5/11/2020 Sea surface temperature - Wikipedia

Sea surface temperature

Sea surface temperature (SST) is the water
temperature close to the ocean's surface. The
exact meaning of surface varies according to the
measurement method used, but it is between 1
millimetre (0.04 in) and 20 metres (70 ft) below
the sea surface. Air masses in the Earth's
atmosphere are highly modified by sea surface
temperatures within a short distance of the shore.
Localized areas of heavy snow can form in bands
downwind of warm water bodies within an
otherwise cold air mass. Warm sea surface
temperatures are known to be a cause of tropical
cyclogenesis over the Earth's oceans. Tropical
cyclones can also cause a cool wake, due to Land surface temperatures have increased faster than
turbulent mixing of the upper 30 metres (100 ft) ocean temperatures as the ocean absorbs about 92%
of the ocean. SST changes diurnally, like the air of excess heat generated by climate change.[1] Chart
above it, but to a lesser degree. There is less SST with data from NASA[2] showing how land and sea
variation on breezy days than on calm days. In surface air temperatures have changed vs a pre-
addition, ocean currents such as the Atlantic industrial baseline.[3]
Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO), can effect SST's
on multi-decadal time scales,[4] a major impact
results from the global thermohaline circulation, which affects
average SST significantly throughout most of the world's oceans.

Ocean temperature is related to ocean heat content, an

important topic in the study of global warming.

Coastal SSTs can cause offshore winds to generate upwelling, This is a daily, global Sea Surface
which can significantly cool or warm nearby landmasses, but Temperature (SST) data set
shallower waters over a continental shelf are often warmer. produced on December 20, 2013 at
Onshore winds can cause a considerable warm-up even in areas 1-km resolution (also known as
where upwelling is fairly constant, such as the northwest coast of ultra-high resolution) by the JPL
South America. Its values are important within numerical ROMS (Regional Ocean Modeling
weather prediction as the SST influences the atmosphere above, System) group.
such as in the formation of sea breezes and sea fog. It is also used
to calibrate measurements from weather satellites.

Contents
Measurement
Thermometers
Weather satellites
Weekly average sea surface
Local variation temperature for the World Ocean
Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation during the first week of February
2011, during a period of La Niña.
Regional variation
Importance to the Earth's atmosphere
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature 1/9
5/11/2020 Sea surface temperature - Wikipedia

Tropical cyclones
See also
References
External links

Measurement Sea surface temperature and flows

There are a variety of techniques for measuring this parameter

that can potentially yield different results because different
things are actually being measured. Away from the immediate
sea surface, general temperature measurements are accompanied
by a reference to the specific depth of measurement. This is
because of significant differences encountered between
measurements made at different depths, especially during the
daytime when low wind speed and high sunshine conditions may
lead to the formation of a warm layer at the ocean's surface and
strong vertical temperature gradients (a diurnal thermocline).[5] Temperature profile of the surface
Sea surface temperature measurements are confined to the top layer of the ocean (a) at night and
portion of the ocean, known as the near-surface layer.[6] (b) during the day

Thermometers

SST was one of the first oceanographic variables to be measured. Benjamin Franklin suspended a
mercury thermometer from a ship while travelling between the United States and Europe in his
survey of the Gulf Stream in the late eighteenth century. SST was later measured by dipping a
thermometer into a bucket of water that was manually drawn from the sea surface. The first
automated technique for determining SST was accomplished by measuring the temperature of water
in the intake port of large ships, which was underway by 1963. These observations have a warm bias
of around 0.6 °C (1 °F) due to the heat of the engine room.[7] This bias has led to changes in the
perception of global warming since 2000.[8] Fixed weather buoys measure the water temperature at a
depth of 3 metres (9.8 ft). Measurements of SST have had inconsistencies over the last 130 years due
to the way they were taken. In the nineteenth century, measurements were taken in a bucket off of a
ship. However, there was a slight variation in temperature because of the differences in buckets.
Samples were collected in either a wood or an uninsulated canvas bucket, but the canvas bucket
cooled quicker than the wood bucket. The sudden change in temperature between 1940 and 1941 was
the result of an undocumented change in procedure. The samples were taken near the engine intake
because it was too dangerous to use lights to take measurements over the side of the ship at night.[9]
Many different drifting buoys exist around the world that vary in design, and the location of reliable
temperature sensors varies. These measurements are beamed to satellites for automated and
immediate data distribution.[10] A large network of coastal buoys in U.S. waters is maintained by the
National Data Buoy Center (NDBC).[11] Between 1985 and 1994, an extensive array of moored and
drifting buoys was deployed across the equatorial Pacific Ocean designed to help monitor and predict
the El Niño phenomenon.[12]

