MODULE-11 Practical Research PDF

Enhanced Teacher’s Manual
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EnhancEd TEachEr’s Manual
Amadeo Pangilinan Cristobal, Jr., Ed.D.

Maura Consolacion De la Cruz-Cristobal, Ed.D
C & E Publishing, Inc.

2017
C&E
Publishing, Inc.
C & E Publishing, Inc. was

established in 1993 and is a
member of ABAP, PBAI, NBDB,
and PEPA.
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual

Practical Research 1
For Senior High School
Published by C & E Publishing, Inc.
839 EDSA, South Triangle, Quezon City
Tel. No.: (02) 929-5088
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Copyright © 2017 by C & E Publishing, Inc.,

Amadeo Pangilinan Cristobal, Jr., Ed.D., and
Maura Consolacion De la Cruz-Cristobal, Ed.D
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by
any means—electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or
otherwise—without the prior written permission of the publisher.
Cover Design: Jenno dC. Diaz
Layout: Maricar L. Sanchez
ISBN 978-971-98-0744-5
Table of Contents
UNIT
1 The Nature of Research
Chapter 1 What is Research?........................................................................................................ 2
Chapter 2 Different Types of Research..................................................................................... 7
Chapter 3 Ethics in Research........................................................................................................ 15
Chapter 4 Research Title, Sources, and Considerations.................................................... 20
Chapter 5 The Introduction........................................................................................................... 25
Chapter 6 The Statement of the Problem................................................................................ 30
Chapter 7 The Scope and Delimitation and the Significance

of the Study..................................................................................................................... 36
UNIT
2 Review of Literature
Chapter 8 The Review Process..................................................................................................... 44
Chapter 9 The Standard Styles of Writing.............................................................................. 49
Chapter 10 Research Framework.................................................................................................. 54
Chapter 11 Related Literature........................................................................................................ 59
Chapter 12 Related Studies.............................................................................................................. 66
v
UNIT
3 Conducting Qualitative Research
Chapter 13 Methodology and Design for Qualitative Research....................................... 72
Chapter 14 Sampling for Research................................................................................................ 79
Chapter 15 Data Collection............................................................................................................... 86
Chapter 16 Validity and Reliability............................................................................................... 96
UNIT ANALYZING THE MEANING OF THE DATA

4 AND DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
Chapter 17 Drawing Patterns and Themes............................................................................... 104
Chapter 18 The Formulation of the Summary of Findings,

Conclusion, and Recommendations..................................................................... 111
vi
UNIT
THE NATURE
OF RESEARCH
CHAPTER
objectIves
1 What is Research?
At the end of this chapter, the students
OBJECTIVES OPENING ACTIVITY
will be able to At the end of this
chapter, the students A. Read the following sentences. Put a check (3) on the
space before the number if you think that the sentence is
1. define research; will be able to
1. define research; a description of research. Put a cross (7) if you think that
it is not.
2. explain the
2. explain the importance of research importance of
1. Research must be hurriedly conducted.
research in the daily
in the daily life of an individual; and life of an individual;
2. There should be enough data before conducting
and
research.
3. describe the characteristics 3. describe the
characteristics of 3. Research must observe a step-by-step process.
research and the
of research and the goals for goals for conducting 4. The researcher must have the final say in his or her
such. findings.
conducting such.
5. A person’s opinion is acceptable and considered as
an answer to the questions asked by the researcher.
6. Any concern or issue confronted by the students is

researchable.
openIng actIvIty
7. The causes why students fail in quizzes are worth
researching.
8. The student-researcher must read literature related
Ask the students to answer Activity to the problem he or she is studying.
9. The researcher must avoid listening to another

A and Activity B. After they have �inished researcher to have an objective view of his or her
study.
answering, ask the students to exchange
10. The steps in the conducting research are patterned.
their work with their seatmate for
correction.
Instruct the students to synthesize 2 THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
their answers from the Activity A and B.

Then, ask them to answer the Activity
C by formulating their own de�inition B. Encircle the words in the box that are related to the definition of research.
research based on their synthesis of their investigation subjective biases literature theories
previous answers. system phenomena intuition guessing factual

opinions experiences discovery dreams data
interview teleserye instrument productivity validate
C. Using all the sentences you checked (3) in Activity A and the encircled words in
Activity B, formulate a good and acceptable definition of research.
2 • Practical research 1 What is Research? 3

IN VE STIGATION
DEFINITION OF RESEARCH InvestIgatIon

Over the years, many experts have given their own definitions of the word “research.” Different
perspectives on the subject have been adopted that resulted in the following definitions:
DeFInItIon oF research anD characterIstIcs

1. Research follows a step-by-step process of investigation that uses a standardized approach
in answering questions or solving problems (Polit & Beck, 2004).
2. Research plays an important role in tertiary education. Though there are many problems
confronted by higher education, developments are realized through research. After all, its
oF research
main purpose is to answer a question or to solve an issue (Palispis, 2004).
3. Research is a continuous undertaking of making known the unknown (Sanchez, 2002). 1. Discuss the different definitions and
It entails an investigation of new facts leading to the discovery of new ideas, methods, or
improvements. It is an attempt to widen one’s outlook in life. It always proceeds from the
characteristics of research.
known to the unknown. Thus, the end of research is to arrive at a new truth.
4. Research is an investigation following ordered steps leading to a discovery of new 2. Have the students compare and
information or concepts (Sanchez, 1999).
5. Research is a very careful investigation of something that purports the contribution of
analyze their own definition of
additional or new knowledge and wisdom (Bassey, as cited by Coleman & Briggs, 2002). research they have written in the
6. Research is a tested approach of thinking and employing validated instruments and steps
in order to obtain a more adequate solution to a problem that is otherwise impossible to Opening Activity C to the given
address under ordinary means (Crawford, as cited by Alcantara & Espina, 1995).
definitions and characteristics
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
provided in the lesson.
The abovementioned definitions of research lead to the following common characteristics of
research:
1. The research should be systematic. There is a system to follow in conducting research

as there is a system for formulating each of its parts. There is a big system (macro) and
under it are small systems (micro). In research writing, what is referred to as the “system” is
composed of the chapters and their elements. The macrosystem is composed of chapters
that are organized in a logical and scientific manner. On the other hand, the microsystem
consists of the detailed contents of each chapter. The contents are further divided into
revIeW
elements that are organized following a systematic procedure.
2. The research should be objective. Research involves the objective process of analyzing 1. Ask the students to formulate
phenomena of importance to any profession or to different fields or disciplines
(Nieswiadomy, 2005). A researcher should objectively look at the basis on which the an improved definition of the
word “research.”
4 THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
2. Select five students to share
their output to the class.
work is founded. He or she must never produce results out of nowhere; the results of
the research should be validated. These results must never be based from biases. It is
very important for the researcher to clarify indicators and boundaries within which the
research is confined because these factors could affect objectivity.
3. The research should be feasible. Any problem of extraordinary nature that directly
or indirectly affects any profession is a feasible problem to study. In settings like in the
community, school, or workplace, unusual phenomena may happen and can turn into
potential problems.
4. The research should be empirical. There should be supporting pieces of evidence and
accompanying details for every variable used in the study. References and citations of facts
and information that the researcher has gathered in his or her paper must be included.
Plagiarism constitutes claiming another person’s idea or intellectual property as one’s
own. Through proper attribution, the researcher states that the knowledge being shared
through the study was taken from the study of other experts.
5. The research should be clear. The choice of variables used in the study should be
explained by the researcher. This can be done by enriching the review of literature or
by discussing the different theories on which the selection of the variables is based.
Therefore, there must be sufficient indicators for each variable. These variables can be
gathered from different published and unpublished materials.
REVIEW
Compare the definition of research that you formulated based on your analysis with the
given definitions of research and its characteristics. Identify which parts are correct based
on the given definitions and characteristics. Then, try to make an improved version of your
own definition of research.
What is Research? 5
Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 3
RESEARCH PARADIGM OUTLINE OF THE RESEARCH PAPER
The research paradigm is an outline that guides the researcher in conceptualizing and A research paper is divided into chapters which are then subdivided into various components
conducting the research. An effective research must address these two important aspects: of the research study. The following is the conventional outline of an academic research paper:
research foundations and research methodology.
Chapter 1: The Problem and Its Background
The research foundations refer to the fundamental components of research such as the
a. Introduction, Background of the Study
research problem, purpose, specific questions to be addressed, and the conceptual framework to be
applied. b. Statement of the Problem
c. Scope and Delimitation
In determining the research topic or problem, the researcher must look at a significant real-
life problem. Formulating a research problem requires describing the undesirable situations d. Significance of the Study
related to the problem and the needed knowledge or information in order to solve that problem.
Chapter 2: Theoretical Framework
The purpose of the research describes how the study will fill this “knowledge gap.” To address
this purpose, the researcher must formulate necessary questions that will help distinguish the a. Review of Related Literature
significant points of the research. The research questions may be either framed in a quantitative b. Review of Related Studies
(how much, how often, to what extent) or qualitative (what, why, how) manner. The possible c. Conceptual/Theoretical Framework
answers to the research questions are the hypotheses, which will be either confirmed or rejected
by the data collected in the study. Lastly, the conceptual framework is an outline or paradigm d. Hypothesis of the Study
that presents the topics to be studied, the various variables and contexts, and how these relate to e. Assumptions of the Study
or influence each other. f. Definition of Terms
On the other hand, the research methodology describes how the researcher will answer the
Chapter 3: Research Methodology
research questions in a credible manner. Research methods are employed to address the research
purpose and gain new information and insights to answer the problem. The methodology of the a. Research Design
research includes the review of literature, research approach and design, data collection, methods b. Respondents of the Study
of analysis, and conclusions.
c. Instrument of the Study
The review of literature analyzes the existing knowledge regarding the research topic. It
d. Validity and Reliability
identifies gaps in information that may be addressed by the research. It is also an important
basis of the conceptual framework of the study. With the existing knowledge about the study, the e. Statistical Treatment
research approach and design identifies what is the best means to collect and analyze data in Chapter 4: Presentation, Analysis, and Interpretation of Data
the study. The design is used to clarify and improve the research problem, purpose, and questions.
Having the best way to gather the data, the researcher will proceed to the data collection. Data a. Presentation of Data
collection gives the methods to determine who will be the participants in the study, how the b. Analysis
variables will be measured, and how data will be documented and collected. The collected data c. Interpretation
will then undergo data analysis, which consists of the strategies and methods that makes sense
d. Discussion
of the data to answer the research problem and questions. Finally, the conclusion summarizes
the key results of the study and discusses how these are relevant to the research problem. At this Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations
point, the research addresses the hypotheses and determines if they are accepted or rejected. It
a. Summary of Findings
also addresses the knowledge gap and presents new insights into the problem.
b. Conclusion
c. Recommendation
6 THE NATURE OF RESEARCH What is Research? 7
Various institutions often prescribe research outlines that are variations of the outline
presented above. It is therefore important for the researcher to familiarize himself or herself
with the standards and conventions of research that is implemented within a certain field or
research paraDIgm anD outlIne oF the discipline.
research paper ROLES OF THE RESEARCHER
1. Introduce the research paradigm to According to Nieswiadomy (2005), the researcher serves different roles in a study. These are
as follows:
the students. 1. As principal investigator

2. As member of a research team
2. Provide a brief definition of the 3. As identifier of researchable problems

4. As evaluator of research findings
related concepts and their general 5. As user of research findings
purpose in the research paper. 6. As patient or client advocate during study

7. As subject/respondent/participant
3. Ask volunteer students to read the IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH

different chapters of the research Research is as important as any field of study. Its significance cuts across all disciplines—
engineering, architecture, medicine, arts and sciences, education, management, tourism, among
paper outline to the class. others. It also benefits all strata of society—people with diverse jobs, different income rates,
varying financial status, or distinct social and political capabilities.
As such, following are the importance of research:

1. Research provides a scientific basis for any practice or methodology in any field or discipline.
This is important since an entire system or operation and all the stakeholders of an
institution or organization are at stake. Without scientific basis, someone may be affected
or may suffer. For example, in the field of medicine, a new drug must first be tested to
determine its efficacy in curing sickness before it can actually be prescribed.
2. Research is undertaken for the continuous development and further productivity in any field.
Any system that will be utilized in any organization must first be tried to determine its
value and it must be better than the previous system used. Simply, research is the result
of advancing knowledge from the past.
3. Research helps develop tools for assessing effectiveness of any practice and operation such
as psychological tests, intelligence quotient tests, psychological assessments, among
others. This importance of research is observed in behavioral science, physical science,
and others as well.
4. Research provides solutions to problems concerning almost all issues encountered in the
different areas of work. Some issues include the tardiness of employees, incentives given
4 • Practical research 1 8 THE NATURE OF RESEARCH

to the staff, sportsmanship among school athletes, and implementation of a “clean and
green” program in school. This also applies to higher level problems.
5. Research impacts decision-making. It is a common mistake for people to make decisions
without solid information to back them up. It requires time, effort, and sometimes money roles oF the researcher, Importance oF
research, anD goals oF research (pp. 7 - 10)
to gather the evidence needed for making a sound decision. For example, for a teacher to
change his or her teaching methodology for the first-period and last-period classes, he or
she must conduct a study considering the time element, enthusiasm to teach, academic
standing of the students, instructional aides used, and several other factors.
1. Let the students discuss the various
6. Research develops and evaluates alternative approaches to the educational aspects of
any discipline. This enables the students to gain broad knowledge and specialized skills roles of the researcher.
for safe practice. For example, research can help determine whether lecture is a better
method than experiment in teaching Science.
7. Research aims to advance the personal and professional qualifications of a practitioner.
2. Explain to the class the impact of
each role in the entire research study.
GOALS FOR CONDUCTING RESEARCH
Research is a scientific endeavor which serves many goals in different fields (workplaces, 3. Discuss the importance and goals of
profit or non-profit organizations, governmental or non-governmental entities), educational
disciplines (medicine, engineering, sciences, arts, humanities, and information technology), and research.
even in the personal life of the researcher. Some of the goals for research are as follows:
1. To produce evidence-based practice. Every discipline or institution must provide 4. Ask the students to read and discuss
the best practice of operation based from research studies. In the health profession,
for example, a professional nursing practitioner must ensure that he or she is able to each number.
give proper health care to his or her patient. To do this, only the best clinical practices
as proven by nursing research should be provided. The principles on which the tasks
and functions of a nurse are based can be formulated through research. The different
5. Conclude each section by providing
standard operating procedures in hospitals, such as admission, release, assessment, and
diagnosis of patients must be dealt with accordingly. The results of the research must be
a general picture of how it applies to
published in books and journals for other health practitioners to access and adopt for use
in their respective communities.
student researchers.
Research findings can also be utilized in seminars, workshops, or trainings so that
new knowledge or methods in the delivery of more effective health care can be shared.
This can also be applied by practitioners of other fields of study. Effective and efficient
practices or operations are results of research.
2. To establish credibility in the profession. A profession is defined by the body of
knowledge and discipline it employs. In line with this, research is essential for a profession
in producing new procedures, programs, and practices. This continuous improvement
leads to distinctiveness which can only be achieved when there are special practices and
peculiarity of services in a given area or field. This sense of individuality contributes to
the credibility of a profession.
What is Research? 9
3. To observe accountability for the profession. Every action conducted by a professional

must have a rationale. There are principles that justify why a nurse has to wash his or
her hands regularly, why a teacher has to prepare a lesson plan, why a manager needs
to plan ahead, why a businessman needs to conduct feasibility studies, and many more.
The nurse, teacher, manager, or businessman must be accountable for each task he or she
performs. All tasks must be carried out with the circumspect care and awareness that
everything has to be done efficiently.
4. To promote cost-effectiveness through documentation. The findings of research must
be shared with and utilized by the individuals, group, and community for which the study
is intended. They are useless if these results are not made known publicly. These results,
however, must first satisfy the researcher’s goals before he or she can share them with
other researchers and professionals who may find these findings beneficial. Anybody who
is in the same condition as the subject/s of the study may also utilize the findings, thus
saving on expenses for doing the same research again.
C HAPTER S UM M ARY
1. Research should be systematic, objective, feasible, empirical, and clear.
2. The research paradigm guides the researcher in formulating and implementing the
research. It ensures that the research foundations and methodology are well-defined
and organized. The research foundations refer to the fundamental components of
research such as the research problem, purpose, specific questions to be addressed, and
the conceptual framework to be applied. The methodology of the research includes the
review of literature, research approach and design, data collection, methods of analysis,
and conclusions.
3. As a researcher, one can play the role of a principal investigator, a member of a research
team, an identifier of researchable problems, an evaluator of research findings, a user of
research findings, a patient or client advocate during study, and a subject/respondent/
participant.
4. Research is very important. It provides scientific basis for any discipline and its
continuous development. It helps develop tools to improve the effectiveness of solving
various problems, and formulate solutions to problems concerning almost all issues. It
also allows the evaluation of alternative approaches to the educational aspects of any
discipline.
5. The goals of conducting research are to produce evidence-based practice; to establish
credibility in the profession; to observe accountability for the profession; and to promote
cost-effectiveness through documentation.

C HEC K - U P
assessment actIvItIes
Write TRUE if the statement is correct, FALSE if it is incorrect.
1. Research entails an investigation of new facts leading to the discovery

of new ideas, methods, or improvements.
2. The microsystem is the composition of chapters organized in a logical

check-up and scientific manner.
3. In settings like the community, school, or workplace, unusual

After answering, ask the students to phenomena may happen and can turn into potential problems.
exchange books for correction. 4. Plagiarism constitutes claiming another person’s idea or intellectual
property as one’s own.
5. Research provides an artistic basis for any practice or methodology in

any field or discipline.
6. According to Crawford, researchers serve different roles in a study such

as principal investigator, member of a research team, financier of the
study, among others.
assIgnment 7. Research aims to advance the personal and professional qualifications
of a practitioner.
Instruct the students to write 8. One of the goals of research is to produce results-based practice.
their report about the conducted 9. Every action conducted by a professional must have a rationale.
interview on an intermediate pad. 10. Research promotes cost-effectiveness through documentation.
Answer Key:
APPL IC ATIO N
1. Refer to the given definitions in
Answer the following questions.
the discussion. 1. What is research?
2. Refer to the given importance of

research in the discussion. Students’ answers may vary. Provide them adequate time to answer
the questions. Have them share their answers to the class.
3. Students’ answers may vary.
4. Students’ answers may vary. What is Research? 11
2. What is the importance of having a good research foundation and methodology?
aDDItIonal task
Instruct the students to research on
the different kinds of research as a 3. What is the importance of research in your education as a student?
preparation for the opening activity in
the next chapter.
4. As a student, what do you want to research on? Why?
ASSIGNMENT
Interview your parents about their current profession. Ask them how research has played a
major role in their line of work. Make a report about it and then share it to the class.
THE NATURE OF RESEARCH

6 • Practical research 1 12
CHAPTER
2 Different Types
of Research objectIves
OBJECTIVES OPENING ACTIVITY will be able to
At the end of this
Form groups of three members. Fill out the following
chapter, the students
will be able to “word shapes” by referring to the clues and guessing the 1. identify various types of research and
1. identify the various type of research hinted at.
types of research
and
1. conducts practical methods as substitutes for 2. differentiate qualitative and
fundamental and theoretical approaches
2. differentiate quantitative types of research.
qualitative and
quantitative types
of research.
r t
2. explains that simple units of experience have complex meanings

openIng actIvIty
h
h l
g
1. Select students to present their
3. compares collected units of data with one another to arrive at a hypothesis
outputs based on the Assignment
r t h and Additional Task in the previous
chapter.
4. emphasizes the complexity of humans
2. Using the information from their
l t
q u a
a i t a i v e Additional Task output, have them
a
identify the kind of research related
to their parents’ occupation.
3. Ask the students to answer the
Different Types of Research 13
Opening Activity on pages 13-14.
Have them refer to the output of the
additional research task.
5. involves collection and analysis of data from cultural groups
t h 4. Ask them to check their own work as

e ih c
you state the correct answers.
6. seeks to explain naturally occurring phenomena in the natural world
s cc n n f
7. challenges the traditional qualitative analysis approach
ss d
8. utilizes deductive reasoning to generate tested predictions
u t e
q
9. involves analysis of data from the past
h s t to r al
10. provides background data for broader studies
c s tu

INVESTIG ATIO N
Investigation GENERAL FORMS OF RESEARCH

Before discussing the research designs, it is important to tackle first the general forms of
research. The general forms of research define the purpose and approach of the study. These are
General Forms of Research

as follows:
1. Scientific research is a research method that seeks to explain naturally occurring
phenomena in the natural world by generating credible theories. It is a systematic
1. Discuss the general forms of process that involves formulating hypotheses, testing predictions using relevant data and
other scientific methods, and finally coming up with a theory. As such, this study requires
research. rational and statistical evidence to draw conclusions.
2. Research in the humanities seeks to define the purpose of human existence by tapping
2. Have the students identify fields into historical facts and future possibilities. While studies on natural and social sciences
required hard evidence to draw conclusions, this form of research derive explanations
where each form of research can be from human experiences that cannot be simply measured by facts and figures alone.
3. Artistic research provides alternative approaches to established concepts by conducting
applied. practical methods as substitutes for fundamental and theoretical ones. The main purpose
of this form of research is to expound on the current accepted concepts and open them
to further interpretation. As such, the word “artistic” does not solely refer to the arts but
rather to the kind of approach a researcher assumes in this type of research. This research
generates new knowledge through artistic practices such as defining new concepts,
Research Design creating new processes, and devising new methods.
Any of the three forms of study are by no means a better approach than the other. However, what
1. Explain the functions of a research differs among the three is the objective of each study and the means to achieve it. Nevertheless,
whichever of the three are followed by the researcher, the true goal of any research remains the
design. same—to further the current established knowledge on different areas of study.
2. Provide examples of research RESEARCH DESIGN
studies for each research design. The research design enables the researcher to organize the components of his or her research
in an orderly and coherent manner. This will ensure that the research or study will effectively
address the research topic or problem. The research design is also a template for the collection,
3. Have students provide suitable measurement, and analysis of data. The research problem determines the research design that
will be used in the study.
research problems or topics for each
research design.
Having a well-developed research design will enable the researcher to achieve the following:
1. Clearly identify and describe the research problem or topic, and justify the selection of
the appropriate design to be used
2. Review and synthesize previous studies and literature related to the topic
3. Clearly identify hypotheses that are significant to the problem
4. Determine the data necessary to test the hypotheses and explain how the data will be
obtained
5. Describe the methods of analysis that will be used on the data gathered in order to
evaluate the hypotheses of the study
Examples of research designs include the following:

1. Action research. This research design follows a cyclical process. First, the researcher
identifies a problem and determines a plan of action to address it. Then, the action plan
is implemented and data is gathered to determine the effects of the action implemented.
The information gathered during the implementation phase is analyzed and evaluated
in order to gain a better understanding of the problem and determine the effectiveness
of the solution implemented. Action research is pragmatic and solution-driven, and any
information gathered is used to identify and implement a solution to the problem. This
design is appropriate for community-based situations. It requires the researcher to
directly relate with his or her subjects and the community.
2. Causal design. This research explores how a specific change impacts a certain situation.
This research design employs hypotheses that seek to establish a cause-and-effect
relationship between variables. Essentially, this research design seeks to determine
whether “variable X caused Y.”
3. Descriptive design. This design answers who, what, when, where, and how questions
related to a particular research problem. This design is used to obtain information about
the present situation to gain an understanding of a certain phenomena.
4. Experimental design. In this design, the researcher controls the factors and variables
related to a certain phenomena and tries to change or manipulate one or several factors
to determine the possible effects.
5. Exploratory design. This research focuses on topics or problems which have had little
or no studies done about them. The purpose of this design is to gain information and
insight that can be used for later researches. This design is often used to determine which
method or approach to use for a certain topic or problem.
6. Cohort design. This research identifies a group of people sharing common
characteristics who are then studied for a period of time. The researcher seeks to identify
how these groups are affected by certain factors or changes and relates the information
gathered to the research topic or problem.
8 • Practical Research 1 16 THE NATURE OF RESEARCH

7. Cross-sectional design. This research design looks into a large group of people, from the study is usually quantitative or measurable. Furthermore, another criterion used in
composed of individuals with varied characteristics. The researcher seeks to determine assessing the data in this kind of study is its capability to generalize the effect of the results to the
how these individuals are affected by a certain variable or change and gathers data at a individuals outside of the study participants.
specific period of time.
However, a quantitative research has its disadvantages as well. Quantitative research is
8. Longitudinal design. This research follows a group of people over a long period of time. considered to be limiting when it comes to studying the complex and diverse minds of human
Throughout the period of study, observations are made on the group to track changes beings. This is because quantitative research can only explain a small fraction of the human
over time and identify factors that may have caused them. This design also explores causal experience (e.g., behavioral impulses and varying personal preferences). In quantitative research,
relationships over time and determines how long these relationships last and the extent these human complexities are usually controlled or removed entirely instead of being analyzed.
of their effects on the group being studied. The inflexible and narrow vision of quantitative research tends to present the human experience
9. Sequential design. This research is carried out in stages to gather sufficient data to test in a restricted manner.
the hypothesis. This design is often combined with a cohort or cross-sectional study as it
identifies specific groups for each stage. At the end of each stage, the data is collected and Qualitative Research
evaluated. If there is insufficient data, the researcher then proceeds to the next stage with
a new group of subjects. Qualitative research is defined as the “naturalistic method of inquiry of research which
deals with the issue of human complexity by exploring it directly.” (Polit and Beck, 2008) Unlike
10. Mixed-method design. This research combines aspects of various research designs and
quantitative research, qualitative research puts an emphasis on human complexity and man’s
methods. It primarily combines qualitative and quantitative research methods to gain a
ability to decide and create his or her own experience. This type of research utilizes naturalistic
complete picture of the research problem and gather data that will fully determine the
methods of inquiry as the research places great emphasis on the analysis of the experiences of
validity of the hypotheses.
the individual. This type of research attempts to explain the human experience with its dynamic,
holistic, and individualistic aspects through the perspective of the individual himself. This type
QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS makes use of qualitative materials that are narrative and subjective.
There are two broad categories of research methodology: qualitative research and Qualitative research focuses on gaining insights and understanding about an individual’s
quantitative research. The research method determines the approach the researcher takes in perception and interpretation of events. This type of research collects data through methods
identifying relevant data for the research, and collecting and analyzing the information gathered such as interviews and participative observation. The task of the researcher is to determine the
in the research. Choosing either a quantitative or qualitative approach will affect the components patterns and themes in the acquired data rather than focusing on the testing of hypotheses. A
of the research. For instance, a researcher may choose to undertake a scientific research. If he or qualitative study researcher is not limited by existing theories but is rather open-minded to new
she takes a qualitative approach, the goal of the study will be to discuss and analyze the underlying ideas and points of views. Lastly, the researcher does not have to be concerned with numbers and
concepts and theories related to the research topic. If the researcher chooses a quantitative complicated statistical analyses.
approach, he or she will use statistical data to provide an explanation of the phenomenon.
However, a major limitation of this model is its reductionist nature. Qualitative research
tends to reduce human experience to just the few concepts under investigation, which are defined
Quantitative Research in advance by the researcher rather than the experience of the respondents. Another limitation
of qualitative research involves the subjective nature of naturalistic inquiry, which sometimes
Polit and Beck (2004) define quantitative research as “the traditional positivist scientific
causes concerns about the nature of the conclusion of the study. Polit and Beck (2008) poses the
method which refers to a general set of orderly, disciplined procedures to acquire information.” In
question, “Would two naturalistic researchers studying the same phenomenon in similar settings
their book, Nursing Research Principles and Methods, they explain that the research method utilizes
arrive at similar conclusions?” They added that most naturalistic research studies usually utilize
deductive reasoning to generate predictions that are tested in the real world. It is systematic since
a small group of people as subjects. This makes the findings from such naturalistic methods
the researcher progresses logically through a series of steps, according to a prespecified plan of
questionable, as opposed to those of the quantitative research studies.
action.
Quantitative researchers gather empirical evidence that is within the realm of the senses. The
method used in the analysis of data is usually statistical in nature. Thus, the resulting information
Different Types of Research 17 18 THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
Table 2.1 – Comparison between Quantitative and Qualitative Research

