Developmental psychology.

A branch of psychology that studies intra individual changes and inter

individual changes within these intra individual changes. Its task is not only description but also
explication of age-related changes in behaviour in terms of antecedent consequent relationship. (Shaffer,
D.R. (2001). Developmental Psychology. Wadsworth Psychology Resource Center. California. 2)
 
Growth. A quantitative change experience by a person. Quantitative changes in the number or amount
of something such as height or weight. (Hernandez, A.A. (2011). General Psychology. St. Andrew
Publishing House. Quezon City. 56)
 
Development. A systematic continuities and changes in the individual that occur between conception
and death. Changes as “systematic”, we imply that they are orderly, patterned, and relatively enduring, so
temporary mood swings and other transitory changes in our appearances, thoughts, and behaviours are
excluded. Development has two important processes that underlie developmental change:
 
· Maturation is the biological unfolding of the individual according to a plan contained in the genes- the
hereditary material passed from parents to their child at conception.
 
· Learning is the process through which our experiences produce relatively permanent changes in our feelings,
thoughts, and behaviour. (Shaffer, D.R. (2001). Developmental Psychology. Wadsworth Psychology Resource Center.
California. 2)

Development as contextual.    All development occurs within a context, or setting. Contexts include
families, schools, peer groups, churches, cities, neighborhoods, university laboratories, countries, and so on.
Each of these settings is influenced by historical, economic, social, and cultural factors. Contexts, like
individuals, change. Thus, individuals are changing beings in a changing world. As a result of these
changes, contexts exert three types of influences:
 
·                  Normative age-graded influences.  Are similar for individuals in a particular age group. These
influences include biological processes such as puberty and menopause. They also include sociocultural,
environmental processes such as beginning formal education (usually at about age 6 in most cultures) and
retirement (which takes place in the fifties and sixties in most cultures).
 
·                  Normative history-graded influences.  Are common to people of a particular generation
because of historical circumstances.  Example of normative history-graded influences include economic,
political, and social upheavals such as the Great Depression in the 1930s, World War II in the 1940s, the
civil rights and women’s rights movements of the 1960s and 1970s, the terrorist attacks of 9/11/2001, as
well as the integration of computers and cell phones into everyday life during the 1990s. Long-term
changes in the genetic and cultural makeup of a population (due to immigration or changes in fertility
rates) are also part of normative historical change.
 
·      Non-normative life events.  Are unusual occurrences that have a major impact on the individual’s life. These
events do not happen to all people, and when they do occur they can influence people in different ways. Examples
include the death of a parent when a child is young, pregnancy in early adolescence, a fire that destroys a home,
winning the lottery, or getting an unexpected career opportunity.  (Santrock, J., W (2011). Life Span Development
16th  Ed. McGraw-Hill Education. New York. 8-9)

Factors affecting human development

http://sites.tufts.edu/ashcastro/

·         Hereditary Factors. Heredity exerts an influence on human development. It is genetically

transmitted characteristics from one generation to the next. The physical characteristics like height,
weight, eye color etc. and psychological characteristics such as intelligence, personality, creativity and so
on are innately determined and hereditary.
 
·         Environmental Factors. Environment consists of a wide range of stimuli and it provides the
necessary input and experiential base for development of the child. Enrichment or impoverishment of
the environment would produce differences in his abilities.
 
·        Home Environment. Home environment exerts tremendous influence on child‟s understanding of
the external world. It builds self-concept and prepares him to face the external world. The child begins to
acquire knowledge through interaction with parents and other family members.
 
·         Cultural Factor.  Culture refers to a system of beliefs, attitudes and values that are transmitted
from one generation to the next. It is a product of past human behavior and is also a shaper of future
aspirations. The development of the child is influenced by family as well as by the society. The child
learns the habits, beliefs, attitude, skills and standards of judgment through the socialization processes.
The socialization processes of the child take place according to the culture, customs and traditions of the
society.
 