Weather satellites

Weather satellites have been available to determine sea surface temperature information since 1967,
with the first global composites created during 1970.[13] Since 1982,[14] satellites have been
increasingly utilized to measure SST and have allowed its spatial and temporal variation to be viewed
more fully. Satellite measurements of SST are in reasonable agreement with in situ temperature
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature 2/9
5/11/2020 Sea surface temperature - Wikipedia

measurements.[15] The satellite measurement is made by sensing

the ocean radiation in two or more wavelengths within the
infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum or other parts of
the spectrum which can then be empirically related to SST.[16]
These wavelengths are chosen because they are:

1. within the peak of the blackbody radiation expected from the

Earth,[17] and 2003–2011 SST based on MODIS
2. able to transmit adequately well through the atmosphere[18] Aqua data

The satellite-measured SST provides both a synoptic view of the

ocean and a high frequency of repeat views,[19] allowing the examination of basin-wide upper ocean
dynamics not possible with ships or buoys. NASA's (http://www.nasa.gov/) (National Aeronautic and
Space Administration) Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) (http://modis.gsf
c.nasa.gov/) SST satellites have been providing global SST data since 2000, available with a one-day
lag. NOAA's GOES (Geostationary Orbiting Earth Satellites) (http://www.goes.noaa.gov/) satellites
are geo-stationary above the Western Hemisphere which enables to them to deliver SST data on an
hourly basis with only a few hours of lag time.

There are several difficulties with satellite-based absolute SST measurements. First, in infrared
remote sensing methodology the radiation emanates from the top "skin" of the ocean, approximately
the top 0.01 mm or less, which may not represent the bulk temperature of the upper meter of ocean
due primarily to effects of solar surface heating during the daytime, reflected radiation, as well as
sensible heat loss and surface evaporation. All these factors make it somewhat difficult to compare
satellite data to measurements from buoys or shipboard methods, complicating ground truth
efforts.[20] Secondly, the satellite cannot look through clouds, creating a cool bias in satellite-derived
SSTs within cloudy areas.[5] However, passive microwave techniques can accurately measure SST and
penetrate cloud cover.[16] Within atmospheric sounder channels on weather satellites, which peak
just above the ocean's surface, knowledge of the sea surface temperature is important to their
calibration.[5]

Local variation
The SST has a diurnal range, just like the Earth's atmosphere above, though to a lesser degree due to
its greater specific heat.[21] On calm days, the temperature can vary by 6 °C (10 °F).[5] The
temperature of the ocean at depth lags the Earth's atmosphere temperature by 15 days per 10 metres
(33 ft), which means for locations like the Aral Sea, temperatures near its bottom reach a maximum
in December and a minimum in May and June.[22] Near the coastline, offshore winds move the warm
waters near the surface offshore, and replace them with cooler water from below in the process
known as Ekman transport. This pattern increases nutrients for marine life in the region.[23] Offshore
river deltas, freshwater flows over the top of the denser seawater, which allows it to heat faster due to
limited vertical mixing.[24] Remotely sensed SST can be used to detect the surface temperature
signature due to tropical cyclones. In general, an SST cooling is observed after the passing of a
hurricane primarily as the result of mixed layer deepening and surface heat losses.[25] In the wake of
several day long Saharan dust outbreaks across the adjacent northern Atlantic Ocean, sea surface
temperatures are reduced 0.2 C to 0.4 C (0.3 to 0.7 F).[26] Other sources of short-term SST
fluctuation include extratropical cyclones, rapid influxes of glacial fresh water[27] and concentrated
phytoplankton blooms[28] due to seasonal cycles or agricultural run-off.[29]

Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature 3/9
5/11/2020 Sea surface temperature - Wikipedia

The Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO) is important for how external forcings are linked with
North Atlantic SSTs.[30]