The Value of Qualitative Research
Quantitative Research Qualitative Research Qualitative data provides context and meaning. If an organization wants to assess the
behavior of their clients, they can easily collect and analyze information about top-selling items,
Involves processes, feelings, and motives
Aims to characterize trends and patterns. (the why’s and the how’s) and produces buying trends in various geographic locations, and overall sales figures by month. This will give
in-depth and holistic data. a sense of the who, what, when, and where of the study. Qualitative research can complete the
picture by delving into the why and the how. If quantitative research represents the skeleton, the
Usually starts with neither a theory nor qualitative research represents the flesh. It can explore narrowly-defined issues in greater depth,
Usually concerned with generating hypothesis
hypothesis about the relationship between two explaining the setting in which behavior can take place. It gives the complete picture of the issue
from data rather than testing a hypothesis
or more variables
being studied.
Uses structured research instruments like Uses either unstructured or semi-structured The value of qualitative study comes from its focus on the lived experience of the participants,
questionnaires or schedules instruments
which enabled development of a greater understanding concerning the outcomes that are
Uses large sample sizes that are representatives important, relevant, and meaningful to the people involved.
Uses small sample sizes chosen purposely
of the population
Has high output replicability Has high validity Common Types of Qualitative Research
Used to gain greater understanding of individual The following are the various types of qualitative research based on different fields of inquiry
Used to gain greater understanding of group (Merriam, S. B., et al, 2002):
differences in terms of feelings, motives and
similarities
experiences
1. Phenomenological study. This type of research seeks to find the essence or structure of
Uses structured processes Uses more flexible processes an experience by explaining how complex meanings are built out of simple units of inner
experience. It examines human experiences (lived experiences) through the descriptions
Methods include census, survey, experiments Methods include field research, case study, and
provided by subjects or respondents. The goal of this study is to describe the meaning
and secondary analysis secondary analysis
that experiences hold for each subject. Some of the areas of concern for these studies are
Source: Handout distributed by the SSREI, UP Baguio, 2009 humanness, self-determination, uniqueness, wholeness, and individualism.
Example: What are the common experiences encountered by a person with a spouse who
is undergoing rehabilitation?
Characteristics of Qualitative Research
With the given problem, the researcher has to discover the inner feelings, emotional
Kania (2008) presents the following key distinguishing characteristics of qualitative research:
hardships, and mental disturbances that the respondent is experiencing.
1. Qualitative research is conducted in a systematic and rigorous way. However, it is more
flexible than quantitative research. 2. Ethnographic study. This study involves the collection and analysis of data about cultural
groups or minorities. In this type of research, the researcher immerses with the people
2. It usually follows an iterative process, which means that data collection and analysis occur
and becomes a part of their culture. He or she becomes involved in the everyday activities
simultaneously. Data already collected are updated by the ongoing data collection.
of the subjects, and gets to empathize with the cultural groups experiencing issues and
3. It focuses on gathering information from people who can provide the richest insights into problems in their everyday lives. During the immersion process, the researcher talks
the phenomenon or interest. As a result, small samples are commonly used in qualitative to the key persons and personalities called key informants who provide important
research. Study participants are usually selected in a purposive manner, using only those information for the study. The main purpose of this study is the development of cultural
for whom the topic under study is relevant. theories.
4. Collection of data is continuous until saturation, or when it reaches the point where no Example: What is the demographic profile and migratory adaptations of squatter families
new information is revealed with respect to the key themes emerging from the data. in Barangay Cutcut, Angeles City (dela Cruz, 1994)?
5. Qualitative data collection examines everyday life in its natural context or in an
uncontrolled naturalistic setting.

Qualitative and Quantitative Methods of Research
1. Discuss qualitative and quantitative research methods and present the matrix on Table 2.1 (page 19)
to highlight the difference between the two.
2. Enrich the discussion with the additional information below.
Quantitative Research Qualitative Research
There is one concrete reality that is governed by Reality is socially and experientially constructed,
unchanging natural laws that can explain any given resulting in multiple realities
phenomenon. of a phenomenon.
There is one true reality regardless of context. Reality is context-specific.
A phenomenon can be understood by studying its A phenomenon can be understood only when
component parts studied as a whole
The researcher is part of the context and

The researcher is an objective observer.
intrinsically linked to the findings.
Conditions must be carefully controlled to prevent Concerns of bias are not part because the
unwanted influences. researcher is transparent about this
Sources: “Competing paradigms in qualitative research” by E. G. Guba & Y. S. Lincoln (1994), pp. 105–117;
Research methods in health: Investigating health and health services (2nd ed.) by A. Bowling (2002), p. 118–131.
Category Quantitative Qualitative
Question Domains Who, what, when, where How, what, why
common Sample Size 150 to 200+ 10 to 15
Contact Time 10 to 20 minutes 45 to 240 minutes each
Must be true of most of the data Must be true of each case or

Validity
or nomothetic (law- oriented) ideographic (case-oriented)
Describes relationships and
Defines relationships and
Variables establishes meaning structures
establish general case
and contexts
Unique positions lost to the Valuable descriptive cases with

Outliers
weight of the average unique access to average cases
Surveys, numerical counts, Interviews, literature content

Examples statistical analyses, reviews, real world observations,
mathematical modeling case studies, ethnographies
Source: “What Is Qualitative Research” by P. Alasuutarii (1995), pp. 6 - 22.
10 • Practical Research 1
In studying the problem, the researcher immerses with subjects and becomes involved 5. Grounded theory study. The method involves comparing collected units of data against
with the activities that exemplify the cultural practices of the respondents. one another until categories, properties, and hypotheses that state relations between
these categories and properties emerge. These hypotheses are tentative and suggestive,
3. Historical study. This study is concerned with the identification, location, evaluation,
and are not tested in the study.
and synthesis of data from past events. This is not only limited to obtaining data from the
past, but it also involves relating their implications to the present and future time. Example: Ten school counselors were given structured interviews to help determine how
their professional identity is formed.
Example: What were the roles of women in the Katipunan?
This data was coded first to form concepts. Then, connections between these concepts
Some sources of data for a historical study are as follows:
were identified. A core concept emerged and its process and implications were discussed.
a. Documents – printed materials that can be found in libraries, archives, or personal School counselors’ professional interactions were identified as defining experiences in
collections their identity formation (Brott & Myers, 1999).
b. Relics and artifacts – physical remains or objects from a certain historical period 6. Narrative analysis. The main sources of data for this type of research are the life accounts
c. Oral reports – information that is passed on by word of mouth of individuals based on their personal experiences. The purpose of the study is to extract
meaningful context from these experiences.
The data sources are classified as follows:
The common types of narrative analysis are as follows:
a. Primary sources – materials providing first-hand information, e.g., oral histories,
written records, diaries, eyewitness accounts, pictures, videos, and other physical a. Psychological – This involves analyzing the story in terms of internal thoughts and
evidence motivations. It also analyzes the written text or spoken words for its component parts
or patterns.
b. Secondary sources – second-hand information such as an account based on an
original source, or a material written as an abstract of the original materials b. Biographical – This takes the individual’s society and factors like gender and class
into account.
The validity of materials used in the study are assessed through the following processes:
c. Discourse analysis – This studies the approach in which language is used in texts
a. Internal criticism. This involves establishing the authenticity or originality of the and contexts.
materials by looking at the consistency of information. Motives and possible biases of
the author must be considered in trying to determine the accuracy of the materials. 7. Critical qualitative research. This type of research seeks to bring about change and
empower individuals by describing and critiquing the social, cultural, and psychological
b. External criticism. This is based on the analysis of the material: the ink and the type
perspectives on present-day contexts. As such, it ultimately challenges the current norm,
of paper used, the layout and physical appearance, and as well as the age and texture
especially on power distributions, building upon the initial appraisal of the said present-
of the material itself.
day perspectives.
The researcher can consult authentic and original resource materials relevant to
For example, a critical examination of consumer education texts used in adult literacy
the problem to determine the accuracy of information provided in the research paper.
programs revealed content that was disrespectful for adult learners, their previous
4. Case study. It is an in-depth examination of an individual, groups of people, or an experience as consumers, and promoted certain ideologies regarding consumerism.
institution. Some of its purposes are to gain insights into a little-known problem, provide The texts also defended the status quo by blaming individual inadequacies for economic
background data for broader studies, and explain socio-psychological and socio-cultural troubles, ignoring societal inequities (Sandlin, 2000).
processes. A case study also involves a comprehensive and extensive examination of a
8. Postmodern research. As opposed to the traditional forms of qualitative analysis, the
particular individual, group, or situation over a period of time. It provides information
approach of this type of research seeks to analyze the facts that have been established as
on where to draw conclusions about the impact of a significant event in a person’s life
truths, the ability of research and science to discover truth, and all generalizations and
(Sanchez, 2002).
typologies.
Example: How do cancer survivors look at life?
The researcher is able to give an overview of the problem by interviewing a cancer
survivor about his or her experiences.
Merriam et al. (2002) proposes the following three “crises” as a result of the
questioning performed: Common Types of Qualitative Research
a. Whether the experience of another can be captured or whether it is created by the
researcher 1. Have the students organize themselves into
b. Whether any study can be viewed as valid if traditional methodologies are flawed
c. Whether it is possible to institute any real change 9 groups.
Example: If our views of the self are themselves constructed by the society we live in and
the language we use, is true knowledge of the self, independent of these, even 2. Assign each group one type of qualitative
possible? If our “selves” are constructed, then attempting to gain knowledge
through self-reflection is a miscognition and [it] instead results in the creation research.
of a less independent and more societal-regulated self (Bleakly, 2000).
9. Basic interpretative qualitative study. This is used when a researcher is interested 3. Have them research information on their
in identifying how individuals give meaning to a situation or phenomenon. It uses an
inductive strategy which is a process of analyzing patterns or common themes to produce assigned type. The students may use
a descriptive account that summarizes and analyzes the literature that defined the study.
Example: An interview of 45 women from varying backgrounds and a comparison of the
additional library and online resources.
developmental patterns discerned with earlier findings on male development.
They found women’s lives evolved through periods of tumultuous, structure- 4. Call on each group to share their output to
building phases that alternated with stable periods (Levinson & Levinson, 1996).
the class.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Qualitative Research
Anderson (2010), in her article “Presenting and Evaluating Qualitative Research,” lists the
5. Facilitate the sharing of outputs by providing
following strengths of a qualitative research: additional information and examples for
1. The study requires a few cases or participants. Data collected are based on the participants’
own categories of meaning. each type of qualitative research.
2. It is useful for describing complex phenomena.
3. Issues can be examined in detail and in depth.
4. Interviews are not restricted to specific questions and can be guided or redirected by the
researcher in real time.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Qualitative Research
5. Subtleties and complexities about the research subjects or topic are often missed by more
positivistic inquiries.
6. It provides individual case information.
1. Ask the class to discuss the strengths and
7. Cross-case comparisons and analysis can be conducted. weaknesses of qualitative research.
8. It provides understanding and description of people’s personal experiences of phenomena
(i.e., the emic or insider’s viewpoint).
9. It can describe in detail the phenomena as they are situated and embedded in local
contexts.

10. The researcher usually identifies contextual and setting factors as they relate to the
phenomenon of interest. C HA PTER SU MMARY
11. The researcher can study dynamic processes (i.e., documenting sequential patterns and
change). 1. The general forms of research are scientific research, research in humanities, and
artistic research.
12. The researcher can use the primarily qualitative method of grounded theory to inductively
generate a tentative but explanatory theory about a phenomenon. 2. The research design enables the researcher to organize the components of his or her
research in an orderly and coherent manner. This will ensure that the research or study
13. It can determine how participants interpret constructs (e.g., self-esteem and IQ).
will effectively address the research topic or problem. The research design is also a
14. Data are usually collected in naturalistic settings in qualitative research. template for the collection, measurement, and analysis of data.
15. Qualitative approaches are especially responsive to local situations, conditions, and 3. Quantitative and qualitative research are two broad categories of research methods.
stakeholders’ needs. Qualitative research aims to discuss and analyze the underlying concepts and theories
16. Qualitative data in the words and categories of participants lend themselves to exploring related to the study. Quantitative research, meanwhile, uses statistical data to explain
how and why particular phenomena occur. a phenomenon.
17. You can use an important case to vividly demonstrate a phenomenon to the readers. 4. The key distinguishing characteristics of qualitative research are as follows:
18. It can determine idiographic causation (i.e., determination of causes of a particular event). a. It is systematic and rigorous.
Anderson (2010) also enumerates the following weaknesses of qualitative research: b. It follows an iterative process.
1. The knowledge produced might not be applicable to other people or other settings c. It focuses on people who provide the richest insights.
(i.e., findings might be unique to the relatively few people included in the research study). d. Collection of data is continuous until saturation points.
2. Inflexibility is more difficult to maintain, assess, and demonstrate. e. It examines experiences in a natural context.
3. It is sometimes not as well understood and accepted as quantitative research within the
5. The common types of qualitative research are phenomenological study, ethnographic
scientific community.
study, historical study, case study, grounded theory study, narrative analysis,
4. The researcher’s presence during data gathering, which is often unavoidable in qualitative critical qualitative research, postmodern research, and basic interpretative
research, can affect the subjects’ responses. qualitative study.
5. Issues of anonymity and confidentiality can present problems when presenting findings. 6. Some of the strengths of qualitative research are its requirement of only a few cases
6. It is difficult to make quantitative predictions. or individuals for data collection; its usefulness in describing complex phenomena; its
7. It is more difficult to test hypotheses and theories with large participant pools. detailed and in-depth analysis of issues; its ability to provide individual case information;
and its capability to conduct cross-case comparisons and analysis among others.
8. It might have lower credibility with some administrators and commissioners of programs.
7. Some of the weaknesses of qualitative research include its incapability to maintain,
9. It generally takes more time to collect the data compared to quantitative research.
assess, and demonstrate inflexibility. It also produces very specific results leading to
10. Data analysis is often time-consuming.
misunderstanding or inapplicability; creates distraction to the subject’s responses
11. The results are more easily influenced by the researcher’s personal biases and just by the presence of the researcher; presents problems on issues of anonymity
idiosyncrasies. and confidentiality; makes quantitative predictions difficult to do; and involves large
participant pools making hypothesizing and theorizing difficult.
24 THE NATURE OF RESEARCH Different Types of Research 25
C HEC K - U P
2. Discuss this part with a general point A. Identify which research design is referred to by the following statements. Write your
of view. Point out how qualitative answer on the blank.
research fits better on some topics as 1. This design studies a group of people over a long period of time.
compared to others. Ask the students 2. This research focuses on a group of people sharing common
characteristics.
to relate this part to the comparison
3. This research identifies a problem, implements a solution, and studies
of qualitative and quantitative its effects.
research. 4. In this design, the researcher manipulates the variables and determines
its effects.
5. This research is done in stages in order to gather sufficient data.
6. This design seeks to establish and explain a “cause-and-effect”
relationship.
7. This research looks into a large group of people with different

characteristics.
check-up 8. This design aims to describe the present situation in order to gain
information about a phenomenon.
A. After answering, ask the students to 9. This research focuses on problems or topics with little or no research
exchange books for correction. done about them, and gathers information that will guide future
studies.
10. This design combines elements from various research designs and
uses both qualitative and quantitative methods.

B. Complete the box by filling out the missing characteristics of qualitative or quantitative
research.
Quantitative Research Qualitative Research B. For the second activity, refer to the
Usually concerned with generating hypothesis answer key.
from data rather than testing a hypothesis
Has high output replicability 2.
Methods include census, survey,

3.
Application
experiments, and secondary analysis
1. Guide the students in answering this

4. Uses more flexible processes activity.
2. Ask them to exchange books with
Uses large sample sizes that are
representatives of the population
5.
their seatmates for comparison and
checking.
Uses either unstructured or semi-structured
6.
instruments
Aims to characterize trends and patterns 7.
Used to gain greater understanding of group

8.
similarities
AP P L IC ATION
Read and analyze the following research topics and identify what type of qualitative
research is appropriate for each. Then, justify your answer by providing a brief explanation.
1. A researcher investigated the medical properties of the rare Amazonian

tree and discovered that its components can be made into a drug that can
cure dengue.
2. A researcher is looking into ways to create intervention on violent or

hostile behavior among young children.
3. A researcher analyzes music composition by researching on its utilization

of theory and intuition, technologies in creating music, and critical
approach in its design process.

4. A researcher immerses with the Badjao street dwellers to learn how they
were able to migrate from Mindanao.
Assignment (p.29)
Ask the students to compile the
abstract of each study and in a
matrix identify the type of research 5. A researcher seeks to discover the events that transpired behind
the assassination of Antonio Luna in Cavite in 1899 and discuss the
used and the reason why each study implication of these events to history.
belongs to the type.
ASSIGNMENT
Choose five types of qualitative research and find one example of actual research studies for
each. Provide a summary for each study and explain why it belongs to that type of research.
CHAPTER
3 Ethics in Research Objectives

At the end of this
will be able to
chapter, the students A. Read and analyze the article below and then answer
will be able to
1. discuss the
the guide questions that follow.
1. discuss the importance of ethics in
Ethics in Qualitative Research
importance of ethics
in research; Ethical issues are present in any kind of research.
research;
2. explain the ethical The research process creates tension between the aims
codes in the conduct of research to make generalizations for the good of 2. explain the ethical codes in the
of research, and the others, and the rights of participants to maintain privacy.
rights of research
participants;
Ethics pertains to doing good and avoiding harm. Harm
can be prevented or reduced through the application of
conduct of research, and the rights of
3. discuss the appropriate ethical principles. Thus, the protection of
human subjects or participants in any research study is
research participants;
importance of ethics
in research; and imperative.
4. define plagiarism Violations of human rights in the name of scientific 3. discuss the importance of ethics in
and identify
techniques to
research have been among the darkest events in history.
From 1932 to 1972, more than 400 African-American research; and
avoid it. people who had syphilis were deliberately left untreated
to study the illness. Although the Tuskegee syphilis
study was sponsored by the United States Public Health
4. define plagiarism and identify
Service, the disclosure of the 40-year study caused public
outrage (Caplan, 1992).
techniques to avoid it.
Another example of unethical research is the experiment conducted between 1950 and
1952, in which more than 1,000 pregnant women were given diethylstilbestrol to prevent
miscarriages. These women were subject to a double-blind study without consent. Only 20
years later, when the children of these women had high rates of cancer and other abnormalities,
did the participants learn they were subjects of these experiments (Capron, 1989).
The nature of ethical problems in qualitative research studies is subtle and different
compared to problems in quantitative research. For example, potential ethical conflicts
exist in regard to how a researcher gains access to a community group and in the effects the
researcher may have on participants. The literature provides few examples of ethical issues
in qualitative health research. Punch (1994) claimed that one hardly ever hears of ethical
failures in qualitative research. However, Batchelor and Briggs (1994) claimed that the failure
Opening Activity
30 THE NATURE OF RESEARCH A. Instruct the students to form
discussion groups. Ask them to
read the selection and answer the
of researchers to address ethical issues has resulted in those researchers being ill-prepared following guide questions.
to cope with the unpredictable nature of qualitative research. Qualitative researchers focus
their research on exploring, examining, and describing people and their natural environments.
Embedded in qualitative research are the concepts of relationships and power between
researchers and participants. The desire to participate in a research study depends upon a
participant’s willingness to share his or her own experience. Nurse researchers have to balance
research principles as well as the well-being of clients (Ramos, 1989).
Qualitative health research is focused on the experiences of people in relation to health
and illness. Yet, nurse researchers may find that their roles as researchers and as clinicians
may be in conflict. Qualitative studies are frequently conducted in settings involving the
participation of people in their everyday environments. Therefore, any research that includes
people requires an awareness of the ethical issues that may be derived from such interactions.
Ethics in health research includes appropriateness of the research design, the methodological
design, the funding sources, and the behaviors in reporting data. The purpose of this paper
is to show these and related ethical issues and principles to be used in qualitative research
(Orb, 2000).
Source: Ethics in Qualitative Research by A. Orb, L. Eisenhauer, and D. Wynaden (2000)
GUIDE QUESTIONS
1. Based on the article, how will you define ethics in research?
2. Are the Tuskegee syphilis study and diethylstilbestrol study on pregnant women unethical?
Why?
3. If you were a part of the research teams who conducted the research studies, what will you do
to correct the unethical aspect of the experiments?
Ethics of Research 31
B. Determine the appropriate ethical action to address the unethical practices described
below. Write your answers in the spaces provided.
INVESTIG ATIO N
Unethical Practices Ethical Action
1. Jaypee, a senior high school student, is

IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS IN RESEARCH
planning to conduct his first research Resnik (2007), in his article “What is Ethics in Research & Why is it important?”, explains the
on the misbehavior of fellow students importance of ethics in research. These are as follows:
during examinations. However, he has
no idea on the ethical guidelines in 1. Ethics promotes the pursuit of knowledge, truth, and credibility. It also fosters values that
conducting such research. are essential to collaborative work. Research often involves a great deal of cooperation
and coordination among people in different fields or disciplines. The important values
2. Because of non-participation in extra- include trust, accountability, mutual respect, and fairness.
curricular activities, Trey, an honor
student, ranked last in the honor roll. 2. Many of the ethical norms ensure that researchers are held accountable to the public.
A qualitative research about Trey is 3. Adherence to ethical principles helps build public support for research. People are more
conducted without informing him. likely to fund research studies that promote a variety of important moral and social values
such as social responsibility, human rights, animal welfare, and health and safety.
3. Gabby, a graduating student, claimed

the research work of his classmate. ETHICAL CODES AND POLICIES FOR RESEARCH
He erased the name of the original
researcher and placed his own. Given the importance of ethics in the conduct of research, many professional associations,
government agencies, and universities have come up with the following codes and policies for
research:
1. Honesty. This must be maintained in all communications (e.g., when reporting data,
4. A group of senior high school students results, and procedures). Data should never be fabricated, falsified, or misrepresented.
secretly chose their teacher as the
subject of their research. 2. Objectivity. Biases should be avoided in the experimental design, data analysis,
interpretation, expert testimony, and the other aspects of research.
3. Integrity. Consistency of thought and action is the foundation of the credibility of any
research work. Promises and agreements should be kept and all actions should be made
5. To maximize the participants in her with a sincere purpose.
study, Pauline, the class valedictorian, 4. Care. Careless errors and negligence should be avoided. Your work and the works of your
forced her classmates to join her study.
peers should be critically examined. Records of research activities should be kept in good
order and condition.
5. Openness. The researcher should be open to criticisms and new ideas. Research data,
results, ideas, and resources should also be shared with the public.
6. Respect for intellectual property. Proper acknowledgement should be given to all
authors cited and sources used in your research. Patents and copyrights should be
recognized. Any unpublished data, methods, or results should not be used without
permission. Credit should be given to where it is due.
32 THE NATURE OF RESEARCH Ethics of Research 33
7. Confidentiality. Confidential communications or documents should be protected.

8. Responsible publication. The study should be done with the purpose of advancing
Investigation
research and scholarship. Wasteful and duplicate publication should be avoided.
9. Responsible mentoring. The research should seek to educate, mentor, and advise students.
10. Respect for colleagues. All peers should be treated fairly.
11. Social responsibility. Social good should be promoted and social harm should be avoided.
Importance of Ethics in Research 12. Non-discrimination. All those eligible to participate in research should be allowed to do
so.
13. Competence. Professional competence and expertise should be maintained and improved
1. Have the students explain why with the research.
research should be guided by ethical 14. Legality. A researcher should know and obey relevant laws, and institutional and
government policies.
principles and considerations. 15. Human subject protection. Harms and risks to human lives should be minimized.
Human dignity, privacy, and autonomy should be among the primary considerations of
2. Let them explain the benefits of the research.
engaging in ethical research. RIGHTS OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS

The main purpose of a research is to produce results that would benefit the stakeholders in the
study. Likewise, the participants are crucial elements of the research and they have the same rights
as the research beneficiaries. Some of the rights of research participants are as follows (Trochim,
Ethical Codes and Policies and Rights of 2006; Smith, 2003; Polit, 2006):
Participants
1. Voluntary participation. Any person should not be coerced to participate in any research
undertaking.
2. Informed consent. Prospective research participants must be fully informed about
1. Have the students divide themselves the procedures and risks involved in the research. Their consent to participate must be
secured.
into 20 groups. 3. Risk of harm. Participants should be protected from physical, financial, or
psychological harm. The principle of non-maleficence states that it is the researcher’s
2. Assign each group one ethical code duty to avoid, prevent, or minimize harm to the participants of the study.
4. Confidentiality. Participants must be assured that their identity and other personal
or participant right. information will not be made available to anyone who is not directly involved in the study.
5. Anonymity. The participants must remain anonymous throughout the study even to the
researchers themselves.