·         Socioeconomic Status (SES). The index of socioeconomic status is determined by parental
education, occupation and income. The children of low socioeconomic status may develop as mal-
nourished, suffer from lack of knowledge in many aspects and their normal development may get
hampered. The parenting in high socioeconomic status families would be different from low socio-
economic status families. Children of the high socioeconomic groups of the society get better social
opportunities, are nurtured with better nutrition, good medical treatment and are exposed to more
intellectual stimulation than low socioeconomic group.
 
·         Normative influences. Normative influences occur in a similar way for majority of people in a
particular group. These influences may be biological or environmental. Most of the people of the same
age, at same place and time and generation have common biological and environmental influences such
as floods, famines and other natural disasters. Non-normative influences include the unusual life events
in an individual’s life. For example, death of a parent when a child is young or birth defects etc.
 
·      Education and Training. Each child is equipped with certain abilities which need to be nurtured through
proper education and training. Therefore, the first and foremost step is to identify and recognize the ability of the
child and the next step is to provide adequate opportunities to develop the same. If proper identification of the
ability is not possible and adequate facilities are not available to the child, then his innate ability may not be
developed. Thus, adequate education and training have influence on human
development. (http://www.msuniv.ac.in)

The nature of development

Periods of Development. A time frame in a person’s life that is characterized by certain features.
The unfolding of life’s periods of development is influenced by the interaction of biological,
cognitive, and socioemotional processes.

A time frame in a person’s life that is characterized by certain features. The unfolding of life’s
periods of development is influenced by the interaction of biological, cognitive, and
socioemotional processes.
https://nanopdf.com/download/chapter-title-5af20a2686e98_pdf

·                  Biological Processes. Changes in an individual’s physical nature.

·                  Cognitive processes. Changes in an individual’s intelligence, thought, and language.
·        Socioemotional processes. Changes in an individual’s interpersonal relationships, emotions, and
personality.  (Santrock, J., W (2017). Life Span Development 16th  Ed. McGraw-Hill Education. New York. 13)

·                  Nature-nurture issue. Debate whether development primarily influenced by nature or

nurture. Nature refers to an organism’s biological inheritance, nurture to its environmental
experiences.
 
·                  Stability-change issue. Debate about whether we become older renditions of our early
experiences(stability) or whether we develop into someone different from who we were at an
earlier point in development (change).
 
·                  Continuity- discontinuity issue. Debate about the extent to which development involves
gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or distinct stages (discontinuity).  (Santrock, J., W (2017).
Life Span Development 16th  Ed. McGraw-Hill Education. New York. 18-19)
 
·                  Scientific method. An approach that can be used to obtain accurate information. It
includes the following steps:
-            Conceptualize the problem
-            Collect data
-            Draw conclusions
-            Revise research conclusions and theory
 
·                  Theory. An interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps to explain phenomena and
facilitate predictions.
 
·      Hypotheses. Specific assumptions and predictions that can be tested to determine their
accuracy.  (Santrock, J., W (2017). Life Span Development 16th  Ed. McGraw-Hill Education. New York. 20-21)

Hypotheses. Specific assumptions and predictions that can be tested to determine their accuracy.  (Santrock,
J., W (2017). Life Span Development 16th  Ed. McGraw-Hill Education. New York. 20-21)

Prenatal period.  The time from conception to birth. It involves tremendous growth—from a single cell to
an organism complete with brain and behavioural capabilities—and takes place in approximately a nine-
month period.
 
Infancy.  The developmental period from birth to 18 or 24 months. Infancy is a time of extreme
dependence upon adults. During this period, many psychological activities—language, symbolic thought,
sensorimotor coordination, and social learning, for example—are just beginning.
 
Early childhood.  The developmental period from the end of infancy to age 5 or 6. This period is sometimes called
the “preschool years.” During this time, young children learn to become more self-sufficient and to care for
themselves, develop school readiness skills (following instructions, identifying letters), and spend many hours in play
with peers. First grade typically marks the end of early childhood.