Regional variation
El Niño is defined by prolonged differences in Pacific Ocean surface
temperatures when compared with the average value. The accepted
definition is a warming or cooling of at least 0.5 °C (0.9 °F)
averaged over the east-central tropical Pacific Ocean. Typically, this
anomaly happens at irregular intervals of 2–7 years and lasts nine
months to two years.[32] The average period length is 5 years. When
this warming or cooling occurs for only seven to nine months, it is
classified as El Niño/La Niña "conditions"; when it occurs for more
than that period, it is classified as El Niño/La Niña "episodes".[33]

The sign of an El Niño in the sea surface temperature pattern is

when warm water spreads from the west Pacific and the Indian The 1997 El Niño observed by
Ocean to the east Pacific. It takes the rain with it, causing extensive TOPEX/Poseidon. The white
drought in the western Pacific and rainfall in the normally dry areas off the tropical coasts of
South and North America
eastern Pacific. El Niño's warm rush of nutrient-poor tropical water,
indicate the pool of warm
heated by its eastward passage in the Equatorial Current, replaces
water.[31]
the cold, nutrient-rich surface water of the Humboldt Current.
When El Niño conditions last for many months, extensive ocean
warming and the reduction in Easterly Trade winds limits upwelling
of cold nutrient-rich deep water and its economic impact to local fishing for an international market
can be serious.[34]

Importance to the Earth's atmosphere

Sea surface temperature affects the behavior of the Earth's
atmosphere above, so their initialization into atmospheric
models is important. While sea surface temperature is important
for tropical cyclogenesis, it is also important in determining the
formation of sea fog and sea breezes.[5] Heat from underlying
warmer waters can significantly modify an air mass over
distances as short as 35 kilometres (22 mi) to 40 kilometres
(25 mi).[35] For example, southwest of Northern Hemisphere
extratropical cyclones, curved cyclonic flow bringing cold air
across relatively warm water bodies can lead to narrow lake- Sea-effect snow bands near the
effect snow (or sea effect) bands. Those bands bring strong Korean Peninsula
localized precipitation, often in the form of snow, since large
water bodies such as lakes efficiently store heat that results in
significant temperature differences—larger than 13 °C (23 °F)—between the water surface and the air
above.[36] Because of this temperature difference, warmth and moisture are transported upward,
condensing into vertically oriented clouds which produce snow showers. The temperature decrease
with height and cloud depth are directly affected by both the water temperature and the large-scale
environment. The stronger the temperature decrease with height, the taller the clouds get, and the
greater the precipitation rate becomes.[37]

Tropical cyclones

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature 4/9
5/11/2020 Sea surface temperature - Wikipedia

Ocean temperature of at least 26.5°C (79.7°F) spanning through

at minimum a 50-metre depth is one of the precursors needed to
maintain a tropical cyclone (a type of mesocyclone).[38][39] These
warm waters are needed to maintain the warm core that fuels
tropical systems. This value is well above 16.1 °C (60.9 °F), the
long term global average surface temperature of the oceans.[40]
However, this requirement can be considered only a general
baseline because it assumes that the ambient atmospheric
environment surrounding an area of disturbed weather presents Seasonal peaks of tropical cyclone
average conditions. Tropical cyclones have intensified when SSTs activity worldwide
were slightly below this standard temperature.

Tropical cyclones are known to form even when normal conditions

are not met. For example, cooler air temperatures at a higher
altitude (e.g., at the 500 hPa level, or 5.9 km) can lead to tropical
cyclogenesis at lower water temperatures, as a certain lapse rate is
required to force the atmosphere to be unstable enough for
convection. In a moist atmosphere, this lapse rate is 6.5 °C/km,
while in an atmosphere with less than 100% relative humidity, the
required lapse rate is 9.8 °C/km.[41]

At the 500 hPa level, the air temperature averages −7 °C (18 °F)
within the tropics, but air in the tropics is normally dry at this
height, giving the air room to wet-bulb, or cool as it moistens, to a
more favorable temperature that can then support convection. A
wet-bulb temperature at 500 hPa in a tropical atmosphere of
−13.2 °C (8.2 °F) is required to initiate convection if the water
temperature is 26.5 °C (79.7 °F), and this temperature requirement
increases or decreases proportionally by 1 °C in the sea surface Average equatorial Pacific
temperature for each 1 °C change at 500 hpa. Inside a cold cyclone, temperatures
500 hPa temperatures can fall as low as −30 °C (−22 °F), which can
initiate convection even in the driest atmospheres. This also
explains why moisture in the mid-levels of the troposphere, roughly at the 500 hPa level, is normally
a requirement for development. However, when dry air is found at the same height, temperatures at
500 hPa need to be even colder as dry atmospheres require a greater lapse rate for instability than
moist atmospheres.[42][43] At heights near the tropopause, the 30-year average temperature (as
measured in the period encompassing 1961 through 1990) was −77 °C (−132 °F).[44] A recent example
of a tropical cyclone that maintained itself over cooler waters was Epsilon of the 2005 Atlantic
hurricane season.[45]