ETHICAL STANDARDS IN RESEARCH WRITING
It is a general notion that in the written work of any author, be it in books, magazines,
research papers for a degree program, or even those papers which are to be submitted for funding
programs, the reader assumes that the author is the sole originator of the written work, that 3. Have them research information on
any text or ideas borrowed from others are clearly identified as such by established scholarly
conventions, and that the ideas conveyed therein are accurately represented to the best of the their assigned type. The students
author’s abilities. For a writing to be considered ethical, it should be clear, accurate, fair, and
honest (Kolin, as cited by Roig, 2006).
may use additional library and
The following reminders must be taken into consideration for ethical research writing (Logan online resources.
University, 2016):
1. Findings should be reported with complete honesty. 4. Call each group to share their output
2. Intentional misinterpretation, misinformation, and misleading claims must be avoided.
3. Appropriate credit should be given when using other people’s work.
to the class.
4. Plagiarism should be avoided by fully acknowledging all content belonging to others.
5. Facilitate the sharing of the outputs
Plagiarism and Intellectual Property
by adding additional information
Plagiarism refers to the act of using another person’s ideas, words, processes, and results
without giving due credit. and examples for each one.
The following are considered as acts of plagiarism:
1. Claiming authorship of a work or creation done by another person
2. Copying an entire written work or a portion of it – including words, sentences, and ideas
– without acknowledging the author
3. Failing to put quotation marks to distinguish a quotation taken directly from a source
4. Giving incorrect information about the source of a quotation Ethical Standards in Research Writing
5. Merely changing the words but retaining the sentence structure so that the selection or
quotes still bears a resemblance to the original source 1. Discuss the general ethical
6. Using so many words and ideas from the original source that it makes up a large portion
of your work, even if you acknowledge the original author considerations for research writing.
Plagiarism should not be tolerated as the unauthorized use of original ideas and works
constitutes a violation of intellectual property rights. The World Intellectual Property 2. Ask the students to explain the
Organization has the following definition of intellectual property:
“Intellectual property refers to creations of the mind: inventions; literary and

importance of ethics and ethical
artistic works; and symbols, names, and images used in commerce.” (WIPO, 2004) writing in a research study.
3. Discuss the concept of plagiarism,
Ethics of Research 35 intellectual property, and fair use.
Explain their legal aspects by citing
the relevant provisions.
Intellectual property covers two categories: industrial property, which includes patents,
trademarks, and industrial desgins; and copyright, which includes published works such as 4. Discuss the implications of
literary works, textbooks, reference books, and other artistic works such as creative design, film,
music, radio broadcasts, and performance art. Creators of such works and intellectual property plagiarism in a research study.
are given rights and protections, and the unauthorized use of intellectual property is subject to
legal sanctions. 5. Have the students identify and
In the Philippines, intellectual property is protected by Republic Act 8293 or the Intellectual
Property Code of the Philippines. Following are the provisions of the Code regarding published discuss some controversial instances
works:
“Published works” means works, which, with the consent of the authors, are made
of publicized plagiarism issues such
available to the public by wire or wireless means in such a way that members of the as the cases of Senator Tito Sotto and
public may access these works from a place and time individually chosen by them:
Provided, that availability of such copies has been such, as to satisfy the reasonable Court Justice Mariano del Castillo.
requirements of the public, having regard to the nature of the work...
Furthermore, the code also states the following provisions regarding copyright ownership:
178.1 Subject to the provisions of this section, in the case of original literary and
artistic works, copyright shall belong to the author of the work;
178.2 In the case of works of joint authorship, the co-authors shall be the original
owners of the copyright, and in the absence of agreement, their rights
shall be governed by the rules on co-ownership. If, however, a work of joint
authorship consists of parts that can be used separately and the author of
each part can be identified, the author of each part shall be the original
owner of the copyright in the part that he has created.
This is the basis of ownership of any published article or materials in the form of books,
magazines and the like as well as those that are in electronic form. Using these materials, in part
or as a whole, in commercial publications such as textbooks without recognizing the author or
authors constitutes an infringement of copyright which has corresponding consequences. This
act states that in determining the number of years of imprisonment and the amount of fine, the
court shall consider the value of the infringing materials that the defendant has produced or
manufactured and the damage that the copyright owner has suffered by reason of the infringement.
Copyright infringement and its corresponding sanctions, however, only apply to commercial
use of intellectual property. In academic research, plagiarism and its related acts constitute
academic dishonesty and may be cause for the invalidation of a research study and other sanctions
on the offender. Educational institutions and academic organizations have their own rules and
sanctions regarding plagiarism. Students who commit plagiarism risk academic sanctions such
as a failing grade in the course where such violation was committed, and in extreme cases, the
revocation of a degree conferred.

Sharma and Singh (2011) list the following tips to avoid plagiarism:
1. Sufficient time should be allotted for writing. C HA PTER SU MMARY
2. Hard copies of all the relevant references should be collected. 1. Ethics in research promotes the pursuit of knowledge, truth, and credibility; helps
3. All references should be read carefully and its important parts should be highlighted. ensure researcher’s accountability; and builds public support for the study.
4. Sufficient attribution should be placed when using the ideas of others. 2. Some of the ethical codes are honesty, care, confidentiality, objectivity, openness,
respect intellectual property, and responsible mentoring.
5. Lines with factual details are to be referenced.
3. Participants in a research have the rights to voluntary participation, informed
6. The appropriateness of inserting references should be determined.
consent, freedom from risk of harm, confidentiality, and anonymity.
7. Written permission should be acquired for text and figures copied from other sources.
4. For writing to be considered as ethical, the writing should be clear, accurate, fair, and
8. All the text should be paraphrased—that is, written by the author in his or her own honest.
language.
5. The purposes of literature review are to assess the body of the literature, to synthesize
9. Copying and pasting text from sources while writing should be avoided. If one is not previous works, and to locate gaps.
good at typing, he or she can request assistance from a typist.
6. The following are reminders for ethical writing: honesty with professional colleagues,
10. Before submitting an article, all files, figures, and references should be prepared in protection from harm, and right to privacy.
accordance to the prescribed standards.
7. Plagiarism is the claiming of other works as one’s own work.
8. The Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines or R.A. 8293 contains provisions
Fair Use
regarding published works and copyright ownership.
The law, however, recognizes certain situations where the use of copyrighted content is
9. Some tips to avoid plagiarism are to collect hard copies of all the relevant references;
acceptable and constitutes “fair use” of intellectual property. The Intellectual Property Code
read all the references carefully and highlight important areas; and place sufficient
identifies the following as acceptable use of intellectual property:
attribution while using the ideas of others.
1. Use of works in the public domain. An intellectual property is considered to be in the
public domain once the rights of the author have lapsed after a period defined by law (50
years after the death of the author)
2. Use of a copyrighted work for criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching and classroom
use, scholarship and research, and other similar purposes
C HEC K - U P
3. Reproduction of works as part of reports on current news which is broadcast to the public
4. Use of works and material from the government and its various branches, departments, A. Encircle the letter of the best answer.
and offices, provided that permission for use is acquired. 1. All the data to be reported should include all facts with accuracy.
Although fair use gives academic researchers great freedom in the selection and use of certain a. Honesty c. Competence
sources, due diligence should still be taken in citing the sources and informing the copyright b. Objectivity d. Care
owners regarding the use of their works.
2. Whatever agreed upon with the participants must be actualized.
a. Integrity c. Social responsibility
b. Legality d. Responsible publication
Ethics of Research 37 38 THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
3. The researchers should accept all comments and give considerations.
6. Discuss various tips to avoid a. Openness

b. Respect for intellectual property
c. Non-discrimination
d. Responsible mentoring
plagiarism.
4. When a paper is already submitted to a publication, no submission to another should be
done.
7. Present a sample plagiarized text and a. Objectivity c. Care
have them correctly paraphrase it. b. Legality d. Responsible publication
5. The researcher should be fully equipped with research skills when conducting the study.
8. Highlight the importance of proper a. Confidentiality c. Legality
citation and attribution. b. Competence d. Openness
6. An experienced researcher should impart knowledge to his or her students.

9. Ask the students how they will apply a. Responsible publication c. Respect for colleagues
the guidelines on ethical writing in b. Non-discrimination d. Social responsibility
their research study. 7. The researcher should ensure that the participants will not be adversely affected by the
research and its results.
a. Care c. Respect for colleagues
b. Human subjects protection d. Social responsibility
8. Any participants to any research activity must not be forced to take part in the study.
assessment actIvItIes a. Voluntary participation

b. Informed consent
c. Risk of harm
d. Social responsibility
9. Informed consent for a participant is best exemplified in which of the following actions?
check-up
a. Talking to him or her privately
b. Surprising him or her with a questionnaire
c. Writing him or her a letter
A. After answering, ask the students to d. Using a padrino system
exchange books for correction. 10. Confidentiality of a participant is best exemplied in which of the following actions?
a. Asking the participant to write his or her name in the questionnaire
b. Not mentioning his or her name in the Participants of the Study section
c. Introducing himself or herself in an interview
d. Taking his or her picture and placing it in the appendix
18 • Practical research 1 Ethics of Research 39

B. Put an “X” on the space before the statement that describes a case of plagiarism.
1. Alexandra puts her name on a quotation of Shakespeare.
2. After reading a selection, Pristine correctly wrote the contents of the Application
selection and cited the author.
3. The author is Ramoso, Gabriel but the reference of Aaron is Ramoso, A. Let the students answer the
Gabrielle.
4. In Athena’s assignment, she carefully expressed the ideas of the author and
questions. Ask the students to
wrote the author’s name. exchange their work with their
5. Because of lack of time, Pauline omitted some of the important details from
a source in her thesis. seatmates for comparison and
checking.
AP P L IC ATION B. Facilitate the presentation by giving
A. Complete the following phrases by referring to the ethical principles for research. guidelines for the performance.
1. When I conduct research, I will Use the rubric provided on page
41 of the textbook in judging each
performance.
2. The participants of my study will be
Assignment
Instruct the students to write
3. To finally arrive at the best findings, I will
their reaction piece on their
researched case of plagiarism on an
intermediate pad.
B. Divide the class into four groups. Each group will be assigned to create a thematic show
about a radio or television program airing an episode with the theme, “No Plagiarism
Please.” Each group will be given time to prepare their show. Their performance will be
rated by the other groups and the teacher with the use of the rubric below.
CRITERIA 4 3 2 1
More than 5 4 concepts were 3 concepts were Less than 3

Content concepts were displayed. displayed. concepts were
displayed. displayed.
Creativity 75% - 100% creative 50% - 74% creative 25% - 49% creative 1% - 24% creative
0 to 1 instance of 2 to 3 instances of 4 to 5 instances of More than 5
Coordination discoordination discoordination discoordination instances of
discoordination
75% - 100% 50% - 74% 25% - 49% 1% - 24%
Participants
participated participated participated participated
More than 5 props 4 props were 3 props were Less than 3 props
Props were displayed displayed displayed were displayed
appropriately. appropriately. appropriately. appropriately.
ASSIGNMENT
Research on one reported case of plagiarism. Analyze the case by identifying the violations
committed by the author. Write a reaction paper about it.
Ethics of Research 41
CHAPTER Research Title,
Objectives
4 Sources, and
Considerations
chapter, the students Form groups of five members and select one of the clusters
1. describe the different sources of will be able to

1. describe the
below. Analyze the research titles in your selected cluster.
Identify the common elements of the titles in your cluster
research problems; different sources of

research problems;
and write them in the space provided. Share your findings
with the rest of the class.
2. discuss the
2. discuss the considerations in the considerations in the
Cluster A
1. Effectiveness of the Neuro-Linguistic Programming
selection of research
selection of research problems; and problems; and in Enhancing the Self-Esteem of Adopted Children
(Tiamzon, 2003)
3. identify possible
3. identify possible research problems.

research problems. 2. The Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Competencies
of School Managers: Basis for a Human Intervention
Program (Cristobal, 2003)
3. Predictors of Students’ Performance in Chemistry Laboratory of Selected Private Schools
(Estrella, 2009)
Opening Activity
4. Transactional and Transformational Leadership Behaviors and Total Quality Management
Competencies of Principals: Their Relationship to School Effectiveness (Barrameda, 2000)
5. Likeability of Teachers: Essential Qualities for Senior High School Instructors
1. Divide the whole class into 4 groups. Cluster B

1. Reading Difficulties and Comprehension Levels of Freshmen
2. Assign a cluster to each group by 2. Human Relation Practices of Supervisors vis-à-vis Motivational Factors in Subic Bay
drawing lots. Volunteer Workers (Perez, 2008)
3. Factors Affecting the Learning Styles of High School Students (Naco, 2006)
3. Give students time to analyse the 4. Managerial Skills and Difficulties of Elementary School Managers (Lao, 2007)
5. Predictors of Leadership Behaviors of Principals and Efficacy of High School Teachers
given cluster and write their answers
on page 43.
4. Provide an introductory lecture on 42 THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
the characteristics of a research

title first before conducting the
assessment of students’ outputs. Cluster C
1. The Effect of Computer Games to Mathematical Competencies in Algebra Among
Sophomores
2. The Effect of Computer Assisted Instruction in the Performance of Students in Asian
History and Civilization (Cuenca, 2008)
3. Principals’ Leadership Capacities as Perceived by Teachers (Garcia, 2009)
4. High School Classroom Climate Quality: Basis for Creating Faculty Development Activities
(Landar, 2008)
5. Correlation of English Performance of Students in Selected Schools (Valenton, 2009)
Cluster D
1. Participation Experiences of Graduating Students in Intramurals
2. Psychological Needs of Students with OFW Parents
3. Crushes and Dating Among Teenagers
4. Parenting Needs, Goals, and Strategies for Adolescent Mothers (Stiles, 2005)
5. Learning Styles and Level of Motivation of Honor Students
The common elements of the research titles are:
Students’ answers will vary.
20 • Practical Research 1 Research Title, Sources, and Considerations 43

IN VE STIGATION
Investigation
RESEARCH TITLE
A research title prefaces the study by providing a summary of the main idea and is
usually short and concise. Writing it may seem to be a simple task but it actually requires more
consideration on the part of the researcher. While he or she may have written the contents of the Research Title and Research Problem
study in great detail, researchers may find it hard to create a research title for their study that is
concise and represents all the relevant elements of the study at the same time.
A research title should have the following characteristics:

1. Discuss the research title and the
1. It should summarize the main idea of the paper. research problem.
2. It should be a concise statement of the main topic.
3. It should include the major variables of the research study. 2. Let the students discuss the purpose
4. It should be self-explanatory.
5. It should describe or imply the participants of the study.
of a research title and research
In general, the researcher should avoid using words that serve no useful purpose and can problem.
mislead indexers. Words such as “methods,” “results,” and “investigations” should not appear in
the title. In many cases, the general problem of the research or even the specific question that the
researcher intends to answer, when rewritten in a statement form, can serve as the title.
3. Discuss the criteria for determining
the research problem.
RESEARCH PROBLEM
The research problem states the area of concern of the research paper whether it is a
circumstance needing development, a difficulty requiring attention, or an inquiry necessitating
an answer. This section sets the direction of the research study as it provides the foundation
Review
for the research hypothesis and defines what kind of research study is suitable to address the
problem. However, it is important to note that this section should only state the problem and not 1. Ask the students to go back
preface or suggest a solution for it.
Sources of Research Problems

to their answers on the
Research problems may be derived in almost any kind of setting such as hospitals or clinics, opening activity on page 43.
schools, offices, homes, or any part of the community. Research problems can be commonly based
from circumstances with the following characteristics:
2. Have the students evaluate
1. It conveys a feeling of discomfort or difficulty.
2. It has a perceived difficulty in broad subjects such as family affairs, home management, the research titles using
and leadership system.
3. It displays a gap between theory and practice: what is said by the elders and what the
the information from the
students see and observe. discussion.
3. Ask them to identify which
characteristics of a research
title are exemplified by
4. It utilizes a procedure requiring technologically advanced equipment.
5. It involves the experience of any kind of individual. their assigned clusters.
6. It shows some kind of pattern or trend.
7. It makes use of literature reviews, continuous readings, and past studies. These readings 4. Let the groups share their
can lead a student to a topic, and its scope and clues for further studies. The repetition of
a prior research study in a different setting and time is called replication. final report to the class.
8. It relates to an individual’s curiosity and interest.
Furthermore, a discerned problem is said to be researchable when the following criteria are
met:
1. Solutions are available but not yet tested and not yet known by the practitioner.
Considerations in Formulating the Research

2. No solutions are available to answer the gap or the problem being assessed.
3. When the given answers or solutions, as well as the possible results, are seemingly
untested or are factually contradictory with each other.
4. A phenomenon requiring an explanation has occurred.
Problem
5. There are several possible and plausible explanations for the existence of an undesirable
condition.
1. Discuss the two types of criteria to
be considered in formulating the
REVIEW
Based on the assigned clusters in the Opening Activity (pages 42-43), discuss with your
research.
group members how the researchers came up with each title. Then, write a report about it.
Refer to the lesson above when writing the report.
CONSIDERATIONS IN FORMULATING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

In the book A Research Guide in Nursing Education, Barrientos-Tan (1997) discusses the
different criteria for choosing a problem for research. These are as follows:
1. External Criteria
a. Novelty – This refers to the practical value of the problem due to its “newness” in the
field of inquiry.
b. Availability of subjects – This refers to the people with the desired capability and
willingness to participate in the study. The sample of the study participants must be
representative enough to ensure reliability and validity of the results.
c. Support of the academic community – This refers to the assistance given by the
members of the institution, like the principal, teachers, staff, students, and the
parents, in the gathering of data and defraying the cost of the study. Permission of
Research Title, Sources, and Considerations 45

those concerned for the participation in the study of staff members, children, the to the subjects to be studied. The entire cost of the study must be estimated—the travel
aged, and the mentally challenged should be secured. expenses when meeting with the respondents, purchase costs of the instruments to be
d. Availability and adequacy of facilities and equipment – Devices such as computers, used, and expenses incurred in encoding the results.
and telephones used in undertaking the study must be considered. 2. External support is also an essential element to look into when determining whether
e. Ethical considerations – These include the avoidance of research problems that a research is feasible or not. Is the teacher or adviser present when conflicts arise in
pose unethical demands on the part of the research participants. the conduct of research? Are experts in the field accommodating? Do they lend a hand
when requested for technical assistance in finishing the paper? These questions are also
2. Internal Criteria
important concerns to be addressed.
a. Experience, training, and qualifications of the researcher – These constitute the
3. The innovative quality of the topic should still be considered. A review of literature and
researcher’s knowledge and expertise as a result of experience and study.
studies ensures that solutions are yet to be proposed for the problem, thus showing the
b. Motivation, interest, intellectual curiosity, and perceptiveness of the need to conduct the study.
researcher – These are essential attitudes that bring anticipated satisfaction or
enjoyment in the completion of research tasks.
c. Time factor – This considers the fact that studies must be pursued within a given
time frame. C HA PTER SU MMARY
d. Costs and returns – These factors matter in choosing a research problem. Research 1. The title of the research should summarize the main idea, and include the major
is an expensive undertaking. The amount of funding needed, after all, depends on the variables and the participants of the study.
size of the sample, the place where the research is to be conducted, the treatment of
2. The potential sources of problems in research can stem from circumstances which
data, and the kind of research design.
conveys a feeling of discomfort; have perceived difficulty; displays a gap between theory
e. Hazards, penalties, and handicaps – These depend upon the researcher’s physical and practice; involves experiences of oneself; shows some kind of pattern or trend;
and intellectual capacity and moral judgment. makes use of literature review; and involves a personal curiosity or interest.
3. The chosen topic or problem in research must pass different external and internal
CHOOSING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM AS A HIGH SCHOOL STUDENT criteria.
4. The external criteria include novelty, availability of subjects, support of the academic
The background of the researcher is an important factor that defines the selection of research
community, availability and adequacy of resources, and ethical considerations.
problems and topics. A researcher in a particular field, like medicine, engineering, or the social
sciences, focuses on topics within their field or discipline. A student researcher, on the other hand, 5. The internal criteria consist of experience, training and qualifications of the researcher,
focuses on more practical and relatable topics for research. One useful guide to student researchers motivation, interest and curiosity, time factor, and cost and returns.
taking this course is to consider their respective tracks for Senior High School. Students on the 6. Special considerations for high school students in choosing research problems should
STEM track should consider researching on topics related to science and technology. ABM track be considered such as the relevance to the K-12 tracks, feasibility of the study, external
students, meanwhile, should consider topics on business and management. Finally, HUMSS track support, and innovative quality of the chosen study.
students can choose from the wide variety of social science and humanities topics such as history,
politics, society, culture, arts, and music.
Researchers should also be aware of the following factors in determining their research
problem and topic:
1. The feasibility of the research study is a very important consideration in choosing the
problem. The time needed to conduct the study must be measured and its setting should
be defined and located. The researcher must have ready access to the relevant materials
46 THE NATURE OF RESEARCH Research Title, Sources, and Considerations 47
2. Have the students explain the C HEC K - U P
specific criteria for each type Categorize the following criteria as either external or internal.
and how each one is applied in 1. Availability and adequacy of facilities and equipment
formulating research problems. 2. Costs and returns
3. Ethical considerations
3. Provide additional input when 4. Time factor
necessary. 5. Novelty
6. Motivation, interest, intellectual curiosity, and perceptiveness of the researcher
7. Hazards, penalties, and handicaps
choosIng the research problem as a hIgh 8. Experience, training, and qualifications of the researcher
school stuDent
9. Support of the academic community
10. Availability of subjects
1. Discuss the difference between

formal research in a particular field APPL IC ATIO N
and research done by a student
researcher. 1. What is the purpose of the research title in a study?
2. Explain the limitations of research

for senior high school students by 2. Why do you think research problems are more likely to be derived from circumstances that
discussing the different factors to be convey a sense of difficulty?
considered when determining the

research problem and topic. 3. As a high school student, how will you consider the innovative quality of your study if it is
recommended that the research is feasible and can be done within your means?

Name : Date : b.
RESEARCH ACTIVITY 1
c.
PROPOSED PROBLEMS
A. Enumerate three possible problems you may encounter in the following circumstances: 5. Relationships with colleagues and mentors (classmates, teachers, heads)
1. Personal life (family and friends) a.
a.
b.
b.
c.
c.
6. Other areas of interest or concern

2. School a.
a.
b.
b.
c.
c.
3. Local community
B. Based on the enumerated possible research problems, identify at least three researchable
a. problems and explain why you chose them.
1. Problem:
b.
Reason:
c.
4. Government
a.
Research Title, Sources, and Considerations 49 50 THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
2. Problem:
Reason:
check-up
After answering, ask the students to
3. Problem:
exchange books for correction.
Reason:
applIcatIon
Provide them adequate time to answer
the questions. Have them share their
answers to the class.
research actIvIty 1
1. Ask the students to fill in all
the sections with the required
information.
Research Title, Sources, and Considerations 51

2. Clarify that possible problems can be written as a phrase or sentence.
3. Have the students determine the researchable problems using the internal and external criteria.
PROBLEM SELECTION SHEET

Rate each of the proposed problems according to the internal and external criteria by using the scale of 1
to 5, where 5 is the highest. Encircle the number of scale number of your choice.
Research Problem:
Internal Criteria Scale Rating
1. 1 2 3 4 5
2. 1 2 3 4 5
3. 1 2 3 4 5
4. 1 2 3 4 5
5. 1 2 3 4 5
External Criteria Scale Rating
1. 1 2 3 4 5
2. 1 2 3 4 5
3. 1 2 3 4 5
4. 1 2 3 4 5
5. 1 2 3 4 5
Total Rating
4. Ask the students to submit the accomplished Research Activity 1 by detaching it from the book.
Note:
• You have the option to let this classroom activity be a take-home assignment depending on time
constraints and the necessity for additional research materials.
• Carefully check the students’ outputs because the final research paper will be based on these. Return
the outputs to the students and provide comment or guidelines on some lapses they have made with
the information they have provided.
CHAPTER
5 The Introduction
objectIves
OBJECTIVES OPENING ACTIVITY At the end of this chapter, the students
At the end of this
chapter, the students A. Get a partner and role-play the situation below. Then, will be able to
will be able to answer the following questions.
1. identify the essential
elements of the
1. identify the essential elements of the
introduction and
2. formulate the
introduction and
introduction of the
research.
2. formulate the introduction of the
research.
Situation: If you are the businessman on the picture, how will you introduce yourself to the
prospective client?
GUIDE QUESTIONS openIng actIvIty

1. Based on your role play, what are the elements of a proper introduction?
1. Assign each student a partner

2. For what purpose does an introduction serve in general? 2. Let the students perform a role
play on the following situation: If
you are a businessman, how will you
3. In a research study, what do you think is the significance of an introduction?
introduce yourself to a prospective
client?
The Introduction 53
3. Instruct the students to answer the
guide questions of Activity A on page
53. Refer to the sample answers
below.
Answers to the Guide Questions:

1. Some of the possible answers are: name, age, title or position, name of the company, and products,
among others.
2. The purpose of introduction is to inform people of the general picture or the perspective of the
intention.
3. It is very important for it serves as the compass or guide on what the research is all about.
Introduction can also give more interest and excitement to the reader.
4. Ask the students to answer Activity B.
5. Instruct the students to base their answers in the first guide question on the graphic organizer in
Activity B.