Middle and late childhood.  The developmental period from about 6 to 11 years of age, approximately
corresponding to the elementary school years. During this period, the fundamental skills of reading,
writing, and arithmetic are mastered. The child is formally exposed to the larger world and its culture.
Achievement becomes a more central theme of the child’s world, and self-control increases.
 
Adolescence.  The developmental period of transition from childhood to early adulthood, entered at
approximately 10 to 12 years of age and ending at 18 to 21 years of age. Adolescence begins with rapid
physical changes—dramatic gains in height and weight, changes in body contour, and the development of
sexual characteristics such as enlargement of the breasts, growth of pubic and facial hair, and deepening of
the voice. At this point in development, the pursuit of independence and an identity are prominent.
Thought is more logical, abstract, and idealistic. More time is spent outside the family.
 
Early adulthood.  The developmental period that begins in the early 20s and lasts through the 30s. It is a
time of establishing personal and economic independence, career development, and for many, selecting a
mate, learning to live with someone in an intimate way, starting a family, and rearing children.
 
Middle adulthood.  The developmental period from approximately 40 years of age to about 60. It is a time
of expanding personal and social involvement and responsibility; of assisting the next generation in
becoming competent, mature individuals; and of reaching and maintaining satisfaction in a career.
 
Old age.  The developmental period that begins in the 60s or 70s and lasts until death. It is a time of life review,
retirement, and adjustment to new social roles involving decreasing strength and health.  (Santrock, J., W (2011). Life
Span Development 13th  Ed. McGraw-Hill Education. New York, 16-17)

Theories of Development

·                  Psychoanalytic theories. Theories that describe development as primarily unconscious and

heavily colored by emotion. Behaviour is merely a surface characteristic, and the symbolic
workings of the mind must be analyzed to understand behaviour. Early experiences with parents
are emphasized.
 
·                  Erikson’s theory. Includes eight stages of human development task that confronts
individuals with a crisis that must be resolved:
-              Trust vs. mistrust
-              Autonomy vs. shame and doubt
-              Initiative vs. guilt
-              Industry vs. inferiority
-              Identity vs. identity confusion
-              Intimacy vs. isolation
-              Generativity vs. stagnation
-              Integrity vs. despair
 
·                  Piaget’s theory. Theory stating that children actively construct their understanding of the
world and go through four stages of cognitive development:
-              Sensorimotor stage
-              Preoperational stage
-              Concrete operational stage
-              Formal operational stage
 
·                  Vygotsky’s theory. A sociocultural cognitive theory that emphasize how culture and social
interaction guide cognitive development. Vygotsky portrayed the child’s development as
inseparable from social and cultural activities.
 
·                  Skinner’s operant conditioning. The consequences of behavior produce changes in the
probability of the behavior’s occurrence. A behavior followed by a rewarding stimulus is less likely
to recur. Rewards and punishments shape development.
 
·                  Bandura’s Social Cognitive theory. The view of psychologists who emphasize behavior,
environment, and cognition as the key factors in development.  Some psychologists agree with the
behaviorists’ notion that development is learned and is influenced strongly by environmental
interaction.  (Santrock, J., W (2017). Life Span Development 16th  Ed. McGraw-Hill Education. New
York, 20-24)
 
         
Cross-sectional approach.    A research strategy in which individuals of different ages are
compared at one time.
 
Longitudinal Approach.  A  research strategy in which the same individuals are studied over a
period of time, usually several years or more.
 
Cohort Effects .  A cohort is a group of people who are born at a similar point in history and share similar
experiences as a result, such as living through the Vietnam War or growing up in the same city around the
same time.  Cohort effects  are due to a person’s time of birth, era, or  generation but not to actual
age.  (Santrock, J., W (2011). Life Span Development 13th    Ed. McGraw-Hill Education. New York, 35-3