The global impact of changes in sea surface temperature on marine life necessitates the
implementation of the targets of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 14.[46]

See also
Ocean heat content
Global surface temperature
The Blob (Pacific Ocean)
Current sea level rise can occur during an increase of global or regional average SST
Halocline refers to a salinity difference often altered by temperature-dependent factors
Loop Current, with plots of sea temperature in the Gulf of Mexico
Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO)
Plankton, which blooms at rates dependent on sea surface temperature
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature 5/9
5/11/2020 Sea surface temperature - Wikipedia

Salinity, which affects sea surface evaporation and thus temperature

Ghrsst-pp the Group for High Resolution SST
Satellite temperature measurements
Instrumental temperature record
Geologic temperature record
Global warming

References
1. "The Oceans Are Heating Up Faster Than Expected" (https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/t
he-oceans-are-heating-up-faster-than-expected/). scientific american. Retrieved 3 March 2020.
2. "Global Annual Mean Surface Air Temperature Change" (https://data.giss.nasa.gov/gistemp/grap
hs_v4/). NASA. Retrieved 23 February 2020.
3. IPCC AR5 SYR Glossary 2014, p. 124.
4. McCarthy, Gerard D.; Haigh, Ivan D.; Hirschi, Joël J.-M.; Grist, Jeremy P.; Smeed, David A.
(2015-05-28). "Ocean impact on decadal Atlantic climate variability revealed by sea-level
observations" (http://mural.maynoothuniversity.ie/12187/1/McCarthy_Ocean_2015.pdf) (PDF).
Nature. 521 (7553): 508–510. Bibcode:2015Natur.521..508M (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2
015Natur.521..508M). doi:10.1038/nature14491 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature14491).
ISSN 1476-4687 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1476-4687). PMID 26017453 (https://pubmed.ncb
i.nlm.nih.gov/26017453).
5. Vittorio Barale (2010). Oceanography from Space: Revisited (https://books.google.com/books?id=
hH2NkL_318wC&pg=PA263). Springer. p. 263. ISBN 978-90-481-8680-8.
6. Alexander Soloviev; Roger Lukas (2006). The near-surface layer of the ocean: structure,
dynamics and applications (https://books.google.com/books?id=tZary8a4HMwC). The Near-
Surface Layer of the Ocean: Structure. シュプリンガー・ジャパン株式会社. p. xi.
Bibcode:2006nslo.book.....S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006nslo.book.....S). ISBN 978-1-
4020-4052-8.
7. William J. Emery; Richard E. Thomson (2001). Data analysis methods in physical oceanography
(https://books.google.com/books?id=A6ew-bJDIDIC&pg=PA24). Eos Transactions. 80. Gulf
Professional Publishing. pp. 24–25. Bibcode:1999EOSTr..80..106J (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/
abs/1999EOSTr..80..106J). doi:10.1029/99EO00074 (https://doi.org/10.1029%2F99EO00074).
ISBN 978-0-444-50757-0.
8. Michael Marshall (2010-11-16). "Ships and buoys made global warming look slower" (https://www.
newscientist.com/article/dn19772-ships-and-buoys-made-global-warming-look-slower-.html). New
Scientist. Retrieved 2011-01-29.
9. Burroughs, William James (2007). Climate change : a multidisciplinary approach (https://archive.o
rg/details/climatechangemul0000burr_p9v1) (2. ed.). Cambridge [u.a.]: Cambridge Univ. Press.
ISBN 9780521690331.
10. Vittorio Barale (2010). Oceanography from Space: Revisited (https://books.google.com/books?id=
hH2NkL_318wC&pg=PA263). Springer. pp. 237–238. ISBN 978-90-481-8680-8.
11. Lance F. Bosart, William A. Sprigg, National Research Council (1998). The meteorological buoy
and coastal marine automated network for the United States (https://archive.org/details/meteorolo
gicalbu0000unse/page/11). National Academies Press. p. 11 (https://archive.org/details/meteorolo
gicalbu0000unse/page/11). ISBN 978-0-309-06088-2.
12. K. A. Browning; Robert J. Gurney (1999). Global energy and water cycles (https://books.google.c
om/books?id=DO5K1NK_ZewC&pg=PA62). Cambridge University Press. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-521-
56057-3.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature 6/9
5/11/2020 Sea surface temperature - Wikipedia