B. Based on your answer in the first activity, identify the elements of a proper introduction
using the graphic organizer.
Investigation
Beginning of the Research

1. Discuss the essential elements of the
beginning part of the research and
explain their purpose in the research
paper.
2. Ask the students to explain the
INTRODUCTION
functions of each element of the first
chapter.
3. Have the students to read and
analyze the given example on page
61 to gain further context.
Introduction
1. Discuss the elements of the
introduction.
2. Have the student discuss the
guide questions in formulating the
introduction.
3. Cite and discuss the examples given
on pages 58-59 for each element of INVESTIG ATIO N
the introduction. BEGINNING OF THE RESEARCH
The first chapter of the research paper is entitled “The Problem” or “The Problem and
Its Background.” Its purpose is to introduce the problem and clarify important variables, its
Review delimitations, and its significance to the field of study. It has the following essential elements:
1. Introduction
1. Have the students refer to 2. Statement of the problem

3. Scope and delimitation
their corrected Research 4. Significance of the study
5. Notes in Chapter I
Activity 1 and review your
It should also be noted that the researcher has to introduce the different elements of the first
comments. chapter by giving a brief description of each element, so that the reader knows what to expect
from the chapter.
2. Encourage them to ask Example:
clarifications when This chapter presents the different essential elements: the introduction, which
contains the rationale (an explanation of the reasons for the conduct of the research); the
necessary. review of literature and statistical foundation; the statement of the general and specific
problems; the scope and delimitation which identifies the major variables, sub-variables
and the indicators; the significance of the study which enumerates the beneficiaries of the
3. Emphasize that the final study and the corresponding benefits each will receive; and lastly, the notations.
selected problem will

INTRODUCTION
be used as they work on
The introduction is important in establishing the cognitive setting of the research. It has the
developing the different following elements:
1. Rationalization of the need to research on the problem
aspects of their research 2. Clarification of the important terminologies for the reader to easily understand what the
paper. research is about
3. Establishment of the degree of seriousness of the problem which prompted the researcher
to look for solutions
The following questions can aid the researcher in formulating the introduction:
1. What is the rationale of the problem? This question is answered by sharing the reasons
why the researcher decided to look for solutions to the problem. A rationale may include
the narration of personal experiences, a description of an article read, a scene witnessed,
26 • Practical Research 1 The Introduction 55

a news heard, or a theory that needs to be clarified. The researcher should describe the 4. How serious is the chosen research problem? The researcher is tasked to identify the
existing and prevailing problem based on his or her experience. The scope may be local, intensity and magnitude of the problem. When the gravity of the problem has already
national, or international. Ideally, the rationale can start from a global perspective to a been described, he or she may then gauge the kind of action to be used to identify the
more personal one. problem. In most cases, the researcher at this point looks for statistical or quantitative
Example: evidence to assess the significance of the problem at hand.
Example:
As a Grade 12 student, Arjohn David, experienced some difficulties in performing
well because of various factors such as the attitude of his teachers as well as their Based on the DepEd Division Memo series 2012, among the 12 schools with the
teaching methods, the absence of laboratory facilities, and inadequacy of books in the most poorly performing students, Puting Capunitan Elementary Schools ranked 12th.
library. He is having difficulties in his quizzes and class performance.
5. What is the general objective of the problem? This is the general statement of the
2. What is the setting of the problem? The setting forms part of the delimitation of the problem or the major tasks of the researcher to discharge and should also be the basis of
study. It defines the geographic boundaries and certain demographic characteristics the enumerated statements of specific problems.
of the research. This describes the place where the research was conducted, since the Example:
setting has a significant bearing on the variables being studied. In the description of the
With the abovementioned scenario and situations, it is the main objective of
setting, its distinctive characteristics must be highlighted.
the researcher to determine the common reasons of the poor performance of the
Example: students. Therefore, the research findings on that objective become the basis of an
Puting Capunitan Elementary School is one of the barrio schools in Orion, Bataan intervention program for school effectiveness.
where most enrollees are from disadvantaged families whose immediate ancestors are
either laborers or fisher folks. This school is one of the schools with poorly performing 6. What is the overall purpose of the problem? It is important to note that the researcher
students in their division according to the Department of Education. must be totally aware of the purpose of the research problem. He or she must fully
understand the implications of the resulting findings of the study.
3. What is the basic literature foundation of the study? This is different from the review Example:
of the related theories, conceptual literature, and research literature. This part seeks This is mainly for the purpose of letting the students acquire the needed
to provide the researcher clarity on the terms or variables used in the study. The terms competencies before graduation and enabling the school to perform better in the
and variables must be clear to the researcher for an easy understanding of the readers. Regional Achievement Examinations.
As such, sufficient background can assist the investigator in determining the boundaries
of the study. This part is derived from different literature sources. The use of various
references is crucial in this part of the first chapter.
Example: REVIEW
As teaching is considered to be a complex activity (Medley, as cited in Iqbal,
1996), the scholars and researchers in the field of education have since long been From the three research problems you identified in Research Activity 1, choose one as the
exploring into and analyzing the teaching phenomenon. Teaching is an arrangement topic of your research study. Decide carefully as this will be the topic for your main research
and manipulation of a situation in which a learner tries to overcome the learning study. Your chosen research topic will be used in answering Research Activity 2.
problems. Teaching is also a multidimensional set of activities intended to facilitate
learning (Torrington et al., 2003). However, it is universally recognized that teachers’
instructional performance plays a key role in students’ learning and academic
achievement (Panda and Mohanty, 2003).
56 THE NATURE OF RESEARCH The Introduction 57
Introduction Sample: must be viewed in terms of excellence in practical or applied learning theories. Application
of these theories and concepts will make the learner a productive member of society. It is
Predictors of Students’ Performance in Chemistry Laboratory not the quantity of knowledge but more importantly how much of these knowledge can
of Selected Private Schools (Estrella, 2009) be put to good use. We need graduates whose lives will be full of action and not merely
Rationale have heads which are just full of facts.
Experimenting is one of the tasks in a science class. No science course is ever complete
Seriousness of the problem
unless each student has been given the opportunity to conduct an experiment. It opens
opportunities to students to be exposed to hands-on activities where they discover the Earlier studies show that one of the problems of students, in general, is the failure to
answers to their scientific queries. Laboratory activity requires students to use many of connect the chemistry principles they have learned in class with the problems in the real
the other scientific process skills like observation, measurements, inference, prediction, world. They fail to appreciate chemistry concepts and draw connections between them,
and generalization. because chemistry is usually presented as a very theoretical, abstract body of knowledge.
All levels of students from primary, secondary, and tertiary levels conduct laboratory This is especially true if the teacher is not properly trained, which is often the sad plight
activities. It is a well-known fact that college students taking up professional courses of Philippine secondary schools. Coupled with poor learning facilities and materials, the
cannot do away with science as one of their basic subjects. However, it has been observed result is a failure in science education.
that students still find difficulties even in identifying common laboratory apparatus and All these ideas point to the significance of learning by doing. For this reason, it is viewed
following simple procedures. This is despite the fact that they have been already exposed that in studying science, students may not only be more on theories but application as well.
to science activities during their high school years. There are many experiments that may be conducted and performed in any science unit of
study, and yet conducting them may not be that effective and the mark of knowledge is
Setting of the problem absent.
To cite, they have Integrated Science in their first year, Biology in their second year,
Chemistry in third year, and Physics in their fourth year. It is therefore, expected that they General objective
are already familiar with the basics in science experiment. However, this is not the case.
Most of the time, the teacher repeats simple laboratory procedures, whereby, it must be At present, the researcher, as a college instructor, is experiencing the abovementioned
explained properly “to the letter,” and all the observations would lead the teacher to teach scenario in science education. If not dealt with properly, it might result to poor performance
the “ABCs” of doing a laboratory activity so that they can perform it correctly. In addition, in science laboratory activities. It is in this light that this research was conducted to
the teacher would have to orient the students on the basic and the most commonly used determine the factors affecting the student’s performance in Chemistry laboratory.
laboratory apparatus.
General purpose
Literature foundation
To improve the performance of science instructors, which will result to improved
However, as cited by Cuyegkeng (2008), in the Philippine educational system, one of student performance in achievement examinations and a positive impact on school
the most disturbing problems is the poor achievement of Filipino students in the areas effectiveness
of science and technology. Educators agree that one of the major causes of this problem
has to do with the method of facilitating the learning of science concepts, processes, and
poor laboratory practices inside the classroom. Somehow, this indicates that the current
methods do not fully develop the skills of both students and teachers. Also, Puno (2005),
citing specific issues concerning higher education, mentioned that academic excellence

The Introduction 59
C HAPTER S UM M ARY APPL IC ATIO N
1. The introduction of the problem has the following elements: rationale, setting, literature
foundation, proof of urgency, general research objectives, and general purpose. Based on the sample introduction below, identify the different parts of the sample
introduction. Encircle the paragraph/s and then label which part they correspond to.
2. The rationale is formulated not only by stating the reasons of the conduct but also
narrating incidences from international to local scenarios. Problems of State Universities and Colleges’ Middle Level Managers: A Basis for the
3. The setting of the problem describes the distinctive characteristics of the geographical Development of A Management Intervention Program (Muello, 2002)
location of the place where the study is to be conducted. Since time immemorial, conflict has been a natural part of human existence. It exists
4. The definition and the description of the major variables must be done through analyzing on many levels and takes many different forms. It is an inevitable part of organizational
literatures. life.
5. The urgency of the problem must be proven by citing statistical evidences. Although conflict is natural and unavoidable, it is important that administrators
6. The general objective of the study is the major task of the researcher and is the general Rationale, learn to manage conflict effectively and turn it toward a constructive end. When properly
Setting handled, it does not disrupt the normal operation of the organization. At its intense
statement of the problem.
level, however, conflicts may lead to more radical measures of reform like strikes, mass
7. The general purpose is the general benefit or significance of the study.
leave of absence, and even unwanted unionism. Therefore managers need to understand
the nature and cause of conflict. Managers need to analyze what the conflict is, where it
comes from, and how it develops and dissipates.
Managers must understand that conflict is an almost constant and continuous
process (Himoc, 1989). By sound planning and action management, leaders can
CH E CK- UP
constantly direct the energies of conflict into productive and creative channels of related
Fill in the blanks with the correct answer. endeavors. These perspectives on conflict give the manager additional roles like that of
a referee and a counselor who help the protagonist reach an acceptable solution. They
In introducing the problem, the (1) of the problem is done act as motivators who direct human energies towards organizational goals. Ultimately,
by narrating the incidents from the (2) perspective to the local this educational experience of resolving conflict could provide the managers deeper
insights into, and a greater understanding of the goals of the organization, vis-à-vis the
circumstances. The (3) of the problem focuses mainly in the interests and needs of their subordinates. The feedback on conflicts may serve as clues
description of the (4) characteristics of the place of study. in potential problem analysis, and enhance the development of measures to minimize
Literature
conflict and maximize smooth interpersonal relationship.
Foundation
After this, the definition and description of the (5) is written. It
Today’s educational leaders are faced with more changes, more conflicts, and more
is important to include the (6) of the references, since this makes pressures than in any other decades in the 20th century (Gmelch, 1981). This is largely
the study more (7) . The proof of urgency of the proposal is done by due to substantial increases in their responsibilities. Many factors have also contributed
to the broader scope and expanded amount of work that leaders need to fulfill. Among
including (8) l evidences.
such factors are the tremendous increases in the school population and additional job
requirements necessitated by many educational innovations. Not only are they expected
Generally, the last paragraph of the introduction is composed of the overall
to continue their traditional duties such as planning and overall school organization, but
(9) which states the general tasks of the researcher, and they are also asked to give personal leadership and inspiration. Leaders are expected
(10) which states the general benefits if the problem is answered. to actively engage in establishing educational programs and in developing good
60 THE NATURE OF RESEARCH The Introduction 61
teachers’ morale. Thus, it has become exceedingly important that school administrators
assessment actIvItIes and teachers understand and are prepared to meet the many responsibilities inherent
to their position. Thus, time management becomes exceedingly important for managers
to efficiently attend to their duties and avoid conflicts (Muello, 2002).
The researcher, being a manager, will surely be personally benefited from the results
check up
of this study which generally aims to analyze the common problems encountered by
middle level managers in state universities and colleges in Region IV which in turn will
be utilized as the basis for proposing a management intervention program.

exchange books for correction. Objective,
Purpose of
the Study
applIcatIon
The following paragraphs are encircled and
labelled as follows
research actIvIty 2
1. Ask the students to answer all questions
and provide the required information.
2. Allow them to go to the library to
research on relevant resource materials
and utilize the computers for research
purposes.

28 • Practical research 1
Name : Date : 3. What are the terms, variables, or concepts that need to be defined, clarified, or described to
you and to your reader?
RESEARCH ACTIVITY 2
THE INTRODUCTION
To help you formulate the introduction of your study, fill out the following:
Proposed Study
1. What is the rationale of your chosen problem?
4. Look for related literatures that define the main concepts of your study. Provide at least
three (3) references per concept. Provide a brief description of each.
Reference 1:
Description:
Reference 2:
2. Describe the setting where your study is to be conducted.
Description:
Reference 3:
Description:
The Introduction 63 64 THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
5. Determine the significance of your chosen problem. Research contextual evidence of its
“gravity.” Provide the details (and references) below.
3. Give additional guidelines to the
students for their research.
4. Provide one-on-one student
consultation when necessary.
5. Ask the students to submit the
accomplished Research Activity 2
6. What is the general objective or overall purpose of the study? by detaching it from the book.
Note:
• You have the option to let this
classroom activity be a take-home
assignment depending on time
constraints and the necessity for
7. After the problem had been solved or the research was conducted, who will be the main additional research materials.
beneficiaries of the research? What direct benefits will they receive from it?
• Carefully check the students’ outputs
because the final research paper will
be based on these.
The Introduction 65
CHAPTER
6 The Statement
of the Problem
Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the students OBJECTIVES OPENING ACTIVITY
At the end of this chapter,
will be able to the students will be able Recall an event in your childhood when you did not fully
comprehend what was happening. Write it on the space
to
provided below. Afterwards, write at least three questions
1. differentiate the general problem 1. differentiate the
general problem from regarding that event back then that still remain unanswered
the specific problems today. Write a reason why the questions remain unresolved.
from the specific problems of the of the research; Discuss in class a way to finally provide answers for them.
2. compare the different
research; types of research
questions; and
2. compare the different types of 3. formulate the general

problem of the
research questions; and study and its specific

questions.
3. formulate the general problem of the

study and its specific questions. Question 1:
Reason:
Question 2:
Reason:
Question 3:
Reason:
The Statement of the Problem 67
Opening Activity
1. Give the students 10 minutes to do the activity.
2. Let each student share his or her output to at least two classmates.
3. Have the students comment on the shared outputs.
4. Provide the following examples of questions and corresponding reasons as guide in formulating their
own answers.
a. Why are my some of classmates much taller than I am?
Possible Reason: The genetic make-up or traits of my parents and ancestors should be
considered.
b. Why am I always alone in the house?
Possible Reason: My father and mother are both working.
IN VE STIGATION
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Investigation

After the investigator has clarified the rationale, identified the degree of seriousness of the
problem, provided the literature review, and set the overall objective, the formulation of the
Statement of the Problem

heart of the thesis—the statement of the general and the specific problems—must be done. The
opening paragraph of this section contains the general problem of the study.
Writing the General Problem in a Qualitative Study 1. Define the statement of the problem
In the book Principles of Qualitative Research: Designing a Qualitative Study, Creswell and
Clark (2014) provide the following criteria in writing the purpose statement:
and describe its function in the
1. It should use single and not compound sentences. research paper.
2. It should clearly express the purpose of the study.
3. It should include the central phenomenon. 2. Have the students discuss the
4. It should use qualitative words, e.g., explore, discover, and explain.
5. It should identify the participants in the study.
criteria on writing the purpose
6. It should state the research site. statement. Discuss the criteria for
A sample pattern for the purpose statement is provided below.
specific problems.
The purpose of this (narrative, phenomenological, grounded theory, ethnographic,
case) is to (understand, describe, develop, discover) the (central phenomenon of the 3. Discuss the examples on pages
study) for (the participants) at (the site). At this stage in the research, the (central
phenomenon) will be generally defined as (a general definition of the central concept) 68-69 and explain how they follow
(Creswell and Clark, 2014).
the criteria in writing the research
Below are some examples of a general problem.
Example 1:
problem.
The overall objective of this phenomenological study is to describe the intrapersonal
and interpersonal competencies of school principals, and their relationship to the school
4. Discuss the two types of research
effectiveness in the Division of Bataan for the school year 2001-2002. The result is used
as a basis for an intervention program (Cristobal, 2003). Here, intrapersonal is the school
questions.
managers’ own self-concept and personality while interpersonal is their communication
and expressions in dealing with subordinates. 5. Ask the students to discuss the
guidelines in formulating the central
and sub-questions on pages 69-70.
6. Have the students provide an
example of a central question and
Example 2: sub-question.
The objective of this ethnographic study is to differentiate the customs and traditions
of the Aetas and the locals of Zambales enrolled in Olongapo National City High School for
the school year 2014-2015. In this research, the customs and traditions are defined as their
practices in the celebration of feasts.
Example 3:
The objective of this grounded theory study is to characterize the general study habits
of the high school students that belong to the top ten of the class. The study habits are
concentrated on the student’s preparation before attending classes daily.
The general problem is followed by an enumeration of the specific problems. These problems
are usually stated as questions that the researcher seeks to answer. Therefore, the specific
problems must meet the following criteria:
1. They must be in question form.

2. They must define the population and the samples of the study (respondents).
3. They must identify the variables being studied.
According to Creswell and Clark (2014), there are two types of research questions. These are
as follows:
1. Central questions – These are the most general questions that can be asked.
2. Sub-questions – These questions subdivide the central question into more specific
topical questions and are only limited in number.
Creswell and Clark (2014) also provide some guidelines in formulating the research question:
1. The question should begin with words such as “how” or “what”.
2. The readers should be informed of the information that will be discovered, generated,
explored, identified, or described in the study.
3. The question “What happened?” should be asked to help craft the description.
4. The question “What was the meaning to people of what happened?” should be asked to
understand the results.
5. The question “What happened over time?” should be asked to explore the process.
In addition, Cresswell and Clark (2004) also provide the following scripts as a guide in
designing qualitative central and sub-questions:
1. Central question script
a. “What is the meaning of/what does it mean to (central phenomenon)?”

Examples:
TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS
i. What is the meaning of intrapersonal competencies?
In general, there are two types of questions formulated in research. These are as follows:
ii. What does it mean to differentiate the customs and traditions of Aetas to those of
the locals? 1. Non-researchable questions – These are questions of value and are answerable by yes
or no.
iii. What does it mean to characterize the study habits of the top 10 students of the
class? Examples:
b. “How would (participants) describe (central phenomenon)?” a. Should all mothers breastfeed their babies?
Examples: b. Should high school teachers be watchful over their Grade 7 students?
i. How would school managers describe intrapersonal competencies? c. Should the schools offering different majors in senior high schools require their
students to have a mandatory review before taking the National Assessment Exam?
ii. How would the Aetas and locals of Zambales differentiate their customs and
traditions? d. Do all head teachers have a master’s degree?
iii. How would the top ten high school students characterize their general study e. Are family members helping their children in reviewing their lessons?
habits? 2. Researchable questions – These are questions of opinions, perceptions, or policy that
2. Sub-question script are raised to accumulate data. Formulating a clear, significant question prepares the
researcher for subsequent decision-making on research design, data collection, and data
“What (aspect) does (participant) engage in as a (central phenomenon)?”
analysis.
Examples:
Examples:
a. What level of self-concept does the school managers engage in as a characteristic of
a. What are the common preparations done by Grade 7 students during their first days
interpersonal competencies?
in school?
b. What nature of practices do the Aetas and locals of Zambales engage in as a part of
b. How do senior high school students respond to their Math teacher?
their customs and traditions?
c. What are the study habits of students who are poorly performing?
c. What kind of preparation does the top 10 high school students engage in as an
indicator of their general study habits? d. What is the relationship of the attitudes of the adviser to the classroom behavior of
Grade 9 students?
e. How do the officers of the Parent-Teacher Community Association assist in the
REVIEW
improvement of school facilities?
Choose one type of qualitative research. Then, identify a research problem and formulate its Dickoff et. al (as cited by Wilson, 1989) provide further classification to research questions.
sample research questions. Remember to specify the central question and sub-questions. These are as follows:
1. Factor-isolating questions – These ask the question “What is this?” These questions are
sometimes called factor-naming questions because they isolate, categorize, describe, or
name factors and situations.
Examples:
a. What is the profile of school principals in terms of the following?

i. Age
ii. Management experience
iii. Civil status
70 THE NATURE OF RESEARCH The Statement of the Problem 71
Review
1. Ask the students to recall their lesson about the types of qualitative research.
2. Call at least 3 students to recite and define some of the types.
3. Give the students time to write their answers.
4. Provide the example below as an additional guideline to the students.
Example:
The general objective of this case study is to explain the rationale behind the
poor performance of Grade 11 students of senior high school of Saint Paul School of
Professional Studies in the subject, “Research for Daily Life 1.” The main variable focused
in the research is the relevance of the students’ personal lives in the development of their
study habits. Specifically, the researchers seek to identify the behavioral implications of
their personal lives.
5. Ask volunteers to share their answers.
b. What are the levels of competencies of school principals as described by their
respective teachers and themselves in terms of the following?
i. Intrapersonal types oF research QuestIons
ii. Interpersonal
2. Factor-relating questions – These ask the question “What is happening here?” The 1. Discuss the different types of
goal of these questions is to determine the relationship among factors that have been
identified. research question.
Examples:
a. What is the relationship of the level of performance of the senior high school teachers 2. Ask the students to formulate an
to the OJT performance of the students enrolled in the business track of Saint Paul
School of Professional Studies? example for each type of research
b. How does the performance level of volleyball teams of boys differ to that of the girls?
question based on their outputs in
3. Situation-relating questions – These questions ask the question “What will happen
if...?” These questions usually yield hypotheses testing or experimental study designs in the research activities.
which the researcher manipulates the variables to see what will happen.
Examples: 3. Have them write the questions down
a. What are the effects of computer-learning assisted methods of teaching to the interest
level of the sophomores to their history subjects? as reference for Research Activity 3.
b. How significantly different is the performance of the call center agents who are well
rested than those who are not?
4. Situation-producing questions – These ask the question “How can I make it happen?”
These questions establish explicit goals for actions, develop plans or prescriptions to
achieve goals, and specify the conditions under which these goals will be accomplished.
Examples:
a. Based on the findings, what human relation intervention program can be adopted to
enhance or improve effectiveness of existing teaching methods?
b. What faculty development activities can be sponsored by the PTCA to improve the
check-up
performance of graduating students in the UP College Admission Test (UPCAT)?

C HAPTER S UM M ARY
1. In writing a good qualitative general problem or central question, the following
criteria should be considered:
a. It should be written in a single sentence.
b. It should include the purpose of the study.
c. It should include the central phenomenon.
d. It should use qualitative words.
e. It should identify the participants in the study.
f. It should specify the research site.
2. The general problem can be followed by specific problems or sub-questions which

must satisfy the following criteria:
a. They must be in question form.
b. They should define the population and the samples of the study (respondents).
c. They should identify the variables being studied.
3. Questions in qualitative research usually ask how or what questions.
4. The two general types of research questions are researchable and non-researchable
questions. These are further classified into four (4) types: factor-isolating, factor-
elating, situation-relating, and situation-producing questions.
CH E C K-UP
A. Write TRUE if the statement is correct and FALSE if it is wrong.
1. A good central question includes the central phenomenon of the study.
2. The participants of the study must not be included in the central objective.
3. The statement of the sub-problem must be a declarative sentence.
4. “When” and “Where” are good pronouns to start the research questions.
5. What are the common experiences of CPA board topnotchers?

Note: set as item #6 of Test B.

B. Evaluate the following research questions. Put a check (3) if the statement is correct,
and put an “x” mark if it is incorrect.
applIcatIon
1. How would you cope to the challenges of being a senior high school student?
2. What is the degree of satisfaction of the parents in senior high school?
Students’ answers may vary. Some 3. What common difficulties have you encountered in dealing with classmates?
possible answers are provided below. 4. Why did you enroll in Saint Paul School of Professional Studies?
5. At what time do you come to school?
1. The problem statement seeks to

clarify the main task of the study, APPL IC ATIO N
what hypothesis is to be tested,
and what type of literature is to be 1. What is the significance of a problem statement in a research paper?
referenced, among others.
2. The purpose of dividing the problem

statement into a central question and 2. What is the purpose of dividing the problem statement into a central question and a
a set of sub-questions is to highlight sub-question?
the main problem of the research

and identify the different steps to be
taken (or questions to be answered)
3. How do you think can non-researchable questions become researchable ones? In addition,
to arrive at the best solution. provide a sample of a non-researchable question and then change it into a researchable one.
3. A non-researchable question can

become a researchable when it is
changed into a
“5ws and h” questions. Sample
questions provided may vary for 74 THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
each student.
Examples: Name : Date :
Non-researchable:
RESEARCH ACTIVITY 3
Do Senior High School students STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
find it difficult to study Practical Formulate the statement of the problem part of your research.
Research in Daily Life?

1. Title of your research:
Researchable:
Why do senior high school
2. Purpose statement:
students find difficulty in The investigator seeks to
studying Practical Research in

Daily Life I?
3. Central question:
34 • Practical research 1 The Statement of the Problem 75

4. Sub-question:
research actIvIty 3
1. Ask the students to answer all
questions and provide the required
5. Other questions: information.
2. Instruct them to refer to their
answers in the previous Research
Activities.
students for their research.
by detaching it from the book.
Note:
additional research materials.
• Carefully check the students’
research activities because the final
research paper will be based on
their outputs.

CHAPTER The Scope and
Objectives 7 Delimitation and the

Significance of the Study
Form groups of three members. Then, follow the
will be able to instructions below in doing this activity. Answer the
1. specify the different variables, sub- 1. specify the guide questions that follow.
different variables,
variables, and indicators of the study sub-variables and
indicators of the
and study and
2. cite the potential
2. cite the potential benefits of the benefits of the

study.
study.
A B
Directions:
1. Synthesize your ideas and create captions for the two pictures.
2. Discuss to the class why you chose the captions. Compare your answers with those of the
other groups.
GUIDE QUESTIONS
1. What is the common interpretation of the groups on the pictures?
2. What is the most likely meaning of the target board relative to research?
3. How can you relate the pictures in the conduct of research?
The Scope and Delimitation and the Significance of the Study 77
Opening Activity
1. Instruct the class to form groups of three.

2. Ask each group to answer the opening activity.
3. Let each group share their answers to the activity to two more groups.
4. Ask the students to give comments on the outputs of the other groups.
5. Students’ answers to the guide questions may vary.
1) The archer is trying to hit the eye of the target board. He or she must hit the bull’s eye on the
target.
2) The researcher is doing his best to accurately answer the research problem.
3) The researcher (archer) is looking into the accurate answers (bull’s eye) to the research problem
(target board).
Kinds of Variables
IN VE ST I G AT IO N 1. Continuous variables – variables that may have an infinite number of values and may
vary widely among the research participants. Examples include age and weight.
SETTING THE SCOPE OF THE STUDY 2. Discrete variables – variables that have specific limits to their value. Examples include
income, number of children, or years of employment.
The scope of the study is determined primarily by the selection of variables that the research
study will focus on. Defining the scope of the research requires the careful selection of variables 3. Categorical variables – these cannot be expressed in numbers but are given in
that will be investigated, as well as the attributes that will define and measure these variables. non-quantitative, descriptive terms. Examples include civil status (single, married,
widowed), and educational achievement (high school graduate, college graduate, post-
A variable refers to any characteristic that can have different values or traits that may graduate).
vary across research participants. Variables are measured, controlled, and manipulated by the
researcher. Examples include age, gender, height, and weight. Based on the research problem, the
researcher identifies the possible variables that will be investigated to address the problem. DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY
Attributes are important elements of a variable. It refers to the value assigned to a specific The delimitation of the study describes the various limitations that arose during the design
variable. For example, if the researcher focuses on gender as a significant variable in the study, he and conduct of the study. These include the characteristics of the research design and methodology
or she then identifies male and female as attributes of gender. The variable agreement may have that affected or influenced the findings of the study. These limitations are constraints on certain
the following attributes – strongly agree, agree, disagree, and strongly disagree. aspects of the research, such as the interpretation of data and the applicability and usefulness of
the results and findings.
Variables have the following important characteristics:
The limitations of the study are defined primarily by the scope of the study. While the scope
1. Dependence – this refers to how the variable is considered in a cause-and-effect of the study defines the variables that are the focus of the research, the delimitation of the study
relationship. Independent variables are those characteristics that are changed, identifies the other variables that were not considered for the study. The limitations that are
manipulated, or selected by the researcher. Dependent variables, on the other hand, are identified are only those that are significant or may have had an impact on the findings of the
those that change because of changes to the independent variable. study. For instance, in the study on the effect of computer-aided teaching on student performance,
For example, in a study that investigates the use of computer-aided teaching the researcher only focused on students in a specific school. Therefore, one limitation of the
instruction on student performance, the independent variable is teaching instruction as study would be that the findings and conclusions are only applicable to the particular school that
the researcher chooses to implement computer-aided teaching in the classrooms. The was selected and may not apply to other schools in the country. The characteristics of chosen
dependent variable, therefore, is student performance as it is expected to change in respondents, as well as the time period and place where the research was done, are major
reaction to the introduction of computer-aided teaching. variables that define the scope and delimitation of a research.
2. Mutually exclusive – this means that a participant or respondent cannot possess two The following may be the possible limitations that may arise from the research design and
attributes of a variable. For instance, a person cannot be both male and female. methodology:
3. Exhaustive – this means that the researcher should consider all possible attributes of 1. Sample size. The research design and methodology will determine whether the research
a certain variable. In identifying the possible responses of the participants to survey will have a small or large sample size. The sample size will determine the quality of data
questions, the researcher must identify all possible answers or reactions. In reality, and the relationships that will be identified among the variables.
considering all possible attributes and including them in the research study is a difficult 2. Lack of available and/or reliable data. Missing and unreliable data will limit the
and almost impossible task. Therefore, selecting the most relevant attributes for each scope of analysis and the ability of the researcher to determine meaningful trends and
variable is part of setting the scope of the study. relationships among the data.
3. Lack of prior studies. This will limit the effetiveness of the literature review and may
limit the initial understanding of the research problem. This, however, can be a basis for
identifying avenues for further research.
78 THE NATURE OF RESEARCH The Scope and Delimitation and the Significance of the Study 79
4. Chosen data collection method. Limitations in the data collection instrument may affect
the quality of data collected. Unclear or vague questions in a questionnaire will result
to unclear or erroneous answers from the respondents. The method employed in data
collection may also affect the quality of the data. For example, the researcher may have
conducted an interview or survey at a time the respondents may be busy or preoccupied;
there may be a possibility that the respondents may not have accomplished the survey
form or answered the question thoroughly and the responses given may have been vague.
Investigation
5. Nature of the information collected. Relying on preexisting data may impose limits on
the researcher as he or she can no longer clarify certain data. Self-reported data have the
Setting the Scope of the Study and

risk of being false and cannot be easily verified.
Apart from the design and methodology, the characteristics of the researcher and the limits
that he or she experiences in the conduct of the research will also give rise to limitations. These Delimitation of the Study
are as follows:
1. Access. The amount and quality of data will depend on the ability of the researcher to 1. Define the scope and delimitation of
access people, organizations, libraries, and documents that can provide him or her the
best available data. the study.
2. Time period. The length of time devoted to the study will affect almost all aspects of the
research. It is advisable to select a research problem and design that gives way to a more
manageable time period.
2. Describe their relevance to each
3. Bias. This refers to a way of viewing a certain thing, issue, or idea, and may be influenced other and their purpose in the
by the researcher’s background. The researcher, therefore, should be aware of his or her
personal biases and how these affect the conduct of the research. Biases may affect the way research paper.
the researcher states and defines the research problem, the selection of research design
and methodology, the variables chosen, data collection methods, and the interpretation of
data.
3. Discuss the variables and attributes.
4. Language. This may have an effect on data collection, especially if the researcher is
involved with respondents that speak a variety of languages. This is especially a challenge 4. Provide examples for each to provide
in studies that involve documents that are written in different languages.
further context.
It is important to state the limitations of the study in detailed but concise terms. The researcher
should also explain why such limitations arose in the conduct of the study and provide a reason
why these could not be overcome by the research method employed. The impact of the limitation
5. Discuss the different characteristics
on the data collected, as well as its effects on the interpretation and analysis, should also be
assessed. The limitations can also lead to further research, and the researcher should include
and kinds of variables.
a brief explanation of how these can help future researchers improve their research design and
methods.

