exactly one family of half-turn
(180° rotation)
▪ Wallpaper
Patterns/Network Patterns
– if its families of symmetries
does not contain a fixed point
nor a fixed line. Structurally
formed by two distinct
translations with vectors that are
not multiples of each other.
o Type p1
- exactly 2 families of translations
o Type p2
- half-turn rotations
o Type p3
o Type p4
o Type p6
o Type pm
- parallel mirror axis
o Type pg
- Parallel glide axis
o Type cm
- family of reflections and glide
reflections
o Type Pmm
- exactly 2 families of reflections
- one family has axis
perpendicular with the minor
axis of the other family.
o Type pgg
- Exactly 2 families of glide
reflections
- one family has axis
perpendicular with the minor
axis of the other family.
o Type cmm Deter No Has Has Has • Includes all non-terminating,
- 2 families of reflections mine Reflec reflect glide both repeating decimals (0.333… and
- 2 families of glide reflections angle tions ions reflect reflect 12.345345345)
o Type pmg of and no only ions ions 5. Irrational Numbers
- One family of reflections Rotati glide only and • Denoted by 𝐐𝟏
- one family of glide reflections on reflect glide • Cntains all numbers that cannot be
- mirror axis perpendicular with ions reflect written as ratio of two integers
the glide axis. ions • Inlcudes all nonterminating
o Type p3m1 360° P1 pm pg cm decimals
- 2 families of reflections 180° P2 pmm pmg Cmm, 6. Real Numbers
- 2 families of glide reflections pmg • Denoted by R
- All 120° rotocenters or 3-fold 120° P3 P3m1, • Contains all rational number
rotocenters lie on the mirror axis p31m • Follows addition, subtraction,
o Type p31m 90° P4 P4m, multiplication and division
- 2 families of reflections p4g 7. Imaginary Numbers
- 2 families of glide reflections 60° P6 P6m
- All 120° rotocenters or 3-fold • Denoted by I
rotocenters don’t lie on the • Contains all numbers of the form
Number Sets
mirror axis 𝑘𝑖 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 0 ≠ 𝑘𝐸𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖 2 = −1
1. Natural Numbers or Counting
o Type p4m 8. Complex Numbers
Numbers
- 4 families of reflection • Denoted by C
• Denoted by N
- 2 families of glide reflections • Contains all real numbers and
• Contains 1, 2, 3…
o Type p4g imaginary numbers
• Follows addition and multiplication
- 2 families of reflection • Contains all number of the form 𝑎 +
2. Whole Number
- 4 families of glide reflections 𝑏𝑖, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎, 𝑏𝐸𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖 2 = −1
Type p6m • Denoted by W
o • A practical term arm of trigonometry
- 120° rotations or 3-fold • Contains 0, 1, 2, 3…
rotocenters • Follows addition and multiplication
- 180° rotations or half-turns 3. Integers C. Fibonacci Sequence and Golden
- 160° rotations or 6-fold rotations • Denoted by Z
Ratio
- 6 families of reflection • Contains 0, 1, -1, 2, -2… Fibonacci Sequence – is the sequence of
- 6 families of glide reflections • Follows addition, subtraction, numbers Fn recursively defined by
multiplication and division
4. Rational Numbers 1
• Denoted by Q 𝐹𝑛 =
𝐹𝑛 − 2 + 𝐹𝑛 − 1
• Contains all numbers of the form Golden Ratios – is denoted by
a/b, where a, b, Z, 𝑏 ≠ 0 Gnomons – consider two figures A and B,
• Follows addition, subtraction, may be necessarily of different size and
multiplication and division shape. B is said to be a gnomon to A if when
• Includes all integers (a=a/1) B is attached to A in a suitable position, the
• Includes all terminating decimals new figure is of the same shape of A.
(0.25 and -12.34567)
Golden Rectangle – consider a square 3. Mathematics helps control
that is gnomon to a rectangle. If the ratio nature and occurrences in
between the length and the width of each the world for our own good;
rectangle is the golden ratio, then each • Health and Epidemic
rectangle is called a golden rectangle. The
square of side p is gnomon of the rectangle • Economics
of length p and width q. Together, they form • Construction Projects
the rectangle of length p+q and width p. • Electromagnetism
Golden Spiral – the union of all quarter- • Population
circles from the previous construction. 4. Mathematics has
Binet’s Formula for Fibonacci applications in many human
Numbers endeavors
• Passion in Literature
• Protecting Biodiversity
• Upgrading Technology
• Management Science
• Space Exploration
Mathematics for our World • Education Research and
Commitment of the Mathematics Assessment
to help the World
1. Mathematics helps organize
patterns and regularities in “ Mathematics is a humble servant of the
the World; people and their problems…and a master
• Time patterns and interpreter of the world and the universe.”
Regularities
• Patterns and Regularities
among life forms
• Physical Patterns and
Regularities
2. Mathematics helps predict
the behavior of nature and
many phenomena
• Weather
• Business and Financial
Trends
• Pregnancy and Fertility
• Human Behavior