13. P. Krishna Rao, W. L. Smith, and R. Koffler (January 1972). "Global Sea-Surface Temperature
Distribution Determined From an Environmental Satellite" (http://docs.lib.noaa.gov/rescue/mwr/10
0/mwr-100-01-0010.pdf) (PDF). Monthly Weather Review. 100 (1): 10–14.
Bibcode:1972MWRv..100...10K (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1972MWRv..100...10K).
doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1972)100<0010:GSTDDF>2.3.CO;2 (https://doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-04
93%281972%29100%3C0010%3AGSTDDF%3E2.3.CO%3B2). Retrieved 2011-01-09.
14. National Research Council (U.S.). NII 2000 Steering Committee (1997). The unpredictable
certainty: information infrastructure through 2000; white papers (https://books.google.com/books?
id=qzYrAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA2). National Academies. p. 2.
15. W. J. Emery; D. J. Baldwin; Peter Schlüssel & R. W. Reynolds (2001-02-15). "Accuracy of in situ
sea surface temperatures used to calibrate infrared satellite measurements" (https://web.archive.
org/web/20110721051024/http://ecco2.jpl.nasa.gov/data2/data/sst/Liming/LLi_output/References/
SST_IR_insitu_a.pdf) (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research. 106 (C2): 2387.
Bibcode:2001JGR...106.2387E (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001JGR...106.2387E).
doi:10.1029/2000JC000246 (https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2000JC000246). Archived from the
original (http://ecco2.jpl.nasa.gov/data2/data/sst/Liming/LLi_output/References/SST_IR_insitu_a.
pdf) (PDF) on 2011-07-21. Retrieved 2011-01-09.
16. John Maurer (October 2002). "Infrared and microwave remote sensing of sea surface
temperature (SST)" (http://www2.hawaii.edu/~jmaurer/sst/). University of Hawai'i. Retrieved
2011-01-09.
17. C. M. Kishtawal (2005-08-06). "Meteorological Satellites" (http://www.wamis.org/agm/pubs/agm8/
Paper-4.pdf) (PDF). Satellite Remote Sensing and GIS Applications in Agricultural Meteorology:
73. Retrieved 2011-01-27.
18. Robert Harwood (1971-09-16). "Mapping the Atmosphere From Space". New Scientist. 51 (769):
623.
19. David E. Alexander; Rhodes Whitmore Fairbridge (1999). Encyclopedia of environmental science
(https://books.google.com/books?id=Y0iX2z48qkUC&pg=PA509). Springer. p. 510. ISBN 978-0-
412-74050-3.
20. Ian Stuart Robinson (2004). Measuring the oceans from space: the principles and methods of
satellite oceanography (https://books.google.com/books?id=jk1fIo51uwMC&pg=PA278). Springer.
p. 279. ISBN 978-3-540-42647-9.
21. John Siegenthaler (2003). Modern hydronic heating for residential and light commercial buildings
(https://books.google.com/books?id=WdPg_1aTtr8C&pg=PA84). Cengage Learning. p. 84.
ISBN 978-0-7668-1637-4.
22. Peter O. Zavialov (2005). Physical oceanography of the dying Aral Sea (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=Z-LxfJVFclgC&pg=PA27). シュプリンガー・ジャパン株式会社. p. 27. ISBN 978-3-
540-22891-2.
23. "Envisat watches for La Niña" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080424113710/http://www.bnsc.go
v.uk/content.aspx?nid=5989). BNSC via the Internet Wayback Machine. 2008-04-24. Archived
from the original (http://www.bnsc.gov.uk/content.aspx?nid=5989) on 2008-04-24. Retrieved
2011-01-09.
24. Rainer Feistel; Günther Nausch; Norbert Wasmund (2008). State and evolution of the Baltic Sea,
1952–2005: a detailed 50-year survey of meteorology and climate, physics, chemistry, biology,
and marine environment (https://books.google.com/books?id=OeZ4e5MwRigC&pg=PA258). John
Wiley and Sons. p. 258. ISBN 978-0-471-97968-5.
25. Earth Observatory (2005). "Passing of Hurricanes Cools Entire Gulf" (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20060930235454/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_i
d=17164). National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Archived from the original (http://earth
observatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=17164) on 2006-09-30.
Retrieved 2006-04-26.
26. Nidia Martínez Avellaneda (2010). The Impact of Saharan Dust on the North Atlantic Circulation
(https://books.google.com/books?id=b09YTtIW3f4C&pg=PA72). GRIN Verlag. p. 72. ISBN 978-3-
640-55639-7.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature 7/9
5/11/2020 Sea surface temperature - Wikipedia