Scope and Delimitation Example 1:
The Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Competencies of School Managers:

6. Ask the students to discuss each one Basis for the Formulation of the Human Relation Intervention (Cristobal, 2003)
and provide an example for each The study assessed the intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies of the school
managers in the Division of Bataan, school year 2001-2002. The school managers that were
based on their research topic. included in the study were the secondary school principals and head teachers of big national
high schools in the division. Moreover, teacher respondents included only the teachers who
are teaching Teknolohiya, Edukasyong Pangkabuhayan, at Pantahanan subject.
7. Identify and describe the limitations Robbins (1996) enumerated the intrapersonal competency was measured by the
that may arise from the research variables as enumerated. According to him, the most powerful predictors of behavior in an
organization are the following specific personality traits: locus of control; machiavellianism;
design and methodology and from self-esteem; self-monitoring; risk-taking; and personality A.
Appodaca (1997) discussed the five aspects of the supervisor’s role in order to
the actual conduct of the research. maintain good relationship with others. These aspects are management, learning and
training aspect, motivation, developing positive employee attitudes, and problem-solving
Provide examples for each one. techniques.
Finally, the school effectiveness variable was measured by the school manager’s
8. For further context, discuss the profile, teacher’s performance, and school performance. Some indicators of school
performance like the dropout, completion, survival, and achievement rates were
components of this section in the based from the average rating of three consecutive school years, SY 1999-2000 to
SY 2001 –2002.
research paper and cite the examples A validated questionnaire-checklist served as the main instrument of the study, a
on pages 81-82. follow-up interview was also used to clarify vague answers and documentary analysis was
also employed to answer the specific questions raised in the proposal.
Problems of Middle Level Managers in State Universities and Colleges: Basis for the
Development of a Management Intervention Program (Muello, 2002)
This study was concerned with the development and evaluation of a management
intervention program after a thorough identification and analysis of conflicts/problems
as experienced by middle – managers in Region IV state universities and colleges.
Middle level managers, such as deans, directors, chairmen and department heads, and
principals, with at least two years of continuous service in the same institution, were the
respondents of the study. Personnel outside the main campus were not included since the
problems they met were perceived to resemble that of the mother units. Transportation
constraints in the island provinces turned out to be another problem, thus, other personnel
in the other campuses were not included.
This study produced an intervention program composed of a training package on

leadership and motivation. The said program is deemed important in developing the
managerial skills of middle-level managers in terms of their management functions such
as planning, organizing, leading, and controlling. It is assumed that their competencies will
eventually be enhanced after developing the five-day seminar workshops.
Prior to the conceptualization of the management intervention program, the data
gathering procedure was conducted from January 1999 to June 1999. Open-ended
questionnaires, interviews, and observations were used as data gathering instruments.
Predictors of Students’ Performance in Chemistry Laboratories

of Selected Private Schools (Estrella, 2009)
This study was focused on the factors affecting student’s performance in chemistry
laboratory in selected schools in Balanga City for the school year 2008-2009.
In this study, the student’s performance refers to the average grade of the students
in their chemistry laboratory from first to third grading period. Chemistry, the chosen field
for the study, is the science with more abstract theories which must be proven with actual
events through experiments by the students.
The grade point average (GPA) were gathered and tabulated to measure their
performance in the chemistry laboratory.
The study considered the following schools in Balanga City Schools as the research
locale of the investigation: Tomas del Rosario College, Asia Pacific College of Advanced
Studies, and Bataan Christian School. This is because these schools belong to the same
category as private institutions.
Specifically, the factors in this research were student-related ones which pertain to
the attitude of students in the chemistry laboratory. Teacher-related factors pertain to
the teaching strategies, competencies, and teacher’s attitude in conducting experiments
in the chemistry laboratory. Lastly, laboratory-related factors pertain to the adequacy,
availability, and usability of the laboratory equipment and the laboratory manual and
facilities.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Research is a very noble undertaking if it makes significant contributions to the community or
the academic field or discipline where the researcher is affiliated with. That is why the significance
of the study should clearly discuss the purpose that the research will serve to society, the country,
the government, the institution or agency concerned, the curriculum planners and developers,

and the research community. This section describes the contribution of the study to the existing
body of knowledge. It could be in the form of new knowledge in the field, a confirmation of the
major findings of other studies, verification of the validity of findings in a different population,
analysis of trends over time, and validation of other findings using different methodologies.
Significance of the Study
The researcher also has to identify the beneficiaries who will directly gain from the results
of the study. In identifying the beneficiaries, the researcher should be specific in mentioning
them in the paper. The specific benefits must also be enumerated and explained if necessary. It is 1. Ask the students to define the
also important that the beneficiaries should be listed according to the significance of the study’s
results to them. significance of the study and its
purpose.
Significance of the Study Example 1:
The Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Competencies of School Managers: Basis for the
2. Discuss the importance of
Formulation of the Human Relation Intervention Program(Cristobal, 2003) identifying the beneficiaries of the
Studies on how to improve management competencies are numerous. However the
researcher focused on the development of a human intervention program, which was research.
evaluated by management experts. The human relation intervention program considered
the enhancement of the intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies of school managers
in the division of Bataan. Questionnaires were fielded first and interviews were done before
3. Discuss the examples on pages 83-
the intervention program was conceived. 85 for further context.
The information generated from this research can provide the respondents, the school
managers in the Division of Bataan, with insights on how to enhance their human relation
skills. The researcher can provide a database of information for future reference. Likewise,
the findings can showcase ideas and suggestions for the improvement of their management
competency, specifically in dealing with their subordinates and establishing good rapport and
stable relationships. This can also serve as a tool for school managers for self-analysis on how
good they are as managers. Moreover, the assessment that was conducted can serve as a
guide for managers and teachers for a more effective discharge of their duties. It can also help
identify and clarify the problems and issues related to human relation, and can encourage the
educational community to extend more cooperation and support for school effectiveness.
Future administrators can gain insights in the development of their intrapersonal
and interpersonal competencies. Organizations and school officials can be provided with
information in the necessity of upgrading the different competencies through seminars,
workshops, and in-service training and the like. Researchers can be motivated to make
similar studies that treat other variables not mentioned in the study. They can also profit
from the result of this study since the paper presents a framework that can be utilized in
other institutions and localities.
Significance of the Study Example 2 :
The Effects of Computer-assisted Instruction in the Performance of Students

in Asian History and Civilization (Cuenca, 2008)
The findings of the study may provide deeper insights on how teaching can be made
easier and more meaningful by the use of computer-aided instruction. The study determined
the significant effects of slide presentation in instruction, a form of computer instruction
on the performance of the students in the subjects Asian History and Civilization.
To the students, the results may serve as an inspiration for them to continuously improve
their skills in using computers because they will realize the comfort that computer skills offer
in complying with the requirements of major subjects in the coming years.
To the administrators, the results may serve as a guide in the program-planning and
implementation of the IT department so that they can be of great help to the teachers of
the university.
To the teachers, the results may serve as an eye opener for those who are not
comfortable on the use of computers in their class lesson presentations. The findings of
this study may encourage more of them to apply computer-aided instruction in teaching.
Significance of the Study Example 3:
Staff Nurses’ Roles on the Accuracy of Specimen Collection in Selected Government

and Private Hospitals in Bulacan: Relations to Their Work Performance
(Reyes, 2007)
The results of this study will be of great benefit to the following:

Clinical instructors. The results of the study will provide them research-based
information as to the extent of participation engaged in infection control. From the results,
they could identify which areas they need to enhance and improve as well as the areas
needed to be sustained for better implementation.
Head nurses. This will provide a clear picture of the performance of their subordinate
nurses. This will enable them to give emphasis in supervising and coaching the staff nurses
so as to increase their level of performance. Furthermore, this will determine the type of
management skills that head nurses need to function effectively in the organization and will
shed light on areas in the current management practices that needed to be worked up.
Nursing personnel. This study will provide information on the extent of managerial
skills that the head nurse actually employs. This can be realized if these nurses become
aware of their behavior towards others which must be in accord with the standard values
of the nursing profession.

6. These variables have specific limits to their value.
Other researchers. This research can be a source of another study or can be
replicated using additional variables in another locale or setting or with different 7. These are variables whose values are expressed in descriptive
terms.
respondents. The results will be a possible research literature for their own study.
Enrichment or validation of the study of the same variables is recommended for them to 8. This part of the research defines the variables and their respective
be able to reinforce the results of this study. The findings of this study can also serve as a attributes.
conceptual framework of another research. 9. This part of the research describes the constraints to the research.
10. This part of the research explains the benefits that can be gained
from the study.
C HAPTER S UM M ARY
1. The scope of the study is determined by the major variables of the study while the sub- APPL IC ATIO N
variables serve as the delimitation.
2. The scope of the study identifies and defines the significant variables that are the focus
A. Choose one of the given examples in the “Scope and Delimitation” part of the discussion.
of the study. It also determines the relevant attributes of each variable.
Write down the variables identified in it.
3. The different characteristics and kinds of variables include the following: independent
variable, dependent variable, continuous variable, discrete variable, and categorical
variable.
4. The delimitation of the study identifies and describes the limitations encountered
by the study. The limitations of the study may arise from the research design and
methodology and the specific limitations encountered by the researcher in the conduct
of the study.
5. The significance of the study discusses the benefits of the study to the society in
general, and to its beneficiaries in particular.
B. Choose one of the given examples in the “Significance of the Study” part of the discussion.
Identify the general significance of the study, its beneficiaries, and the benefits that can
CH E CK- UP be gained from it.
Identify the following. Write your answers on the blanks.
1. It is any characteristic that can have different values or traits.

2. The value assigned to a specific variable.
3. Variables whose characteristics are changed, manipulated, or
selected.
4. These are the variables that are affected by the changes
implemented by the researcher on the variables in the study.
5. These are variables that have an infinite number or great variation
in values.
The Scope and Delimitation and the Significance of the Study 85 86 THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
check-up
After answering, ask the students to exchange books for correction.
applIcatIon
The students’ answers may vary. Some possible answers are provided below.
A. Scope and Delimitations Example 2
1. The variables are intervention program, conflicts or problems encountered, managerial skills,
and management functions, among others
B. Significance of the Study Example 1

1. General Significance of the Study – For school managers of Bataan, the results will allow them to
enhance their interpersonal and intrapersonal competencies through the intervention program.
2. Beneficiaries and Benefits – For teachers, the results of the study will serve as a guide for a more
effective discharge of their duties; for future administrators, the results will enable them to gain
insights in the development of their competencies.
Name : Date :
RESEARCH ACTIVITY 4
SCOPE AND DELIMITATION/SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
research actIvIty 4
Provide the required information by answering the following items: 1. Ask the students to answer all
1. Identify the variables that your research will focus on. Write them on the table below.
questions and provide the required
Variable Characteristic/Kind of Variable Indicators
information.
2. Instruct them to refer to their
answers in the previous activities.
students in identifying the variables,
attributes, and beneficiaries of their
research paper.
2. Where and when will the data be gathered? accomplished Research Activity 4
Note:
3. Who are the beneficiaries of your study and what benefits will they receive from the results
of your study? Cite at least three benefits for each beneficiary. • Personally and carefully check the
Beneficiaries Benefits Received From The Results Of The Study students’ research activities because
1. the final research paper will be
2.
based on their outputs.
3.
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
3.
88 THE NATURE OF RESEARCH Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 41

UNIT
REVIEW OF
LITERATURE
CHAPTER
Objectives
8 The Review Process

chapter, the students A. Read and analyze the selection below. Answer the
guide questions that follow.
1. differentiate the different processes will be able to
1. differentiate the
The Importance of Reading Comprehension
of reviewing literature and different processes
of reviewing
Imagine your employer has just handed you an
literature and
important document to read and tells you he expects a
2. apply the symbols used in marking 2. apply the symbols
used in marking the
summary of the material on his desk tomorrow. You take
the pages of a book. pages of a book.

a look and see it is written in a language totally foreign
to you. After your initial confusion, you may try to make
some sense of it and scan the document. While you may
be able to phonetically decipher the words and sound
them out, that’s where your “reading” would end. You wouldn’t have any idea what the words
you just read actually meant. How would you feel? Upset? Discouraged?
Obviously, this is an extreme example but sadly, classrooms across the nation are
interspersed with students who experience the same type of frustration every day. They don’t
possess adequate reading comprehension skills to do what is expected of them. Without
comprehension, reading is simply following words on a page from left to right while sounding
them out. The words on the pages have no meaning. While people read for many different
reasons, the chief goal is to derive some understanding of what the writer is trying to convey
and make use of that information—whether for fact gathering, learning a new skill, or for
pleasure. That’s why reading comprehension skills are so important. Without them, the reader
cannot gather any information and use it to efficiently function and enjoy the richness of life.
Reading is a multifaceted process that develops only with practice. There are certain
aspects of reading, such as fluency and word recognition, which can be learned in a few
years. These basics must be mastered but at the same time reading comprehension should be
emphasized in the process. Students can parrot words on a page all day but if they don’t have
the necessary comprehension skills, they will not be able to make predictions about what
will happen next, monitor their understanding of content, sequence or characters, clarify
confusing parts of the text, or connect what they’re reading to their own experience or prior
knowledge. And that is what true comprehension is all about.
Source: The Importance of Comprehension Reading by K12 Reader, n.d.
90 REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Opening Activity
Activity A
1. Ask the students to read the selection in this activity.
2. Have them answer the guide questions afterwards.
3. Ask students to share their output to the class.
Activity B
1. Divide the whole class into groups of four members.
2. Ask the groups to brainstorm on the topic, “Different ways of reading effectively.”
3. Instruct the group to assign one reporter to share their discussion output to the class.
4. Facilitate the class sharing by asking additional questions to the reporter.
GUIDE QUESTIONS
1. If you are in a similar scenario as the one stated at the beginning of the selection, what would INVESTIG ATIO N
you have done?
REVIEW of LITERATURE
The review of literature is the process of compiling, classifying, and evaluating what
other researchers have written on a certain topic. It can be a partial component of a research
undertaking, but it can also stand alone as a self-contained review of writing on a subject. The
review of literature is a crucial aspect of research, and serves the following purposes:
2. Do you agree that “without comprehension, reading is simply following words on a page from 1. It helps in placing the work being reviewed in its context.
left to right while sounding them out”? Why? Why not? 2. It describes the relationship of each work to the research being undertaken.
3. It identifies new ways to interpret and shed light to various gaps based from previous
researches.
4. It helps in solving conflicts among seemingly contradictory previous studies.
5. It identifies the areas that are subject to a prior study to prevent duplication of efforts.
6. It points to another research undertaking.
3. How has improving your reading comprehension benefitted you in real life?
Types of Reading
The investigator’s reading skills are essential in conducting the review of literature. In the
book, Research in Nursing, Wilson (1990) identifies four different types of reading:
1. Elementary reading. This is the most common kind of reading. It consists merely of the
recognition of letters and basic sounds and the literal comprehension of sentences. It is
4. What do you think will be the significance of reading comprehension in a review of literature primarily useful that an individual can recognize letters and sounds correctly, but it is
in a research study? better if he or she comprehends the ideas presented in each sentence after reading.
2. Systematic skimming. Research demands a lot of reading. Hence, the reader must
establish a system through which he or she can maximize time in searching for pertinent
or relevant literature. The reader must therefore choose wisely before investing time in a
book or an article.
The following are some guidelines for systematic skimming:
a. The title page and the preface of the abstract should be quickly read.
B. Form groups of four members. Conduct a brainstorming session on the question, “What
b. The table of contents should be studied carefully. Alternatively, the headings or
are the different ways of reading effectively?” Report the results of your discussion the
subheads of the article can be scanned. These act as roadmaps by informing the
class.
reader in advance where he or she is headed.
c. The index should be checked. A quick estimate of the range of topics included should
then be made to see which ones are relevant to the study.
d. The publisher’s blurb or any boldface excerpts should be read. It is common for
authors to summarize their main points in these parts.
The Review Process 91 92 REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Investigation
e. From the reader’s knowledge of the general nature of the book’s or article’s contents,
chapters or sections that seem pivotal should be carefully scrutinized. For example, in
the case of a research report, the section with the heading “Findings” or “Conclusions”
should be read.
f. Finally, the whole paper should be leafed through. It should be remembered to read a
few lines, because most authors sum up important points at the end.
3. Analytic reading. The reader asks questions to understand the article such as, “What is Review of Literature
the book or article all about?”, “What is being said in detail and how?”, and “What of it?”
He or she takes time to understand every detail of the piece.
The following are some guidelines to analytical reading:
1. Ask the class to identify their
a It should be discerned whether the findings reported in a book or an article satisfy the favorite books.
canons of science or whether they were arrived at through personal trial and error, or
what is often called ‘’conventional wisdom.’’
2. Have the students give the reason
b. It should be stated in a sentence or two what the reader has gained from reading.
c. The book or article should be thoroughly scanned to uncover the structure and for their choice of favorite book
organization of the major parts.
d. The main questions or problems that the article or book is set out to answer or solve
and discuss the lessons they have
should be determined. When reading a thesis, the reader should be able to do this by
comparing findings and conclusions to the purposes or objectives.
learned from it.
e. Important and unfamiliar words should be noted and defined.
f. The most important sentences in an article or book should be marked, and the
3. Relate the discussion to the review
propositions they contain should be uncovered. This is best done when reading the of literature.
conceptual framework of the study proposal or report.
g. The basic arguments or premises should be identified.
4. Define the review of literature and
h. The solutions or conclusions an author has to come up with should be recognized
even before reading about them. its purpose in the research paper.
i. Before writing a critique paper, the reader should have a thorough understanding of
its contents. 5. Discuss the different types of
4. Comparative reading. This is the highest level of reading which requires the reader to
place what he or she is currently reading in relation to other materials he or she has reading and demonstrate how each
previously read. This type of reading helps the reader identify the similarities and
differences between two or more articles in terms of their variables and propositions.
is done for further context.
This skill is very essential in research, as one has to look for similar studies for the firm
foundation of the study.

The Review Process 93
The following are some guidelines to comparative reading:
CONDUCTING A REVIEW OF LITERATURE
a. The passages that bear one’s questions, needs, or interests should be identified.
Steps in Reviewing Literature
b. The ideas of the various authors using one’s own words should be expressed.
The review of related literature is a systematic process composed of three steps:
c. The reader should formulate his or her own set of questions. He or she should read
comparatively to determine how the respective authors address them. 1. Finding relevant materials. It is the researcher’s priority to enrich his or her work by
reading literatures containing important data relative to his problem in order to fully
d. Issues that emerge should be defined so that one can recognize, sort out, and resolve
comprehend the variables being studied. The library is a good source for reference
controversies or contradictory findings in the literature.
materials such as journals, textbooks, reference books, abstract of theses, dissertations,
e. The discussions read should be analyzed by asking, “Are they true?” and computers with internet access.
2. Actual reading. After the preselection process, the researcher must thoroughly critique
REVIEW the contents of the materials. Critiquing involves asking questions which at this stage
should focus on the variables.
Identify which type of reading is described by the following statements. Write the Some examples of questions to ask are as follows:
corresponding number of your answer from the choices below.
a. What variables are mentioned?
b. What are the characteristics or descriptions of the variables?
1 – Elementary Reading 3 – Analytical Reading
c. What relationship exists between the variables based on the information given?
2 – Systematic Skimming 4 – Comparative Reading
d. How can the information provided in this material be of use to my research?
3. Note-taking. One of the characteristics of a good researcher is being systematic. He or she
1. Looking at the main ideas in a paragraph must establish a system of note-taking to save time and effort. The researcher must take
2. The difference of the points of view of author 1 to author 2 regarding school notes, putting only the important data in his or her own words. It is suggested that the
bullying researcher prepare index cards on which he or she can take down notes before gathering
or searching for reference materials for the review of literature. The note-taking process
3. Reading every sentence loudly is useful, especially when the researcher is already synthesizing and compiling ideas
from the different references. Note-taking also facilitates consolidation of the literature
4. Finding the correct pronunciation of the word “euthanasia”
gathered. The titles of the journals read should also be indicated in the index cards.
5. Reading the last paragraph of the article
Strategies in Reading Literature
6. Reflecting on the emotions conveyed by the actor in the musical play, “Les
Misérables” There are three strategies in reading literature. These are as follows:
7. Determining the background of the author and his experiences 1. Previewing. It is the process of reading to get a general idea of the things to look for in the
text. Systematic skimming is done here.
8. Locating the italicized and bold words and phrases in the literature
2. Highlighting. It is done by physically marking the text to identify key details and to note
9. Writing the synthesis of five articles regarding global warming in one the relationships among ideas.
paragraph In using highlighting symbols, one should take note of the following:
10. Reading the articles on networking three times a. The important ideas are underlined.
b. Words, phrases, or images that need further analysis should be boxed.
c. Question marks are written beside confusing passages, unfamiliar references, or
words that need to be defined.
94 REVIEW OF LITERATURE The Review Process 95
d. Related words, ideas, or images are encircled. Lines can be drawn to show their
connection.
Review e. Incidents that occur in sequence are numbered.
f. Key portions of the text should be set off with a vertical line in the margin.
Ask the students to exchange g. Stars are placed beside particularly important ideas.
books for correction. Example of Highlighting:
Malaysia is a hotbed of human trafficking. The White House thinks a huge trade deal
is the best way to fix it.
Last week, Malaysian authorities announced the discovery of 28 sites that they
suspected had served as human trafficking camps. Days earlier, they had found 139
Conducting a Review of the Literature grave sites, many apparently filled with the bodies of dead migrants who had been
smuggled from Myanmar; survivors recounted months of being caged while friends and
relatives died around them of disease and starvation.
1. Discuss the steps in reviewing The revelations seemed to contradict government denials that such camps existed
on Malaysian soil, and they presented just the kind of thorny issue that has made
literature and strategies in reading negotiations swing back, in an attempt to smooth the already rocky path towards final
literature. ratification.
The dispute highlights the difficulty President Obama faces in balancing a desire to
aggressively promote human rights with the need to pull a fractious coalition of nations
2. Ask the students if they have across the finish line — even when that puts him at odds with members of his own party.
personally done the strategies Negotiations on the Trans-Pacific Partnership, an expansive agreement that encom-
passes everything from internet policy to financial services, have been underway for
discussed in the past. much of his presidency. Trade between the parties accounts for nearly 40 percent of
global commerce, and an agreement could become an important part of Obama’s
economic legacy. However, some of the nations that would be part of the accord have
3. Ask them to provide some additional poor track records of respecting basic rights, leading many to argue that the United
States should force them to improve before granting the economic privileges a trade
guidelines they have learned from deal confers.
their personal experience. Malaysia1 had been on the State Department’s watch list of countries with trafficking
problems until 2014, when repeated failures to take corrective action landed the nation
a spot on a U.S. list of bad actors, along with Iran2, Syria3, and North Korea4. Migrant
4. Cite the examples provided in the women recruited to work from countries like Cambodia5 and Thailand6 often find
themselves compelled into prostitution, and whole industries depend on forced labor —
book for further context. 28 percent of workers in electronics production are there against their will, according to
a 2014 report commissioned by the U.S. Department of Labor.
46 • Practical Research 1 96 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

3. Annotating. It is the recording of the reader’s reactions as marginal notes. In these notes, Example of annotations:
one defines new words, identify allusions and patterns of language or imagery, summarize
plot relationships, list a work’s possible themes, suggest a character’s motivation, examine
the possible significance of particular images or symbols, or record questions that occur in
reading. Ideally, annotations will help one find ideas to write about.
The following are guidelines on how to annotate while and after reading (New Hampshire
School Administrative Unit #53, n.d.):
While reading:
a. Ask questions. Items which are confusing or unclear must be noted. The answers to these
should be found while reading.
b. React to what you read. Contents that elicited a reaction from you should be noted. One’s
reaction to the text should be recorded for future reference.
c. Give an opinion. Ideas that one liked or disagreed with should be noted.
d. Locate important passages. Important quotes, ideas worth remembering, or “big ideas”
which will serve as foundations to one’s writing should be noted.
e. Make connections. Information that reminds one of a past experience or important events
in his or her own life should recorded. These connections can help a reader find meaning
and relevance with the reading material.
f. Define new words. When confronted with an unfamiliar word, consult a dictionary or
search for its meaning online.
g. Track themes. Recurring themes in the text should be noted. Doing so will help one
understand the message that the text is trying to express.
After reading:
a. Give a title to the chapters or article sections. Some books and articles already have chapter
titles. If they do not, they should be given relevant titles after finishing the reading on
that section. This helps in remembering what was discussed in that part. It also aids in Source: https://www.cpp.edu/~ramp/program-materials/marking-your-textbooks.shtml
organizing the main idea of that particular section. Figure 8.1 – Sample Annotation
b. Summarize the material read. In the empty space at the end of a page, the article should be
rewritten, noting the essential points and using only a couple of sentences.
C HA PTER SU MMARY
c. Respond to the reading itself. Sometimes, a summary is not enough. One might want to
comment on what he or she just read, give an opinion about a concept, or complain about 1. Review of literature is the process of compiling, classifying, and evaluating what other
the author’s insight or viewpoint. researchers have written on a certain topic.
d. Make a prediction. Predicting is a great thinking exercise and the best time to do so is 2. The purposes of reviewing literature are to help place the work being reviewed in
immediately after finishing one section and before beginning the next one. Correctly its context; describe the relationship of each work to the research being undertaken;
predicting the following information or events can show that one has improved his or her identify new ways to interpret various gaps based from previous researches; solve
reading proficiency, or his or her knowledge on the topic. conflicts among seemingly contradictory previous studies; identify topic that are
subjects of previous studies; and point out new topics for a study.
The Review Process 97 98 REVIEW OF LITERATURE
3. The levels of reading are elementary reading, systematic skimming, critical reading,
and comparative reading.
4. The three steps in conducting the review of literature are finding relevant literatures,
actual reading, and note-taking.
Assessment Activities
5. The three strategies in reviewing literature are previewing, highlighting, and
annotating.
check-up
CH E CK- UP
Identify the word or term being described in each statement.
1. This is done by physically marking the text to identify key details and
note the relationships among ideas.
2. It is the highest level of reading which requires the reader to place

what he or she is currently reading in relation to other materials he
or she has previously read.
3. In this stage of reading, the researcher must critique the contents of

the materials.
4. It is a good source of reference materials where journals, textbooks,

reference books, theses abstracts, dissertations, and computers with
internet access can be found.
5. It is the process of compiling, classifying, and evaluating what other

researchers have written on a certain topic.
6. With this type of reading, the researcher should establish a system

through which he or she can maximize time in searching for relevant
literature.
7. It is the process of reading to get a general idea of the things to look

for in the text.
8. It is the recording of the reader’s reactions as marginal notes.
9. This is useful especially when the researcher is already synthesizing

and compiling ideas from various references.
10. It consists merely of the recognition of letters and basic sounds and
the literal comprehension of sentences.

APPL IC ATIO N
AppLicAtiOn
Read and analyze the article using the highlighting strategy. Apply the highlighting marks
on the text.
1. Ask the students to exchange books Philippines wins arbitration case vs. China over South China Sea
for correction. It has finally been decided that the Philippines has exclusive sovereign rights over the
West Philippine Sea (in the South China Sea) and that China’s “nine-dash line” is invalid,
according to the United Nations (UN) Arbitral Tribunal.
2. Indicate the points in the text to be The Tribunal issued its decision last Tuesday after several months of hearings and
submission of documents. China was absent throughout the proceedings, refusing to
highlighted. recognize the case.
“The Tribunal concluded that there was no legal basis for China to claim historic
rights to resources within the sea areas falling within the ‘nine-dash line,” the statement
released to the media said.
“Having found that none of the features claimed by China was capable of generating
an exclusive economic zone, the Tribunal found that it could—without delimiting a
Assignment boundary—declare that certain sea areas are within the exclusive economic zone of the
Philippines, because those areas are not overlapped by any possible entitlement of China,”
it added.
1. Ask the students to find a The Tribunal also said that China has violated Philippines sovereign rights.
partner for this assignment. “Having found that certain areas are within the exclusive economic zone of the
Philippines, the Tribunal found that China had violated the Philippines’ sovereign rights in its
exclusive economic zone by (a) interfering with Philippine fishing and petroleum exploration,
2. Instruct them to visit the library (b) constructing artificial islands, and (c) failing to prevent Chinese fishermen from
fishing in the zone,” the Tribunal said.
to conduct their research. “The Tribunal further held that Chinese law enforcement vessels had unlawfully created
a serious risk of collision when they physically obstructed Philippine vessels,” it said.
3. Have them produce a photocopy The Spratly Islands and its many reefs are being claimed by China under its “nine-
dash line” claim that covers nearly the entire South China Sea including parts of the
of their chosen text. Philippines’ Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ).
China insists it has “historic rights” in asserting its ownership of the region believed to
4. Provide further guidelines in be rich in natural gas resources and also a vital trade route for international cargo ships.
Philippines filed its case in January 2013 following a tense standoff between Chinese
highlighting and annotating the and Philippines ships at Scarborough shoal in April 2012.
text.
5. In the next class, have them
exchange papers to critique
each other’s work.
6. Ask them to attach their outputs Since the initiation of the arbitration case, China has conducted several massive
by partner before submission. reclamation projects to turn submerged reefs into artificial islands capable of hosting
military structures and equipment.
China’s reclamation activities have alarmed other Southeast Asian nations, particularly
Vietnam, that also has competing claims in the South China Sea.
Source: “Philippines wins arbitration case vs. China over South China Sea” by Matikas Santos,
Philippine Daily Inquirer, 2016 July 12
Assignment
Visit the library and find an article related to your research study. Perform highlighting
and annotations on the reference material. With a partner, exchange outputs and then
critique each other’s work. Submit your critique along with the highlighted and annotated
references to your teacher.

CHAPTER
9 The Standard Styles

of Writing Objectives
OBJECTIVES OPENING ACTIVITY At the end of this chapter, the students
At the end of this
chapter, the students Think about any topic that you can passionately talk will be able to
will be able to about. Then, in the space provided below, write a formal
1. differentiate the
styles of research
essay about that topic as if you are writing an academic
paper. Provide a title for your work as well. Afterwards,
1. differentiate the styles of research
writing and each student will share his or her work to the class.
writing and
2. apply the styles of
research writing
in the proposed 2. apply the styles of research writing
research study.
in the proposed research study.
Title:
Opening Activity
1. Ask the students to answer the
activity for 15 minutes.
2. Provide some general guidelines in
writing an essay with an academic
tone.
3. Have them share their work to the
class.
Investigation
IN VES TIGATION
DIFFERENT STYLES OF RESEARCH WRITING

In research writing, there are many different style guides that are followed by researchers.
However, the three most common styles followed at present are the Modern Language Association
Different Styles of Writing
(MLA) Style, American Psychological Association (APA) Style, and Chicago Style or Turabian.
1. Introduce the lesson by talking
Modern Language Association
The Modern Language Association (MLA) is an American professional organization for
about academic writing, how it
scholars of literature and language based in New York City. It publishes the MLA stylebook titled
MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing with its first edition printed in 1985 and its
has been used in various research
third edition in 2008. The MLA began in 1883 at Purdue University as a discussion group for
literature and modern language. Today, several regional associations compose the MLA.
papers, and the different styles of
research writing.
Formatting a Paper Using the MLA Style
by Peter Gallagher and Brian Scott 2. Introduce the three most commonly
1. Alignment. Align the text flush left. If your word processor, such as Microsoft Word, has a
“full justify” setting, which spreads the text and aligns it both left and right, do not use it.
used styles today which are the APA,
Leave the text ragged on the right side.
MLA, and Chicago or Turabian styles.
2. Binding. MLA Style calls for binding the pages with a simple paper clip or spring clip. Do
not use a staple or other permanent binding system, unless your instructor requests it.
3. Endnotes and footnotes. You may use endnotes or footnotes with MLA Style, but they
should only be used to further explain a term or a complex idea beyond what you are able
to include in the main text. Endnotes and footnotes should not be used to cite sources.
Save those for the “Works Cited” page.
4. Font. MLA Style calls for a 12-point font size, along with an easily readable font such as
Times New Roman.
5. Headings. In MLA Style, headings and subheads that break up the text are optional. Check
with your instructor before using them.
6. Indentions. You will need to indent the first line of any paragraph by one-half inch from
the left margin. If you are not using word processing software, indent by five spaces.
7. Italics. You should use italics for titles of longer works. MLA Style also allows the use of
italics within the body of the text for emphasis of a particular word or phrase, but use
such items sparingly.
The Standard Styles of Writing 103

It was only in 1959 when an official APA style manual became publicly available. Because of the
8. Margins. All four sides of the MLA paper—top, bottom, right, and left—require a margin practicability it brings, many education institutions use the APA style as the standard for writing
of 1 inch. The only items that should appear outside the margins are the page numbers. research papers.
9. Page numbering. Place the page number in the upper right corner of every page. Use
Arabic numerals for the page numbers. The page number should appear one-half inch Formatting a Paper Using the APA Style
by Peter Gallagher and Brian Scott
from the top of the paper and even with the right margin (1 inch from the edge of the
paper). If you choose to use an optional title page, you should not number it. If you 1. Abbreviations. Avoid using abbreviations in your paper. However, if you need to use an
choose not to create a separate title page, instead including the title and other relevant abbreviation or acronym that is recognized in your language and you can find it in the
information on the first page of the main text, you must use “1” as the number of that dictionary, then you can use it.
page.
2. Hyphenations. Do not separate and hyphenate words at the end of a line. Rather, leave
10. Paper type. Use standard, 20-pound white paper that measures 8.5 by 11 inches. one line slightly short and put the complete word on the next line; otherwise, proceed a
11. Punctuation. Follow all standard punctuation marks with just one space, including couple of characters past the right margin to adjust the complete word on the line.
colons, commas, periods, and semicolons. Some instructors still prefer the old rule of 3. Indentions. Indent paragraphs within the primary text of the paper one-half inch if using
using two spaces after periods that end sentences. MLA Style does allow some flexibility a word processing program or indent five to seven spaces in if typing on a typewriter.
in punctuation when the instructor requests a change from the standard MLA Style. However, do not indent in these unique circumstances: the abstract, block quotations,
12. Quotation blocks. Whenever using a quotation that will be longer than four typed figure captions, notes, reference list entries, table titles, and titles or headings.
lines, set the entire quotation block apart by indenting it from the left margin 1 inch (or 4. Margins. Use 1-inch margins on all four sides of the paper: top, bottom, right, and left. Old
10 spaces). Double-space within the quotation block. You do not need to use quotation rules required 1.5-inch margins, but these rules are now obsolete.
marks with a quotation block.
5. Page numbering. Number nearly every page in the paper, including the title page. Put
13. Spacing. You will need to double-space all of the text within the paper, except in special the number in the upper-right corner of the page, and use only Arabic numbers. Put the
circumstances as directed by your instructor. All quotations, notes, and lists of works number “1” on the title page and the number “2” on the abstract page. Begin the main
cited should be double-spaced. body of the text on page number “3.” Do not number pages that consist of only statistics
14. Title. MLA Style does not require a separate title page. You can include the information or illustrations.
used for the title on the first page of the paper, and begin the paper’s main text on the 6. Paper type. Use regular white, 20-pound bond paper that has measurements of
same page. All text should be double-spaced on the first page. You can place the page 8.5 by 11 inches. If printing from a computer, use an inkjet or laser printer to print the
number in the upper right corner. In the upper left corner, flush left, and beginning at paper; if you must use a tractor-feed printer, make sure to tear off the pinhole borders
the margins, include your name, the instructor’s name, the course, and the date. Then, from the sides of the paper.
center the text for the title, mixing uppercase and lowercase letters. If you choose to
7. Parentheses. Aim to restrict parentheses to separate or divide items that are structurally
skip the separate title page, you can begin the main text immediately after the title text.
independent, such as listing a number or illustration that is associated with a sentence.
15. Underlining. With the third edition of the MLA Style Manual, the new guidelines If you are enclosing a full sentence in parentheses, position the punctuation inside the
have eliminated the use of underlining. Now, italicize all published works, rather than parentheses. If you are enclosing only a piece of a sentence inside parentheses, then place
underlining. the punctuation outside the parentheses.
8. Punctuation. In most cases, use single space after all common punctuation marks, such
as periods, commas, colons, and semicolons. There are three exceptions to this norm:
American Psychological Association (APA)
(1) do not use a space after periods inside an abbreviation, such as when writing U.S. for
The American Psychological Association or APA developed its own uniform style of formatting United States; (2) do not use a space after a colon in a ratio, such as 4:7; and (3) some
written works. Originally, the resulting style book was provided to their associates as a guide for professors like the outdated rule of using two spaces after periods that end sentences.
composing scientific publications, articles, handbooks, journals, and the like for the organization. If you are using Courier or another mono-space font, APA Style does permit two spaces
It was in 1929 when the original APA style guidelines were featured in a magazine write-up. between sentences, although one space is recommended.
104 REVIEW OF LITERATURE The Standard Styles of Writing 105
9. Short title. A short title is a two- or three-word introduction of the main title. Put it
on every page in the top right corner, except for pages that consist of only numbers or
illustrations. The short title should appear slightly to the left of the page number.
10. Slash mark. Do not use slash marks in your paper. For instance, rather than writing
3. Discuss each one by explaining “blue and/or purple,” it is better to write, “blue, purple, or both.”
11. Spacing. Use double spacing throughout the whole paper, unless your professor
its origins and what its general expressly asks for single spacing in specific situations, such as with block quotations.
characteristics are, and how is it 12. Text alignment. Always format the text flush left. Do not use the “full justify” feature on
your word processor’s toolbar because this will spread the text fully across the paper
applied in academic writing. and align sentences both left and right.
13. Title. Center the title on the title page, creating a combination of uppercase and
lowercase letters. If the title is long enough to warrant a second line, double space
4. Discuss the formatting guide between the lines. After the title, include your name, followed by the college that you
attend. If you do not belong to a college, you can substitute the city and state. Double
provided in the book to provide space between each line on the title page. Put the number “1” in the upper right corner
further context. of the title page.

14. Typeface. If using a word processor like MS-Word, opt for a Serif font, such as Times
New Roman. Use text in a 10- or 12-point size.
Chicago Style and Turabian Style

The University of Chicago Press manages the standards and rules for the Chicago style. The
principal handbook entitled The Chicago Manual of Style, is sometimes shortened to “CMS” or
“CMOS.” The University of Chicago Press produced the original Chicago Style Manual in 1906.
Chicago Style also has a second handbook entitled A Manual for Writers of Term Papers,
Theses, and Dissertations, which is written by Kate Turabian, a senior disquisition assistant at the
University of Chicago. She developed the Turabian manual as a supplement to the Chicago Style
manual.
One will often hear that the Turabian Style and Chicago Style are of the same style because
they have identical but slightly refined rules. The two styles are nearly similar that professors
often refer to them in combination. Turabian Style permits the use of footnotes for citing sources,
which splits it from other styles on writing formal papers. Papers that adhere to Chicago Style
typically are less formal papers and not designed for publication. However, Chicago Style is
versatile enough to deal with any style of paper, including research papers, essays, reports, theses,
or dissertations.

Formatting a Paper Using the Chicago Style or Turabian
by Peter Gallagher and Brian Scott
1. Abbreviating. Abbreviations are more acceptable in academic papers than they were
ten years ago. If you need to abbreviate, use the customary, well-known ones such as
“AIDS” or “ADHD.” One exception is not to abbreviate phrases of ranges, such as “yards”
or “miles.” If your abbreviation contains two periods, such as “U.K.” or “N.J.,” do not
include a space after the first period.
2. Text alignment. Justify all text to the left (excluding indentions), but you may also use
ragged right justification or use full (block) justification. If you opt for full justification,
you must make sure that you space minimally between words and you hyphenate text
properly and moderately. Your word processing software should allow you to comply
with these two guidelines for full justification, except if you have many multi-syllable
big words in your paper.
3. Capitalizing. Use “headline-style” capitalization to capitalize all words aside from
articles, some prepositions, and conjunctions. Use “sentence-style” capitalization to
capitalize only the first word, a word following a colon, and proper nouns.
4. White out. You can apply white correcting fluid to mask black dots and stray spots on
the final paper.
5. Date format. You can use either one of two date formats: “23 April 2012” (day, month,
year) or “April 23, 2012” (month, day, year). When you choose one format, you must
stick with the same one throughout your paper. Do not use a combination of the two.
6. Font style. Always use a Serif font, such as Times New Roman, for the primary text of
your paper. Use a font size between 10- and 12-point sizes. A computer-generated font
is exceedingly better than any mechanical type because it creates perfect italicized and
solid boldface text.
7. When to hyphenate. You can hyphenate words at the end of a line in your primary text,
but you should avoid hyphenating words at the end of two successive lines.
8. When to indent text. Indent paragraphs within the primary text of your paper by one
and a half inch or approximately 5 to 8 spaces. Chicago Style does not mandate a precise
measure of indention, but you must use the same space of indention in your entire
paper.
9. Margin sizes. Use the standard 1-inch margin on all four sides of your paper. However,
if you are going to bind your paper on the left side, then you can use a wider left margin.
10. Numbers. Always spell out and use words for each number, one through one hundred.
For numbers exceeding 100, use basic numerals. Adhere to these exceptions: (1) spell
out every number that begins a sentence; (2) use numerals for every percentage and
decimal number; and (3) use numerals for every number within a set of amounts.
The Standard Styles of Writing 107
Review
11. Numbering your pages. Use Arabic numerals to number every page in your paper,
except for pages that introduce the body text, such as (1) the copyright page; (2) the 1. Ask the students to refer
dedication page; and (3) the table of contents page. Chicago Style dubs these pages as
“display” pages, and you must number these pages with lowercase Roman numerals.
to their output from the
Do not put a number on the title page, but you MUST count the title page as part of the
“display” pages. The next page is left blank unless you use a copyright page. You do not
Opening Activity.
number the copyright page (or the blank page) either. Number the next page (after the
copyright or blank page) “iii” in Roman numerals, centered at the bottom of the page. 2. Instruct the students
When you begin the main (body) text, change from Roman numerals to Arabic numbers.
Put the number “1” in the upper-right corner of the page. If your page has a chapter to format their output
heading or a main heading, you can center the Arabic numeral at the bottom of the
page. Number all blank pages, including any other pages. Your page number must run according to their chosen
consecutively. Position all page numbers about three-quarters of an inch from the side
of the paper. formats of research writing.
12. Paper type. Use standard 20-pound regular white bond paper that is 8.5 by 11 inches.
13. Spacing. Double-space between sentences and paragraphs for your entire paper’s body 3. Ask the students to
text. However, you can single-space block captions, endnotes, footnotes, headings, and
quotations.
exchange outputs with their
14. Title. Center all text on the title page, using both horizontal and vertical alignment. classmates to check if they
Uppercase all text and double-space too.
have correctly followed the
formatting of their chosen
REVIEW
research writing style.
Using your output in the Opening Activity, format your essay according to your chosen
research writing style.
4. Ask them return the papers
to their respective owners
for submission.

C HAPTER S UM M ARY APPL IC ATIO N
1. The three common writing formats are the American Psychological Association (APA)
Style, Modern Language Association (MLA) Style, Turabian, and Chicago Style of Write an essay about the different research writing styles. Use the questions below as a
Writing Style. guide in writing your essay.
2. MLA published the first edition of its manual in 1985 and the third edition in 2008. 1. If given the chance to research on any topic, which style will you use?
3. The origin of MLA STYLE is in the Purdue University in New York City. 2. Why did you choose that style?
4. The APA manual was first published in 1952 and at present, it is the most popular 3. Do you think that the style you have chosen is easier than the others? Why or why not?
standard for writing academic papers used by most universities and colleges. 4. Why do you think there many writing styles if it does not affect the research study itself?
5. The Chicago Style manual was first published in 1906 by the University of Chicago Press.
6. Kate Turabian, a senior disquisition assistant in University of Chicago, published the
second handbook, A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations, as a
ASSIGNMENT
supplement to the Chicago Style manual.
Format your research paper according to your chosen writing style or the writing style
assigned by your teacher (whichever is set for your class). The chosen style should be
consistently used throughout the paper.
CH E CK- UP
Differentiate the three styles of writing by completing the table.
Indicators APA MLA CSW
Alignment
Font
Indentions
Margins
Page type
Punctuations
Spacing
Titles
Page numbering
The Standard Styles of Writing 109 110 REVIEW OF LITERATURE
check-up
After answering, ask the students to exchange books for correction. Refer to the answer key below.
Indicators APA MLA CSW

Alignment Flush left Flush left Flush left
Font Serif fonts Serif Fonts, Times New Roman Serif fonts
Indentions ½ inch ½ inch 1 ½ inches
Margins 1 inch for all sides 1 inch for all sides 1 inch for all sides
Page Type 8 ½ x 11, white, #20 8 ½ x 11, white, #20 8 ½ x 11, white, #20
Single space for all Single space for all punctuation Single space for all
Punctuations
punctuation marks marks punctuation marks
Spacing Double Double Double
Center, first letter/word
Titles No title page Center but upper case
in uppercase
Page Numbering Upper right corner Upper right corner Upper right corner
Application
1. Give the students sufficient time to answer the activity.
2. Have them write their answers on a whole sheet of intermediate pad.
3. Ask the students submit their output for assessment.
Assignment
Ask students to apply the chosen format (APA, MLA, or CSW) in
writing their research paper.
Additional Tasks
1. As a preparation for the opening activity for the next lesson (Chapter 10), divide the class into eight
groups.
2. Assign one theorist per group. (Refer to Opening Activity of Chapter 10, page 111 of the textbook.)
3. Instruct them to research on their assigned theorist and have the groups prepare their outputs for
group synthesis in the next lesson.

CHAPTER
Objectives
10 Research Framework
chapter, the students Divide the class into eight groups. One theorist will be
1. discuss relevant theories and will be able to

1. discuss relevant
assigned to each group. Each group will be given time
to research about their respective theorist and their
theories and theories. Then, the members of each group will discuss the
2. formulate relevant theories for the 2. formulate relevant theories of the theorist assigned to them. Their collective
theories for the ideas will be presented to the class.
study. study. 1. Robert Owens 5. George Elton Mayo
2. Frederick Taylor 6. Abraham Maslow
3. Max Weber 7. Kenneth Blanchard
4. Henri Fayol 8. Robert Greenleaf
Opening Activity GUIDE QUESTIONS

1. What are the significant ideas, concepts, and theories proposed by this theorist?
1. Have the students prepare their
output from their additional task in
the previous lesson. 2. What are the significant applications of these theories?
2. Have each group present their

outputs to the class.
3. To which disciplines or areas are these theories most relevant?
3. Ask them to answer the guide
questions after the sharing.
4. Have them prepare their outputs for
submission. Research Framework 111
Investigation
INVESTIG ATIO N
RESEARCH FRAMEWORK
Research Framework A framework is defined as “a set of ideas that provide support to something” (Merriam-
Webster, n.d.). Essentially, any concept or theory requires a strong framework to establish its
1. Introduce the lesson by defining the general feasibility. In the case of research, it serves as the building blocks for the foundation of
the study. There are two types of research framework: theoretical framework and conceptual
research framework and describing framework.
Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

its function.
The theoretical framework is formulated from existing theories and serves as the foundation
2. Identify the two types of research of the study. The present study can adopt the original model used by the cited theorist. However,
the researcher can modify the variables of the original framework to better suit the study, provided
framework. that the whole theory is utilized.
In contrast, the conceptual framework is derived from a combination of theories or parts
3. Ask the students to discuss and of theories. This framework guides the researcher in synthesizing the different theories used in
formulating a new one.
compare the two framework types. Ideally, the theoretical framework is more suitable for student researchers than the conceptual
framework because of the former’s simpler approach. That is, it is less complicated to directly
base on existing theories than to formulate a new one. Although creativity and variability in
research are valuable, a student researcher should also consider the extent of his or her access to
resource materials, which may be limited. With that consideration in mind, the following chapter
discussions are tailored for theoretical framework.
Elements of the Theoretical Framework

Since the theoretical framework prefaces the entire study by providing background
information, it should be supported by established facts from different resource materials. In
order to formulate the framework of the study, the following major elements should be present:
1. Relevant theories. These are theories that are partially or fully relevant to the present
study and are discussed to provide a basis for the variables being tested.
2. Review of related literature. These are published materials that compare the study
with existing knowledge on the research topic. This part defines, classifies, and facilitates
objective comprehension of the variables being studied.
3. Review of related studies. This part includes the theses or dissertations on research
topics carrying the same variables. The findings from the previous studies define the
approach that the researcher took in measuring the variables.

4. Paradigm of the study. This is a diagrammatic presentation of the study used to visually
summarize the whole study. It is the result of a clearer understanding of the theoretical
or conceptual framework. It is usually comprised of symbols and figures such as lines,
shapes, and arrows. 4. Discuss further the two types of
One of the most commonly used paradigms is the IPO (input-process-output) model. It
is used when the research seeks to discuss a factor or a major variable that causes a problem,
research framework by providing
phenomenon, or transformation in the subject. more extensive definitions and
INPUT
(the variables that
PROCESS
(the method by which the
OUTPUT
(the problem,
presenting other examples.
causes the problem, variables are collected and phenomenon, or
phenomenon, or
transformation)
synthesized) transformation; the
outcome of the variables) 5. Emphasize that the theoretical
framework should be used in their
• Profile of Analysis of data through: • Improved role of
entrepreneurs
a. age
• questionnaires
• informal interviews •
entrepreneurs
Higher returns
study.
b. sex • statistical and • Better quality of
c. seminars scientific treatment services
• Roles of
entrepreneurs
a. assessment
b. planning
c. implementation
•
d. evaluation
Specimen collection
Elements of Theoretical Framework and
• Performance
Developing the Theoretical Framework
Figure 10.1 – Paradigm for Entrepreneurs’ Roles
Toward Improved Work Performance 1. Have the students define the
Developing the Theoretical Framework elements of the theoretical
A theoretical framework serves as the basis of the research. It points out, through its cited
theories, which specific variables will be the focus of the study. In doing so, the approach that the
framework.
researcher will adopt in evaluation and interpretation of the data is better established. It also
prefaces the new knowledge introduced in the research by validating or challenging theoretical 2. Discuss each one and explain their
assumptions. Thus, writing a sound theoretical framework provides the readers a better
understanding of the research study. purposes in the research study.
The University of South California (2016) provides the following strategies in formulating the
theoretical framework: 3. Present examples for each one.
1. Examine your thesis title and research problem. The research problem should be
well-founded since it serves as the foundation of the theoretical framework.
Research Framework 113
Relevant Theories
2. Brainstorm about what is considered as the key variables in the research. The
1. Define the word “theory.”
factors that are presumed to have significant bearing on the results of the study should be
identified. 2. Discuss the relevant theories and its
3. Review related literature and studies. The basis of the research should be supported
by relevant literature and studies from authors who had conducted an extensive research purpose in the research paper.
on the topic.
4. List the constructs and variables. Constructs are information inferred from observation 3. Discuss the different parts of this
while variables are research factors that are measured in the study. These should be
identified to create the framework. section.
5. Review key theories. The theories that best explain the relationships between the key
variables in the study should be identified. 4. Present the examples for further
6. Discuss the assumptions or propositions. The relevance of the cited theories to the
research should be established to effectively support the framework of the study. context.
Relevant Theories
The word “theory” is derived from the Greek word theoria, which means “vision.” Singh (2009)
defines theory as a non-observable construct that is inferred from observable facts and events
that are thought to have an effect on the phenomenon under study and is primarily concerned
with determining cause-effect relationships among variables.
In this part of the theoretical framework, the researcher cites and discusses related theories
that serve as the foundation of the variables and their relevance to the study. It prefaces the
readers on what theories are used as the basis of the research story.
In the discussion of relevant theories, the following parts are mentioned:
1. Name/s of the author/s
2. Title/s of their theory/ies
3. Theoretical statement or principles
4. Explanation of the theoretical statement
5. Relationship of the theory to the present study
Relevant Theories Example 1:
Correlates of English Performance of Second Year Students in Selected High School

Congressional District II, Nueva Ecija (Valenton, 2009)
There are four theories on how children learn a language: behaviorism, linguistics,
social interactionism, and the neurobiological perspective (Vukelich, 2002). Only the
theory of social interactionism (theory title) is adopted in this study.