27. Boyle, Edward A.; Lloyd Keigwin (5 November 1987). "North Atlantic thermohaline circulation
during the past 20,000 years linked to high-latitude surface temperature" (http://www.whoi.edu/cm
s/files/Boyle(1987)Nature330_35_52423.pdf) (PDF). Nature. 330 (6143): 35–40.
Bibcode:1987Natur.330...35B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1987Natur.330...35B).
doi:10.1038/330035a0 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F330035a0). Retrieved 10 February 2011.
28. Beaugrand, Grégory; Keith M. Brander; J. Alistair Lindley; Sami Souissi; Philip C. Reid (11
December 2003). "Plankton effect on cod recruitment in the North Sea". Nature. 426 (6967): 661–
664. Bibcode:2003Natur.426..661B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003Natur.426..661B).
doi:10.1038/nature02164 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature02164). PMID 14668864 (https://pub
med.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14668864).
29. Beman, J. Michael; Kevin R. Arrigo; Pamela A. Matson (10 March 2005). "Agricultural runoff fuels
large phytoplankton blooms in vulnerable areas of the ocean". Nature. 434 (7030): 211–214.
Bibcode:2005Natur.434..211M (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005Natur.434..211M).
doi:10.1038/nature03370 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature03370). PMID 15758999 (https://pub
med.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15758999).
30. Knudsen, Mads Faurschou; Jacobsen, Bo Holm; Seidenkrantz, Marit-Solveig; Olsen, Jesper
(2014-02-25). "Evidence for external forcing of the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation since
termination of the Little Ice Age" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3948066).
Nature Communications. 5: 3323. Bibcode:2014NatCo...5.3323K (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/a
bs/2014NatCo...5.3323K). doi:10.1038/ncomms4323 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fncomms4323).
ISSN 2041-1723 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2041-1723). PMC 3948066 (https://www.ncbi.nl
m.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3948066). PMID 24567051 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/245670
51).
31. "Independent NASA Satellite Measurements Confirm El Niño is Back and Strong" (http://www.jpl.
nasa.gov/news/releases/97/elninoup.html). NASA/JPL.
32. Climate Prediction Center (2005-12-19). "ENSO FAQ: How often do El Niño and La Niña typically
occur?" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090827143632/http://www.cpc.noaa.gov/products/analysi
s_monitoring/ensostuff/ensofaq.shtml#HOWOFTEN). National Centers for Environmental
Prediction. Archived from the original (http://www.cpc.noaa.gov/products/analysis_monitoring/ens
ostuff/ensofaq.shtml#HOWOFTEN) on 2009-08-27. Retrieved 2009-07-26.
33. National Climatic Data Center (June 2009). "El Niño / Southern Oscillation (ENSO) June 2009" (h
ttp://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/research/enso/?year=2009&month=6&submitted=true).
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2009-07-26.
34. WW2010 (1998-04-28). "El Niño" (http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/eln/home.rxml).
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Retrieved 2009-07-17.
35. Jun Inoue, Masayuki Kawashima, Yasushi Fujiyoshi and Masaaki Wakatsuchi (October 2005).
"Aircraft Observations of Air-mass Modification Over the Sea of Okhotsk during Sea-ice Growth".
Boundary-Layer Meteorology. 117 (1): 111–129. Bibcode:2005BoLMe.117..111I (https://ui.adsabs.
harvard.edu/abs/2005BoLMe.117..111I). doi:10.1007/s10546-004-3407-y (https://doi.org/10.100
7%2Fs10546-004-3407-y). ISSN 0006-8314 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0006-8314).
36. B. Geerts (1998). "Lake Effect Snow" (http://www-das.uwyo.edu/~geerts/cwx/notes/chap10/lake_
effect_snow.html). University of Wyoming. Retrieved 2008-12-24.
37. Greg Byrd (1998-06-03). "Lake Effect Snow" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090617013142/htt
p://www.comet.ucar.edu/class/smfaculty/byrd/sld010.htm). University Corporation for Atmospheric
Research. Archived from the original (http://www.comet.ucar.edu/class/smfaculty/byrd/sld010.ht
m) on 2009-06-17. Retrieved 2009-07-12.
38. Chris Landsea (2011). "Subject: A15) How do tropical cyclones form?" (http://www.aoml.noaa.go
v/hrd/tcfaq/A15.html). Hurricane Research Division. Retrieved 2011-01-27.
39. Webster, PJ (2005). "Changes in tropical cyclone number, duration, and intensity in a warming
environment" (http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA136847986&v=2.1&it=r&p=PROF&
sw=w&asid=335992f2037df3339c5901f7981d2045). Science. Gale Group. 309 (5742): 1844–6.
Bibcode:2005Sci...309.1844W (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005Sci...309.1844W).
doi:10.1126/science.1116448 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1116448). PMID 16166514 (http
s://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16166514).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature 8/9
5/11/2020 Sea surface temperature - Wikipedia