Social interactionist theory does not come from either side of the nature or Building upon need-press theory, Knight and Waxman (1990) reasoned that students
nurture debate. Rather, it acknowledges the influence of genetics and parental perceiving that their classroom environments are fulfilling their needs for classroom
teaching (theory statement). However, it shares with behaviorists the belief that the involvement and classroom affiliation tend to be environmentally encouraged toward
environment plays a central role in children’s language development. Likewise, along developing positive academic self-concepts. While for Frazer, Fisher, and MacRobbie
with nativists, it poses the belief that children possess an innate predisposition to learn (1996), environmental measures were rarely considered, but various numbers
language. Parents and teachers also support the children’s effort to learn language by of measures of personality were developed from Murray’s need-press theory in
focusing the child’s attention on objects in the immediate environment and labeling early studies. They argued that when the study of human environments was being
each object and its action (theory explanation). established, researchers recognized that different people bring different perspectives
to research, which in turn may lead to different interpretations of results.
This social interactionist theory was conceptualized in English language, since
English is the Philippines’ second language. This study assumed that the English The prevailing model for assessing school climate involves the use of survey-type
performance of second year high school students in terms of their English factors objective inventories in this present study. This approach in assessing school climate
such as social-demographic, school, and home (relationship to the present study). is typically used by the researcher to also determine the present classroom climate in
Considering the generally recognized performance of students in the achievement the area of study.
tests and poor command of the English language, this study aims to find out what The assumed interplay of the student’s profile and classroom climate quality
influences their performance for the school year 2008-2009. could influence the nature and the kind of faculty development activities a school may
create. Likewise, the faculty development activities, to some extent, may directly or
indirectly affect the classroom climate quality and aspects of the student’s profile.
Relevant Theories Example 2: Recognizing the cognitive and affective needs of the teacher in improving student
performance in the classroom and enhancing the teacher’s ability to provide and
High School Classroom Climate Quality: adapt instruction to meet the needs of each individual student is assumed to lead in
Basis for Creating Faculty Development Activities (Landar, 2008) establishing and maintaining a harmonious and dynamic classroom climate. Assessing
the present classroom climate quality of high school students will help the school plan
As cited by Jarvilehto (1999), environment is defined not as it is, but as it is perceived
and implement a feasible intervention program if a need warrants it.
and experienced. This phenomenological approach was expanded by Lewin’s (1936)
field theory of life space as discussed by Smith (2001). Lewin defined behavior not as
a function of the objective physical properties of the stimulus environment, but as an
environment transformed into an “innerworld” by a cognizing organism. Thus, it is the C HA PTER SU MMARY
psychological environment rather than the physical environment that determines the
way an individual will respond. 1. A framework is defined as “a set of ideas that provides support to something.” In the
Dorman (2002), in his review of the classroom environment research, described case of research, it serves as the building blocks for the basis of the study.
that on Lewin’s approach, Murray (1938) developed a “need-press model.” Murray 2. The word “theory” is derived from the Greek word theoria, which means “vision.”
introduced the terms “alpha press” that describes the environment from the point of 3. A theory is a non-observable construct that is inferred from observable facts and events
view of an external observer and “meta-press” that describes the environment from that are thought to have an effect on the phenomenon under study and is primarily
the point of view of someone involved in the experience. concerned with determining cause-effect relationships among variables.
In the need-press model, personal needs are motivated by personality 4. The theoretical framework is formulated from existing theories and serves as the
characteristics representing tendencies to move in the direction of certain goals. On foundation of the study. It points out, through its cited theories, which specific variables
the other hand, environment press provides an external situational counterpart that will be focused in the study.
supports or frustrates the expression of internalized personality needs. Furthermore,
5. The conceptual framework is derived from the combination of theories or parts of
the theory holds that people have needs for human fulfillment that include students’
theories. This framework guides the researcher in synthesizing the different theories
needs for classroom involvement and the students’ needs for classroom affiliation.
used in formulating a new one.
Research Framework 115 116 REVIEW OF LITERATURE
6. The elements of the theoretical framework are the relevant theories, review of the related
literatures, review of related studies, and the paradigm of the study.
Assessment Activities 7. The following are some strategies in formulating the theoretical framework:
a. Examine your thesis title and research problem.
b. Brainstorm about what is considered as the key variables in the research.
c. Review related literature and studies.
d. List the constructs and variables.
check up e. Review key theories.
f. Discuss the assumptions or propositions.
1. Ask the students to bring out their 8. In writing the relevant theories, the following must be included: names of the authors;
titles of their theories; theoretical statement or principles; explanation of the theoretical
outputs from the Opening Activity. statement; and relationship of the based theory to the present study.
2. Instruct the students to base their

answers on their output from that C HEC K - U P
activity. Using the researched information on the assigned theorist for your group in the opening
activity, provide the required information below.
1. Theory title –
2. Theorist –
3. Theory statement –
4. Theory explanation –
5. Relationship of the theory to the present study –
56 • Practical research 1 Research Framework 117

AP P L IC ATION AppLicAtiOn
Using the IPO model, create a paradigm for your research study. Refer to the example 1. Ask the students to create their own
provided in the lesson as a guide. Write your answer in the space provide below. You can
use your work in your actual research paper if you prefer. paradigm for their research study.
2. Have them refer to the given
example on page 113 as a guide for
their work.
3. Ask the students to compare their
work with their seatmate.
4. Remind them that they can use their
output in their final research paper
if they prefer.
ReseARch Activity 5
Name : Date :

RESEARCH ACTIVITY 5
RELEVANT THEORIES the sections with the required
information.
Research on theories that are relevant to your proposed study. Then, provide the required
information below.
2. Allow them to go to the library
Proposed study:
to research on relevant resource
1. Theory title: materials and utilize the computers
Theorist: for research purposes.
Theory statement:
Theory explanation:
Theory’s relationship to the present study:
2. Theory title:
Theorist:
Theory statement:
Theory explanation:

Research Framework 119
3. Give the students additional
guidelines in identifying the relevant
3. Theory title:
theories for their research. Theorist:
4. Provide one-on-one student Theory statement:
consultation when necessary. Theory explanation:
5. Ask the students to submit the Theory’s relationship to the present study:
accomplished Research Activity 5 by

detaching it from the book.
Note:
• You have the option to let this 4. Theory title:
classroom activity be a take-home Theorist:
Theory statement:
constraints and the necessity for Theory explanation:


research paper will be based on their
outputs.
CHAPTER
11 Related Literature Objectives

At the end of this will be able to
chapter, the students Visit your library and browse through its book and
resource collection. List down the titles of ten possible
will be able to
1. describe the resources that you can use in your study. 1. describe the variables and sub-
variables and sub-
variables of the
1. variables of the study and
study and 2.
2. write a review of
3. 2. write a review of related literature.
related literature.
4.
Opening Activity
6.
7.
8.
9. 1. Instruct the students to go to the

10. library and have them find relevant
books on their research. Provide
IN VES TIGATION them 20 minutes for this.
RELATED LITERATURE
2. Ask them to answer the Opening
The related literature examines facts and principles from other resources that are related
to the present study. That is, a research study on the learning curves of high school students Activity.
would utilize literatures that deal with the same subject. These resource materials include books,
encyclopedias, published journals, newspapers, and magazines.
3. Ask the students to share their
The related literature, which is also called conceptual literature, serves to clarify the different
variables being studied. It removes any vagueness surrounding the central concepts of the output to the class and explain why
research. As the literature is gathered, the different major variables, as well as the sub-variables,
they chose those books.
Related Literature 121
Investigation
are clarified and the delimitation of the study is established. The indicators for each variable are
identified and objectively established.
The major variable is the central idea of the entire literature. Its sub-variables help specify
which particular aspect of the major variable is being referred to. The indicators, on the other
hand, are specific information that describes the sub-variables.
Examples:
Related Literature
a. Major variable: Study habits
b. Sub-variable: Time required for studying, methods of studying, and place for studying
1. Define the related literature and its
c. Indicators: Employing patterned time intervals for effective studying; using mnemonics purpose in the research paper.
in memorizing the terms; and studying in one’s ideal environment
The American Psychological Association (2001) states that review articles (called the literature
review for research papers) are crucial in the review process. A review article summarizes all the
2. Relate the opening activity to the
related literature and their relation to the study. Readers who are not knowledgeable on the topic discussion.
are provided with a basic understanding of the research before the new findings are presented.
APA provides the following definition for a review article:
3. Discuss the three elements of the
Review articles, including meta-analyses, are critical evaluations of materials
previously published. By organizing, integrating, and evaluating such materials, the variable and provide examples for
author of a review article considers the progress of current research towards clarifying
a problem. In a sense, a review article is a “tutorial” in which the author defines and further context.
clarifies the problem; summarizes previous investigations in order to inform the
reader of the state of current research; identifies relations, contradictions, gaps and
inconsistencies in the literature; and suggests the next step in solving the problem. (p. 7)
The different variables used in the study are the focus of the review of literature. The title,
statement of the problem, scope and delimitation, as well as the framework of the study are the
elements that give the researcher an idea of its relevance to his or her own research.
The number of resource materials to be gathered for the review of literature depends upon
the researcher’s judgment. If he or she believes that the important concepts and variables have
been adequately explained and that enough indicators have been established, then the review of
related literature is considered sufficient.
It is a traditional practice that the review of related literature is divided into foreign and
local literature. It is highly recommended that the researcher use the different variables and sub-
variables being studied as subtitles in the review. This is very beneficial to the researcher and
to future investigators studying similar problems as there is a clear and logical organization of
the variables under investigation. With this system, the researcher can systematically define the
important concepts and variables as well as the discussions, descriptions, and other information
gathered from the different sources. When the related literature is arranged systematically, the
construction of the research instrument (e.g., questionnaire) will be easier since the indicators
are presented logically and sequentially.

Related literature also includes works of experts in refereed or peer-reviewed journals.
Expert readers or peers who are recognized authorities on the topic are consulted to review
4. Have the students provide their own the written works of the researchers to determine if they meet the standards of a good
reference material, i.e., reliability and timeliness. Refereed journals are published nationally and
examples as well. internationally.
REVIEW
5. Define the review article and its
It is important for a researcher to fully comprehend the significance of using validated
function in the related literature resources. As a high school student, what do you think is the purpose of using refereed or
peer-reviewed resources? Write a short essay about this.
section.
6. Present an example of a review WRITING THE LITERATURE REVIEW
article for further context. In her book, Conducting Research Literature Review: From the Internet to Paper, Fink (2009)
defines a literature review or review of literature as a presentation of the analysis, patterns, and
critiques of individual sources or the body of literature as a whole. Its purpose is to offer a wide
Review
review of referred scholarly articles, and other sources like journals, theses, and dissertation.
It is important to note that in reviewing literature, understanding and comprehension both

matter. Thus, the write-up expressed in one’s own words is the measure of the researchers’
1. Ask the students to write synthesis of the reviewed materials.
their essay with at least Essential Elements of a Literature Review
50 words in a ½ sheet of The literature review serves as in-depth summary of the related literatures to the study. It
does not only restate facts but rather critique and highlight their relevance to the research. In
intermediate pad. doing so, several elements should be observed in writing this section:
1. Overview of the subject or topic, issues, or theories to be considered
2. Provide sufficient time to 2. Division of works such as those that support a particular position, those against, and
those that offer other ideas
the students in writing their 3. Explanation of the comparison of the gathered literature
essay. 4. Conclusion and the best arguments
Stages Observed in Writing the Literature Review

3. Ask each student to share Since a literature review serves to preface the purpose of the study, the related literature
his or her output to the cannot be evaluated without setting the foundation for the review. A literature review, therefore
follows a systematic approach in writing its content. The premise of the review should be clarified
class.
4. Ask students to pass the Related Literature 123
paper for evaluation.
and the relation of the cited resource materials to the study should be established. Thus, different
stages are observed when writing the literature review:
1. Problem formulation. The researcher must determine the research problem before the
Writing the Literature Review

review of literature is conducted to fully understand the variables considered in the study.
2. Literature search. Any reading material that is related to the study must include a
discussion and explanation of at least one of the variables.
1. Ask the students if they have read a 3. Data evaluation. The indicators that are synthesized from various relevant sources must
book or movie review before. further build the researcher’s confidence as the variables of his or her study are made
clear.
4. Analysis and interpretation. Breaking the entire reading article into smaller parts will
2. Ask them to describe what it was help the researcher correctly interpret the information in the reviewed materials.
about and how it was written. Format of a Literature Review
3. Compare a book review to a In writing the literature review, the researcher can be flexible in utilizing different related
literature. However, as stated earlier, the literature review is not merely a restatement of facts.
literature review in research and Thus, the organization of thought should be duly considered when writing the review.
The general format of a literature review is as follows:

discuss how the latter is more 1. The Introduction
extensive. a. The general problem and the variables should be defined.

b. Every important data should be highlighted to effectively discuss the problem or the
variables such as the theory, methodology, evidences, conclusions, or even gaps.
c. The criteria in selecting the literature should be considered to assess which resources
are pertinent and should be included, and which are irrelevant and should be
removed.
2. The Body
a. Chosen approaches, conclusion of authors, specific objective, and the like should be
included.
b. Studies and literature should be summarized. For the studies, primary consideration
must be given to the result of the studies that includes the variables.
In choosing the literature, the following should be considered:
i. Provenance. This refers to the author’s credentials and the empirical basis of the
article or literature.
ii. Objectivity. This refers to the rationality of every data or facts cited.
iii. Persuasiveness. This refers to the degree of credibility of the data.
iv. Value. This refers to the degree of the contributions of the literature to clarify
variables.

3. The Conclusion
On the Types of Breakfast Prepared. Choosing the right breakfast foods is very
a. Major contributions of the studies or articles should be summarized.
important to make sure you get 1/3 of your daily nutrient requirements. That is why
b. Current developments and new information should be evaluated. you must realize that skipping meals is not a quick way to lose weight (Bailey, 1993).
c. The review should be concluded by relating the gathered data to the central theme or Creveling (2014) noted that a morning meal will help you power through a workout,
problem. as compared to those who fasted until noon. Control of food choice like starchy
carbohydrate intake must be considered to avoid fat gains (Mehdi, 2009). Thus, one
Practical Tips in Writing the Literature Review should adopt healthy habits such as regularly exercising, eating healthy foods such as
fruits, vegetables, and whole grains.
Now that the technical aspects are laid out, one should have a better understanding of the
purpose of the literature review in a research paper. Since it prefaces the entire research study,
the researcher should observe meticulous writing of the each section of the paper. After all, a Review of Related Literature Example 2:
well-written literature review can help readers to easily grasp the actual content.
The following are helpful tips in writing the review: The Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Competencies of Principals
1. Sources, scholarly works, references, and other materials that are refereed and indexed (Cristobal, 2003)
should to be used. Electronic sources should be properly scrutinized since the contained On management roles. A manager of an organization plays various roles that need
information are sometimes inaccurate or erroneous. specific skills and competencies in order for him or her to be effective.
2. Each source should be selected based on its contribution to the topic under review. According to George (1994), a manager needs the following competencies to be
3. The relationship of one source to another should be described. termed as a “total quality manager”:
4. Interpretation should be done appropriately by looking into gaps of previous research. 1. Courage. A courageous manager stands up in unpopular ideas, does not
5. Conflicts or contradictions should be resolved. avoid confrontations, and gives feedback to subordinates and superiors; his
confidence is his own capability;
6. Areas of prior scholarship should be identified.
2. Dependability. A dependable leader follows through, upholds commitments,
7. One’s original work should be placed in the context of existing literature.
meets deadlines, takes and accepts responsibilities for actions, admits mistakes
to superiors, works effectively with little or no supervision from supervisors,
Review of Related Literature Example 1: and keeps supervisors informed of his/her progress;
3. Flexibility. Functions effectively in a changing environment, provides stability,
Skipping Breakfast of High School Students (Bacsal, et al., 2015) remains objective when confronted with many responsibilities at once, and
handles several problems simultaneously;
On Eating Breakfast. Breakfast is often called the most important meal of the day
(Henager, 2010). Eating breakfast allows one’s body to start the day off right. With the 4. Integrity. Adheres to a code of ethics and moral values, behaves in a manner
right nutrients, your breakfast can be a great way to function properly. It is true that that is inconsistent with organizational climate and professional responsibility,
many students are coming to schools without eating breakfast for various reasons does not abuse management privileges, gains trust and respect, and serves as a
or students are making poor nutritional choices at breakfast times for many reasons model to his or her peers;
including: not enough time in the morning, eating habits, and food preferences. 5. Judgment. Carries logical and intellectual assessment to reach sound evidence
According to Baley (2003), any of these can lead to a lack of concentration at school or of alternative actions, bases decisions on logical and factual information, and
throughout the day or even weight issues in the future. Poor breakfast choices can be considers the welfare of other people in his or her judgment; and
blamed on education, historical developments, and income and social determinants. In 6. Respect for others. Honors rather than belittles the opinions or works of
addition, children who skip meals barely meet the required dietary intake. This results others and demonstrates a belief on each individual’s value regardless of their
to lethargy and difficulty in doing mental tasks (Bailey and Earl, 1993). status in the organization.
Related Literature 125 126 REVIEW OF LITERATURE
On management practices. There are five behavioral management practices in

order to become effective managers according to Posner (1987). These are as follows:
1. They challenge the process. They are willing to take the status quo. They make
4. Discuss the elements, stages
mistakes to push innovations.
observed, and format of a literature
2. They inspire a shared vision. They have a dream and purpose, a goal, or agenda.
They live their lives backwards by studying a practice in their work. They are review and cite the examples on
interested to share passionately that vision and make it happen.
3. They enable others to act. They focus on “we” to build coalition and encourage pages 125-135 for further context.
collaboration. They build teams and empower others.
4. They model the organization. They are clear about their beliefs and act 5. Provide some guidelines in writing
consistently within their beliefs. They show others their values by behaving as
they expect others to act. the literature review and relate
5. They encourage the heart. They celebrate and offer dramatic encouragement
and rewards. They show their members they can win and that winning is exciting.
these in writing the literature review
Allen (in De Guiana, 1998) presents only four major functions: planning, organizing, as a student researcher.
leading and controlling. He reduced the five functions to four by incorporating Payol’s
“coordinating” with “organizing”; by changing “commanding” to the less autocratic
“leading”; and retaining to planning and controlling.
He broke down all four functions into nineteen specific activities:
1. Planning – forecasting, establishing objectives, programming, scheduling,
budgeting, formulating policies, and establishing procedures
2. Organizing – developing organization structure, delegating, and establishing
relationship
3. Leading – decision-making, communicating, motivating, selecting people, and
developing
4. Controlling – establishing performance standards, performance measuring,
evaluating, and correcting.
The school managers are endowed not only with a higher degree of responsibility,
but also of discretionary powers. Thus, this responsibility and authority include
coordinating all resources of their work group to achieve set goals. They have to
organize direct, motivate, communicate, control, evaluate, and develop people in his
work group. Leveriza (1995) regards the managers as supervisors or overseers. This is
because they deal not only with people but also with objectives. In actual practice, the
supervisor is more than a manager or an overseer of people. He is the organization’s
man responsible for the conduct of others in the achievement of various organizational
tasks: the maintenance of quality standard, the protection and care of materials, and
the services to be rendered under his control.
Related Literature 127 Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 61

Likewise, Bittle (1991) looks at the school manager’s responsibilities in five and which things he can have. He seeks to know what he cannot do and tends to
directions, enabling them to fill effectively the following five different roles: leaders and know where to go if he needs help. The individual loves to control his own feelings
trainers of their employees; implementers of ideas; co-workers with other supervisors; and moods, pursue personal interest and set his individual agenda, learn organization
subordinates to their own supervisors; and mediators of employees’ needs. by observing and listening, and use meta-cognitive skills. Another scholar, Chase
Clearly, these roles indicate that a manager is not only responsible for the (2000), termed intrapersonal competency as personal mastery. According to him,
development of his people, but also for the maintenance of things, materials, and personal mastery takes many different forms depending on the person’s background
equipment within the organization. and life experiences. The focus may be on overcoming one’s limitations such as
procrastination or a particular learning disability. Others may struggle with addiction
On intrapersonal competency. It is the ability to relate effectively with subordinates,
or dependency. Stress may also fall under personal mastery, as does the actual
colleagues, superiors, and representatives of other organizations. In the US, an ASCR-
day-to-day implementation of that idealistic time management program you would
sponsored research project yielded 12 dimensions of outstanding supervisors, gleaned
like to adopt. An often overlooked dimension of personal mastery is the development
from the literature of the past 15 years and verified by experts. These are community staff
of an ethical stance on all aspects of the organizational life.
development, instructional program, planning and change, motivating and organizing,
observation and conferencing, curriculum, problem-solving and decision-making, service To be an effective agent of change, this intrapersonal competence is necessary.
to teachers, personal development, community relation, and research and program According to Whittaker (2000), those involved in works as agent of change need to
evaluation. appreciate that the personal lives of individuals are characterized by a struggle to
secure and find fulfillment. The ways that an individual behaves in an organization
Telephone surveys were made to confirm further the importance of the 12
and reacts to the change in expectations may be determined similarly with the
dimensions. There was a strong belief in the importance of human relation and that
developed struggle, as described by Erickson with regard to the particular details of
a key to a supervisor’s effectiveness is the “love and like of people.” A supervisor
the organizational issues at stake. A curiosity about human behavior and sensitivity
should be willing to give other people credit for success and should be more of a
for the psychological struggle of human beings are important parts of being an
“cheerleader” than a “scorekeeper.”
effective manager and leader. Many educators and scholars used personality in lieu
Supervisors, according to Pajak (1990), are a very person-oriented activity. They of intrapersonal competence. According to Appodaca (1997), to better understand
require knowledge and skill but the human element is paramount. As asserted by how to work effectively with people, it is necessary for a manager to first understand
one of the respondents in his study, “You always have to remember that people are himself. Studying and understanding one’s own desires and mental make-up can
important.” accomplish this. This is better known as looking at one’s personality.
Intrapersonal competency is termed by Holmes (1999) as intrapersonal intelligence. Personality is the sum total of the qualities and characteristics of a person as shown
According to him, it includes the thoughts and feelings of an individual. The more one in his manner of walking, talking, dressing, attitude, interests, and ways of reaching
can bring into his own consciousness, the better he can see his inner world to the out to other people. It refers to all the factors within the person that influence his
outer world of experience. It helps an individual understand his desires and goals character, behavior, thinking, and feelings (Santos, 1997). Personality is a dynamic
and emotional nature. He describes a person with a well-developed intrapersonal organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his
competence as one who is aware of his range of emotions; finds approaches and unique adjustment to his environment. It is the sum total of ways in which an individual
outlets to express his feelings and thoughts; develops an accurate model of self; is reacts to and interacts with others (Robbins, 1996). It is also a secondary description
motivated to identify and pursue goals; establishes and lives by an ethical value system; of psychology, which is concerned, with the distinctive pattern of thoughts, behaviors,
works independently; is curious about the big questions in life: meanings, roles, and and experiences, which characterize the individual’s unified adjustment to his or her
purposes; manages ongoing learning and personal growth; attempts to seek out and life situation (Allyn, 1999).
understand inner experience; gains insights into the complexities for self and human
Personality needs personal skills and abilities in order to be effective according
conditions; strives for self actualities; and empowers others.
to Boak (1998). Personal skills and abilities include the three areas of managing self.
Dr. Howard Gardner (1992), in his theory of eight multiple intelligences, defines These are self-awareness; the practical understanding of one’s self and one’s own
intrapersonal competence as referring to having an understanding of oneself and of innate reactions and preferences; personal effectiveness, the number of key skills and
knowing who he is, what he can do, what he wants, how to act on things, which to avoid, competencies that can be used to help people achieve their goals; and self-development
128 REVIEW OF LITERATURE Related Literature 129
to help people learn to cope with changing circumstances and demands in their skills
2. Agreeableness – This dimension refers to an individual’s propensity to differ
and competencies. Self-awareness, as mentioned by Boak, is synonymous to
with one another. Highly agreeable people value harmony more than they value
intrapersonal competencies. It has five useful mental models. These are assertive
having their say or their way. They are cooperative and trusting with others.
behavior, foundations of assertiveness, life position, drivers, and personality.
People who score low on agreeableness focus more on their own needs than on
Personality, as one of the factors, is given importance in this study. As defined by
needs of others.
Boak, these are more or less stable internal factors that make one person’s behavior
consistent from one time to another and different from the behaviors that other 3. Conscientiousness – This dimension refers to the number of goals on which
people would manifest in comparable situations. a person focuses on. A highly conscientious person pursues fewer goals in a
purposeful way. A highly persistent person tends to be more easily distracted,
Personality plays an important role in an individual’s personal, educational,
pursues many goals, and is more hedonistic.
vocational adjustment, and success. The probability of success in these three areas
is determined to a large extent by personality factors. There have been studies of 4. Emotional stability – This dimension taps a person ability to withstand stress.
failure and maladjustments in these areas which are usually attributed to the lack of People with positive emotional stability tend to be characterized as calm,
necessary personality traits. Employers of big firms resort to personality testing to enthusiastic, and secure. Those with high negative scores tend to be nervous,
meet and get an objective, unbiased, and accurate assessment of their prospective depressed, and insecure.
employees’ personalities. 5. Openness to experience. The final dimension addresses one’s range of
An individual’s written account of his past behaviors, feelings, and wishes can interests. Extremely open people are fascinated by novelty and innovations.
also be a good source of information about his personality, since the kind and quality They tend to be imaginative, artistically sensitive, and intelligent. Those at
of behavior directly affect work output or performance. Plunket (1990) mentioned the other end of the openness category appear more conventional and find
that aptitude areas of a person’s personality may or may not be developed. They are comfort in the familiar.
related to different competencies because they are the areas in which competencies The terms used by Ormrod (1995), which are related to intrapersonal competence,
are developed. A person with an aptitude for determining special relationships has the are self-concept and self-esteem. Self-concept, according to him, is the belief in one’s
potential to become effective managers. self, character, strengths, and weaknesses. Self-esteem is the extent to which your
Moreover, Santos (1997) continued that knowing one’s personality is so important believe yourself to be capable and worthy individual. Individuals who have positive
that through understanding of it and the personalities of others, it will spell the self-concept and high self-esteem are more likely to succeed academically, socially,
difference between success and failure in dealing with others. An understanding of and athletically. There are also factors to negative and positive self-concept. These are
one’s own personality and of others can make the difference between satisfactory behavior and performance; behavior of other individuals; and expectations that others
and unsatisfactory adjustment. One of the most widely used personality framework hold for performance. She also gave reasons why self-concept is resistant to change:
is called the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) Test. It is essentially a 100-question 1. People usually behave in ways consistent with what they believe about
personality test that asks people how they usually feel or act in a particular situation. themselves, so their behaviors are likely to produce reactions on others that
On the basis of the answers of individuals in the test, they are classified as confirm their self-concept.
extroverted or introverted (E or I), sensing or intuitive (S or N), thinking or feeling 2. People tend to seek out information that confirms what they already believe
(T or F), and perceiving or judging (P or J). There is also the five factor model of about themselves. Individuals with positive self-concept are more likely to
personality dimensions (Robbins, 1996). These are as follows: seek positive feedback whereas those with negative self-concept may actually
1. Extroversion and introversion – This dimension captures one comfort level look for information about their weakness and limitations.
with relationships. Extroverts tend to be friendly and outgoing and spend 3. People often put themselves in situations where they believe they would
much of their time maintaining and enjoying a large number of relationships. not succeed, thereby eliminating any possibility of discovering that they can
Introverts tend to be reserved and have fewer relationships and they are more succeed.
comfortable being solitary than most people.
62REVIEW
130• Practical
OF LITERATURE Research 1 Related Literature 131
Review of Related Literature Example 3:
Leadership is necessary. So it is written:
According to Berkley (1997), “without a vision, the people perish.
On Leadership Competencies and Management Skills (Seongkil, 2010)
Sheep without a shepherd are scattered. How can people hear without
On leadership skills. There are two factors to consider in leadership. These are as someone preaching to them? Someone needs to guard the good deposits
follows (Barron, 2010; Hayden, 2005; Hersman, 2007): that were entrusted to us by God. Someone must teach what is in accord
1. Spiritual factors with sound doctrine. So God supplies leaders—some to be apostles,
a. He must be called by God. some to be prophets, some to be evangelists, and some to be pastors and
b. He must meet the biblical requirements in his life. teachers—to build up the body of Christ.”
c. He must be empowered by the Holy Spirit to accomplish his job. There are five exemplary practices of a good leader (Haber, 2009; Barron, 2010):
d. He must have an understanding of the biblical principles and be able to modeling the way; inspiring a shared vision; challenging the process; enabling others
apply them to the ministry of the Sunday School. to act; and encouraging the heart.
e. He must be a man of prayer. On leadership models. There are also leadership models that were mentioned
2. Natural factors (Kouzes and Posner, 2008):
a. He should understand basic human relationship and how to get along with 1. Relational leadership model – It involves a relational and ethical process of
people. people attempting to accomplish together a positive change (Hayden, 2005;
b. He should understand how to motivate people to get job done. Hersman, 2007). It is an inclusive, empowering, purposeful, and ethical process.
c. He must know to train people, both technically and in informal settings.
2. Social change model of leadership – This is anchored on the premise that
d. He should have the ability to supervise and evaluate workers.
leadership is inclusive of people in positional or non-positional roles. It is a
e. He should solve interpersonal problems, produce a cohesive staff, and
process that promotes values of equity, social justice, self-knowledge, service,
keep everyone working toward the goal.
and collaboration. This model emphasizes three major values: individual values
Leaders seem to arise in almost all societies and organizations, large and small, like consciousness of self (Barron, 2010), congruence, and commitment;
simple and complex, in every historical period and in every part of the world. Some group values like collaboration (Aadmodth, 2000), common purpose, and
observers claim that leaders exhibit special traits that compel people to accept their controversy with civility; and community values like citizenship (Hayden, 2005).
authority. Despite decades of research on the long list of leadership traits, the results Its major objective is change and to make a better world and a better society
remain inconclusive. Leaders, it turns out, come in all shapes and sizes. Everywhere, for one’s self and others (Hayden, 2005; Barron, 2010). It conveys the belief
the search is on for new leaders, different categories of leaders, and more relevant that individuals, groups, and communities have the ability to work together to
forms of leadership. make the change.
Beerel (1998) lists the various foundational principles of leadership touch 3. Servant leadership – It is characterized as a natural feeling that one wants
personality and traits and principles: to serve first. A servant leader is one who listens intently and receptively,
1. We are not the center of the universe; we are a tiny part in an infinite system. exercises empathy, nurtures healing and wholeness, unflinchingly and
2. As living creatures, we are in a continuous process of evolution and we must consistently applies ethics and values, builds cooperation within the team
adapt in order to survive. through persuasion, dreams big dreams, exercises foresight, understands
service and stewardship as the first and foremost priority, nurtures the growth
3. We must be attentive to the power of the unconscious in influencing human
of employees, and builds community within the organization (Barron, 2010;
behavior (Aadmodt, 2009; Hersman, 2005).
Hersman, 2007).
4. All things are relative.
5. All systems comprise interrelated networks linked by a complex of relationships
that are in perpetual change and motion.
132 REVIEW OF LITERATURE Related Literature 133
4. Emotionally intelligent leadership – This involves three areas of consciousness: 5. Self-confidence – They possess self-efficacy that they are capable to lead
context, self, and others. Consciousness of context includes environmental others.
awareness and group-savvy. Consciousness of self includes emotional self-
6. Intelligence – Leaders have above average cognitive ability to process
perception, honest self-understanding, healthy self-esteem, emotional
enormous amounts of information. Leaders are not necessarily geniuses, but
self-control, authenticity, flexibility, achievement, optimism, and initiative.
rather have a superior ability to analyze alternative scenarios and identify
Consciousness of others includes empathy, citizenship, inspiration, influence,
potential opportunities (Barron, 2010).
coaching, being an agent of change, conflict management, developing
relationships, teamwork, and capitalizing differences (Barron, 2010; Aadmodth, 7. Knowledge of business – Effective leaders understand the business environment
2001). in which they operate. This assists their intuition to recognize opportunities
and understand their organization’s capacity to capture those opportunities.
5. Leadership identity development – This is composed of the following
stages: awareness; exploration/engagement; leader identified; leadership
differentiated; generativity; and integration or synthesis.
Literatures of McShane (2005), Hayden (2005), Goodbog (2009), and Aadmodt
(2001) explain the five perspectives of leadership: competency (trait) perspective
of leadership; behavioral perspective; contigency perspective; transformational C HA PTER SU MMARY
perspective; and implicit leadership perspective.
1. The related literature serves to clarify the different variables being studied and the
On leadership competencies. The construct, competency (trait) perspective of
central concepts of the research study.
leadership began when experts reexamined the trait approach but with more emphasis
on specific competencies. Competencies encompass a broader range of personal 2. Through a review of literature, the major variables of the study, sub-variables, and
characteristics such as knowledge, skills and abilities, and values. Experts identified indicators are defined and clarified.
seven competencies (traits) of an effective leader:
3. A literature review is a specific type of research paper that focuses on published
1. Emotional intelligence – This is an ability to perceive and express emotions, literature on a given topic. It serves as the initial step in doing a research.
assimilate emotion and thought, understand and reason with emotions, and
4. The stages involved in writing the literature are problem formulation, literature
regulate them with others. This requires a strong self-monitoring personality
search, data evaluation, analysis, and interpretation.
because leaders must be sensitive to situational cues and readily adapt their
own behavior appropriately (Barron, 2010; Hayden, 2005). 5. The common format in writing the literature review includes an introduction, a body,
2. Integrity – This refers to a leader’s truthfulness and tendency to translate words and a conclusion.
into deeds. Integrity is sometimes called “authentic leadership” because the 6. The following tips can be followed in literature review: choose refereed sources and
individual acts with sincerity. He or she has a higher moral capacity to judge check electronic sources; select sources based on their contribution; describe
dilemmas based on sound values and acts accordingly (Aadmodt, 2001). relationships among sources; and identify areas of prior scholarship.
3. Drive – Leaders should have a high need for achievement. This represents the
inner motivation that leaders possess to pursue their goals and encourage
others to move forward with theirs. A drive inspires unbridled inquisitiveness
and a need for constant learning.
4. Leadership motivation – Leaders have a strong need for power because they
want to influence others. However, they tend to have a need for socialized
power.
134 REVIEW OF LITERATURE Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 63