40. Matt Menne (March 15, 2000). "Global Long-term Mean Land and Sea Surface Temperatures" (ht
tp://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/cmb-faq/anomalies.php#mean). National Climatic Data Center. Retrieved
2006-10-19.
41. Kushnir, Yochanan (2000). "The Climate System" (http://eesc.columbia.edu/courses/ees/climate/l
ectures/atm_phys.html). Columbia University. Retrieved 24 September 2010.
42. John M. Wallace & Peter V. Hobbs (1977). Atmospheric Science: An Introductory Survey.
Academic Press, Inc. pp. 76–77.
43. Chris Landsea (2000). "Climate Variability of Tropical Cyclones: Past, Present and Future" (http://
www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/Landsea/climvari/index.html). Storms. Atlantic Oceanographic and
Meteorological Laboratory. pp. 220–41. Retrieved 2006-10-19.
44. Dian J. Gaffen-Seidel, Rebecca J. Ross and James K. Angell (November 2000). "Climatological
characteristics of the tropical tropopause as revealed by radiosondes" (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20060508184913/http://www.aero.jussieu.fr/~sparc/SPARC2000_new/OralSess2/D_Gaffen/Gaf
fenHtml/Abs_Gaffen.html). Journal of Geophysical Research. 106 (D8): 7857–7878.
Bibcode:2001JGR...106.7857S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001JGR...106.7857S).
doi:10.1029/2000JD900837 (https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2000JD900837). Archived from the
original (http://www.aero.jussieu.fr/~sparc/SPARC2000_new/OralSess2/D_Gaffen/GaffenHtml/Ab
s_Gaffen.html) on May 8, 2006. Retrieved 2006-10-19.
45. Lixion Avila (2005-12-03). "Hurricane Epsilon Discussion Eighteen" (http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/arc
hive/2005/dis/al292005.discus.018.shtml?). National Hurricane Center. Retrieved 2010-12-14.
46. "Goal 14 targets" (https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/g
oal-14-life-below-water/targets.html). UNDP. Retrieved 2020-09-24.

External links
Current sea surface temperatures (https://earth.nullschool.net/#current/ocean/surface/currents/ov
erlay=sea_surface_temp/winkel3)
SQUAM (http://www.star.nesdis.noaa.gov/sod/sst/squam), SST Quality Monitor (A near real-time
Global QC Tool for monitoring time-series stability & cross-platform consistency of satellite SST)
iQuam (http://www.star.nesdis.noaa.gov/sod/sst/iquam), in situ SST Quality Monitor (A near real-
time quality control & monitoring system for in situ SST measured by ships and buoys)
MICROS (http://www.star.nesdis.noaa.gov/sod/sst/micros), Monitoring of IR Clear-sky Radiances
over Oceans for SST

This article incorporates public domain material (https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/ngdcinfo/privacy.ht

ml) from websites or documents of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sea_surface_temperature&oldid=986922075"

This page was last edited on 3 November 2020, at 19:44 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this
site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia
Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature 9/9