C HEC K - U P
Assessment Activities Identify the major variables, sub-variables, and indicators of the examples of literature
review featured in the discussion. Write your answers in the space provided below.
1. Example 1: Skipping Breakfast of High School Students
check-up a. Major variable/s:
1. Ask the students to refer to the

examples of review of literature in b. Sub-variable/s:
the book in answering this activity.

2. Some answers are provided below. c. Indicator/s:
1) Example 1
• eating breakfast; on the 2. Example 2: The Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Competencies of Principals
a. Major variable/s:
types of breakfast prepared
• reasons for not eating
b. Sub-variable/s:
breakfast; results of not
eating breakfast
• not enough time in the c. Indicator/s:
morning; eating habits; and

food preferences. 3. Example 3: On Leadership Competencies and Management Skills
a. Major variable/s:
2) Example 2
• management roles;
management practices
• factors that make an
effective manager
• intrapersonal and
interpersonal competencies
b. Sub-variable/s:
of principals
3) Example 3 c. Indicator/s:
• leadership skills; leadership
model; leadership
competencies
APPL IC ATIO N
• considerations for good
leadership Recall your favorite book. Write a simple review about it in the space provided below. Try
to include all the elements and follow the proper format of a literature review.
• spiritual and natural factors;
foundational leadership Title:
principles of leadership
AppLicAtiOn
1. Ask the students to recall their Students’ answers will vary.
favorite book.
2. Have them write a review of the
book and remind them to follow the
proper guidelines in writing it.
3. Ask them to exchange their work
with their seatmates for critiquing.
64 • Practical research 1 Related Literature 137

Name : Date :
4. Have them write comments on a

RESEARCH ACTIVITY 6
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
separate piece of paper on how well
their seatmate wrote their literature
Outline the Related Literature section of your research paper by providing the required
information below. review.
Proposed study:
5. Have them return the books and ask
1. Major variable:
them to refer to the comment paper
for revising their work.
Sub-variable/s: 6. As a take-home activity, instruct
them to revise their work on another
piece of paper.
Indicators:
7. Require them to pass their output in
Reference:
the next meeting.
2. Major variable:
ReseARch Activity 6
Sub-variable/s: 1. Ask the students to fill in all
information.
Indicators:
2. Ask them to review the literatures
they will be using in their research
paper. Allow them to visit the library
if necessary.
Reference:
3. Give additional guidelines in
identifying the major variables, sub-
3. Major variable: variables, and indicators, as well as
proper referencing of their resource
materials for their research.
Sub-variable/s:
Indicators:
Reference:
4. Major variable:
Note:
Sub-variable/s: classroom activity be a take-home
Indicators: additional research materials.
Reference:
their outputs.
140 REVIEW OF LITERATURE Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 65

CHAPTER
Objectives
12 Related Studies
Complete the table below. Think of five pivotal events in your
life. Then, write about how it helped you improve yourself
1. differentiate the different research will be able to
1. describe the in the long run. Afterwards, answer the following guide
questions.
literatures that are related to the different research
literatures that
are related to the Life Events Realizations, Benefits
proposed problem and problem and
2. construct a review
1.
2. construct a review of related studies of related studies for
a research study.
for the proposed study. 2.
3.
Opening Activity
4.
1. Ask the students to remember

important events in their lives that 5.
have been crucial in their overall

GUIDE QUESTIONS:
personal growth.
1. How can you describe in general these “pivotal events” in your life?
2. Have them write their answers in the

Students’ answers will vary.
table.
Related Studies 141
outputs to the class.
4. Have them answer the guide
questions. 2. Do you think other people can benefit from learning about your experience to infer some
helpful guidelines for themselves? Why do you think so?
Investigation
3. How can you relate this activity to research and the review of related studies?
Related Studies
1. Introduce the lesson by defining the INVESTIG ATIO N
related studies and its purpose in the
RELATED STUDIES
research paper. The review of related studies is an essential part of the planning and research stage of the
study. That is, determining if the research is objective and empirically-based entails the surveying
2. Discuss the criteria on how two or of previous studies that involve similar variables. In doing so, it provides insight into the methods
through which validity of the results is to be established.
more studies can be considered The review of the related studies serves as the basis of the analysis of results because it allows
similar studies. the researcher to compare and contrast his or her findings with those of past studies. The results
of a study are verified by similar findings or negated by different findings from other researchers.
The studies can be in the form of theses, dissertation, or journal articles.
The gathered studies are related to the present study when they have the following similarities:
1. They use the same variables, sub-variables, concepts or construct.
2. They have the same subject or topic.
The researcher should be reminded however, that even if a previous research used the same
variables as his or her study, the two studies may vary in the delimitation in terms of the sub-
variables investigated or in terms of focus and purpose.
In writing a review of a related study, the following data must be indicated:

1. The name of the author, the date, and the setting of the study
2. The title
3. The salient findings, which are the most important “ingredients” to include since the
discussion of the variables and their relationship/s will be based on them

Related Studies Example 1:
Buenafe (1983) conducted a study that was designed to determine the relationship
between the job performance of principals and teachers, and the principals’ managerial
The Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Competencies of School Managers: attitudes, needs, personality traits, and mental ability among 50 principals and 388
Basis for the Formulation of the Human Relation Intervention Program teachers in three dioceses in Abra, Ilocos Sur, and Ilocos Norte. She found out that
(Cristobal, 2003) there was significant relationship existed among variables measured. Teacher’s
performance correlated meaningfully to the principal’s attitudes, personality, and
As this study is focused on the effectiveness of managers, a study conducted by
mental ability. There was also a positively marked relationship between the teacher’s
Catacutan (1992) is related. Its objective is to analyze the effectiveness of middle-
and principal’s performance. Some variables on personality and on performance of
level managers in six selected private elementary schools in Metro Manila where she
both the teachers and principals and the respondents are similar with the present
analyzed 42 subject coordinators, 25 head teachers, 6 principals, and 275 teachers. The
study. It differs on needs and mental ability since these are not taken variables of the
study utilized variables like management skills focusing on human relation and non-
present research.
manipulative variables like educational attainment, years of experience as managers,
and management trainings, as well as the kind of respondents. She found out the Another research on personality was conducted by dela Cruz (1996) that aimed to
following: assess the personality traits and leadership effectiveness skills of the public elementary
school principals in the Division of Laguna. Her respondents were 34 public elementary
1. 42 years old, female, married, has a doctorate degree in Education, has earned
school principals, 68 teachers, 13 education supervisors, and 9 districts. Her findings
MA units, has received no honors, has administrative experience of 15 years, has
were as follows:
attended more than 40 seminars, and has a “very satisfactory” performance
rating 1. The public elementary schools principals possessed the personality traits in
terms of ability, occupation achievement, decisiveness, self-actualization, and
2. Excellent in the performance of the four management skills and the five
initiative. Majority of the principals obtained scores above the average and in
leadership styles
the borderline.
3. The correlation of the effectiveness of middle-level managers are the teachers’
2. There was a significant difference in the personality traits of public elementary
rating on management skills, schools where they graduated, age, honors, and
principals.
awards received
3. The highly favorable and evident leadership effectiveness should reveal that a
4. The best predictors of the middle-level managers are the school where they
public elementary school principal possessed technical, human relations, and
graduated from, housing, and honors and awards received
conceptual skills.
Becoming (1993) determined the teacher’s relating and affective behaviors among
4. The leadership effectiveness skills in terms of technical and human relation
mentors with or without SEDP training and their personality variables among faculty
skills differed significantly while leadership effectiveness skills in terms of
members of five private schools in Pablo City. She arrived at the following conclusions:
conceptual skills were similar as prescribed of the principal themselves, peers,
1. Trainings such as SEDP have minimal effects on both relating and affective teachers, and education experience.
behaviors among teachers.
5. Among the demographic variables, only years of teaching experience correlated
2. Some personality variables relate to relating behaviors of teachers. However, significantly with personality traits in terms of decisiveness. The present study
such correlations are moderately small. differs for it will focus on high school principals and not utilize the response of
3. Some personality variables relate in varying degrees with affective behaviors supervisors, but the study of dela Cruz is mostly related in most aspects.
of teachers. The correlation is negligible to low. This study is related to the
Del Rio (1993) conducted a study about the influence of management competencies
present because of some personality variables of mentors that are also
of school principals in the performance of pupils. Her study aimed to determine the
variables under the study and the effects of training in their personality.
perceived influence of management competencies of the grade school principals
Related Studies 143 144 REVIEW OF LITERATURE
on teachers’ and pupils’ performance among the elementary schools in San Pablo City.
She had the following results:
1. that the grade school principals perceived themselves as “very satisfactory” in 3. Ask the students how they think
their management competencies;
2. that the teachers with “very satisfactory” performance tended to rate the similar studies help in improving the
principals higher than those teachers with outstanding performance;
3. that the Grade VI pupils’ perceptions of the teaching performance of their
results of future ones.
teachers indicated to some extent the perceived influence of the management
competencies of the grade school principals; and 4. Discuss the different components of
4. that the scholastic performance or ability is not a factor in the perception of
teaching performance among the pupils. Del Rio’s study is similar to the present
a review of related studies.
study for it assessed the relationship of the management competencies of
principals to the performance of teachers and pupils. Only she conducted it in 5. Provide some guidelines in writing
elementary schools.
Also, a study was conducted by Fontenilla (1996) who identified the correlates of
the review of related studies.
professionalism and competencies among tertiary school middle-level managers of
three colleges in Nueva Viscaya. Findings of his study revealed that the correlates of 6. Discuss and compare the differences
competencies, which came out very high, are organizational skills, work values and
attitudes, vision, external services, and community relations. between related literature and
Cortes (1992) conducted a study in the competencies of presidents of state colleges
and universities in the Philippines. Some of her findings were as follows:
related studies.
1. In terms of decision-making, the presidents were rated most effective as
perceived by themselves.
7. Cite the examples on pages 143-147
2. The correlates of competencies of presidents of state colleges and universities for further context.
are education, scholarships, experience, travel, training fellowships, and study
grants.
3. The factors that affect performance of these presidents are professional
development, professional maturity, and recognition.
Years of experience, self-concept, and personality characteristics are some of

the variables studied by Brawner (1980). These are variables that are also considered
in the present study. Her study found out that the non-promoted principals had the
highest profile on four aspects of promotion: policies, pressures, smooth interpersonal
relations, and personality factors.
Related Studies 145

Ramos (1986) gave the five most important skills/competencies, listed in the order The studies conducted by Rosenthal and Owen are related to the present study
of priority, which are expected of teachers generally at all levels: since the two researchers and the new study focuses on the spending habits of the
1. fluency and proficiency in the language of instruction high school students.
2. skills in the use of teaching methods appropriate for the class activities of the
day
3. mastery of the subject/discipline he teaches
4. skills in maintaining order and discipline in class C HA PTER SU MMARY
5. skills in evaluating the achievements 1. Related studies serve as the basis of the analysis of results because it allows the
researcher to compare and contrast his or her findings with those of past studies.
2. Studies are related when they used the same variables, sub-variables, concepts, or
construct, and they have the same subject or topic of the study.
Related Studies Example 2:
3. In writing a review of related study, the following data must be indicated: the name of
the author, the date and the setting as in when and where the study was conducted; the
On the Spending Habits of Students (Abas, 2015) title; and the salient findings.
The study entitled “Let the Games Begin: Gaming Technology and Entertainment
Among Students,” which was conducted by Steve Jones, a professor in the
Department of Communication at the University of Illinois at Chicago found out that
there is a significant impact of video games on young people’s lives. Through gaming, C HEC K - U P
extra expenses are incurred by students. Another study by Rosenthal (1989) when
she studied how and where the male and female students spend their money, she Read the questions below and then write a short essay for your answer.
found out that female students are more interested in social activities than males.
1. What is the purpose of the review of the related studies in a research paper?
Also, female have significantly higher interest than males in hobbies, social funs, trips,
and church but significantly less interested in sports.
“Your Spending Habits as an Adult are Affected by Your Childhood Experiences” is

a research conducted in the University of Minnesota’s Carlson School of Management
by Charlene Owen in 2013, which is based from the theory of “life history” or that the
events in an organism’s life are guided by its need to produce the largest possible
number of surviving offsprings and is dependent on its environment. In the study,
2. What is the difference between a review of related literature and a review of related studies?
she hypothesized that how a person uses money during dire times is affected by
their lifestyles during their younger years. She found out that in two experiments,
volunteers were asked to complete tasks related to risk-taking with the premise of
experiencing economic recession. Those who grew up in low-income homes tended
to be more impulsive; they gravitated quicker toward luxury goods, and were loose
with money whenever they had a lot of it. On the other hand, those who grew up
in financially stable homes were more cautious; they gravitated less toward luxury
goods and believed in delayed gratification.
146 REVIEW OF LITERATURE Related Studies 147
3. Do you think a research can withstand on its own without having to compare with related inadequate facilities, poor scheduling, overloading of faculty, and inconsistencies in rules
literatures or studies? Why or why not? and policies were assessed as common problems encountered by managers. Thus, an
intervention program on leadership and management skills was proposed.
The study of Goodbog (2009) on transformational leadership was found to be

associated to student learning and student perception which is similar with the study
of Barrameda (2000). Though in the latter study, there is a low association but the one
variable of transformational leadership which is a stakeholder focus that appears to be
a significant correlate to student achievement. Furthermore, among the total quality
management competencies, information and analysis, school performance results, faculty
and staff focus, educational support process management, and student and stakeholders
AP P L ICAT IO N
focus show a low level of correlation with the teacher’s competence.
Although the studies of Muello’s, Barrameda’s, Vostakalei’s and Lao’s were focused on
Read the sample review of related studies below. Then, on a separate sheet of paper, list
middle-level managers like supervisors and principals, these are also related to this study
down the researchers and their respective studies mentioned in the text. Provide a short
since they experienced being classroom managers before they were promoted as school
explanation for each study.
managers.
Correlates of Leadership Competencies and Management Skills
of Classroom Managers: Basis for a Management Intervention Program
(Seongkil 2010)
The studies of Lao (2007), Vostakalei (2009), and McGoran (2005) enumerated
the common leadership skills used. These are administrative functions, professional
competence, supervisory skills, moral and spiritual qualifications, integrity, passion
for work, responsibility and trustworthiness, and managerial skills like planning,
communication, technical, and people skills. Lao (2007) found out that profile descriptions
like gender and educational attainment were highly significant, while age, civil status, and
years of experience were not significantly related to managerial skills.
McGoran (2005), Cheng (1994), and Richard and Fisher (1996) concentrated on
leadership qualities like service, authenticity, empowerment and delegation, community
involvement, confidence, and friendliness. They found out that these variables are
significantly and positively correlated to school effectiveness like influencing the students’
motivation and their relationship with fellow students and teachers, and finishing tasks
(MacGoran, 2005), the students’ attitude, and affective performance like self-concept and
self-efficacy (Cheng, 2006; McGoran 2005).
In classroom management studies conducted by Stalling (2005), Muello (2002), and

Garcia (2009), variables like policies and rules, use of time, class intrusions, and legal
and ethical principles were found to be significantly associated with teacher morale and
student behavior. They further found out that there are few class misbehaviors, lower
absence rates, less littering, and strengthened classroom relationships. In Muello’s study,
148
REVIEW OF LITERATURE Related Studies 149
Check-up
1. Instruct the students to write their essays with at least 50 words.
2. Ask them to share their answers to the class afterwards.
3. Refer to the answer key provided below.
1) Some of the purposes of the review of related studies are to provide insights into the methods
used, to serve as the basis of the analysis of results, and to verify current results by comparing
them with previous ones.
2) Review of related literature serves as the platform to discuss the variables being studied
using the published materials, while review of related studies is the search for related studies
conducted on the topic to look into what has already been determined about the problem by
other researchers.
3) No, because the related literatures and studies serve to provide credibility and validity to your
work. While one may have produced results from his or her research work, a benchmark is
needed to validate the results if it provides new substantial information or simply a reiteration of
another study’s results.
Application
1. Give the students at least 10 to 15 minutes to answer the activity.
2. Provide the table below as blank to the student as a guide in answering the activity.
3. Refer to the sample answer below.
Title/Variables
Researcher/s Year Explanation
being studied
Lao, Vostakalei, common leadership 2007, Common leadership skills include administrative
McGoran skills 2009, functions, professional competence, supervisory
2005 skills, moral and spiritual qualifications, integrity,
passion for work, responsibility and trustworthiness,
and managerial skills like planning, communication,
technical, and people skills.
McGoran, relation of certain 2005, They found out that certain variables are
Cheng, Richard leadership qualities to 1994, significantly and positively correlated to school
and Fisher student performace 1996 effectiveness.
Stalling, Muello, external factors 2005, Variables like policies and rules, use of time, class
Garcia affecting teacher 2003, intrusions, and legal and ethical principles were
morale and student 2009 found to be significantly associated with teacher
behavior morale and student behavior.
Goodbog, relationship of 2009, There is a low association but the one variable of
Barrameda transformational 2000 transformational leadership which is a stakeholder
leadership to focus that appears to be a significant correlate to
student learning and student achievement.
perception
4. Ask them to write their answers on a separate sheet of paper.

5. Ask the students to exchange books for correction.

Name : Date :
ReseARch Activity 7
RESEARCH ACTIVITY 7
REVIEW OF RELATED STUDIES
1. Ask the students to fill in all sections Gather related studies to your proposed study and complete the following items below.
Proposed Study
with the required information.
2. Ask them to review all the related 1. Title of the thesis:
Author:
studies they will be using in their School: Year:
research paper. Allow them to visit Relevant findings:
the library if necessary.

3. Give additional guidelines in Relationship to the present study:
identifying relevant information
from their resource materials and
the relationship to their present 2. Title of the thesis:
study. Author:
School: Year:
4. Provide one-on-one student Relevant findings:

Relationship to the present study:
Note:
Related Studies 151
constraints and the necessity for 3. Title of the thesis:
Author:
additional research materials. School: Year:
Relevant findings:
research paper will be based on their Relationship to the present study:
outputs.
4. Title of the thesis:

Author:
School: Year:
Relevant findings:
Relationship to the present study:
70 • Practical research 1 152 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

UNIT
CONDUCTING
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
CHAPTER
13 Methodology and Design

for Qualitative Research
Objectives

chapter, the students Read the following selection regarding the significance of
will be able to interviews. Then, answer the guide questions that follow.
1. display the fundamental knowledge 1. display fundamental
knowledge of Interview as Parts of Daily Life
of various qualitative research various qualitative
research designs and
by Cesar A. Cisneros-Puebla, Robert Faux & Günter Mey
Interviews have become a part of our daily lives. We

designs and 2. differentiate the
commonly used
read interviews in the press; we see people interviewed
on television; many of us know of the “celebrity
qualitative research
2. differentiate the commonly used designs from each
other.
interview.” One consequence of this familiarity is a
tendency to simplify. An interviewer asks the interviewee
qualitative research designs from questions—a question eliciting an answer (Gubrium &
Holstein, 2002). However, the interview in qualitative
each other. research is a critical method in much of the work many
of us do. Unlike the interview of the “popular” media
with its rigid question and answer format, the interview in qualitative research comes in
many guises, as can be seen in this issue. It goes beyond mere fact gathering and attempts to
Opening Activity construct meaning and interpretation in the context of conversation (Kvale, 1996).
The interview, as a way to gather information, is of fairly recent origin; there being a time
when an interview as such did not exist. Of course, as Benney and Hughes (1956) point out,
1. Ask the students to read the selection. people have always asked questions and most of the time, people have responded, but these
encounters would not be perceived as an interview. The emergence of the interview only
came about when the roles “interviewer” and “interviewee” became formalized.
2. Have them answer the guide The development of interviews reflected changing relationships between individuals.
It gradually became commonplace for “strangers” to ask questions of one another to gain
questions. knowledge. Riesman and Benney (1956) see this change as the result of “the modern temper.”
More recently, David Silverman (1997), seeing the widespread use and impact of interviews
3. Ask the students to share their on contemporary life, has suggested that we live in an “interview society” (p. 248). Among
the conditions required by an interview society, Silverman sees an informing subjectivity—the
output to the class. evolution of a self as an object of narration. This can come about only when individuals qua
respondents are perceived as offering meaningful knowledge to share with others.
Interpersonally, this is seen in the democratization of the interpretations of one’s experiences;
4. Refer to the sample answers
154 CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
provided below.
1) Interviews conducted by the
media sometimes involve closed individuals are seen as “significant commentators on their own experience” (Gubrium &
and leading questions which Holstein 2002, p.5). What this means, in part, is that the traditional roles of interviewer and
interviewee have become more fluid. Individuals are able to come together in dialogue and
produce non-insightful answers. meaningfully discuss their experiences.
We see a transformation of the individual through the interview. The interview gives
On the other hand, interviews individuals appropriate outlets through which their experiences and thoughts can be shared
with others in meaningful interactions. But, given the widespread use of interviews, have
in qualitative research goes they, the interviews, transformed society? Gubrium and Holstein (2002) rightly suggest that
interviews have prepared us “as both questioners and answerers to produce readily the society
beyond mere fact gathering and of which we are a part. The modern temper gives us the interview as a significant means for
attempts to construct meaning. realizing that subjectivity and the social contexts that bring it about” (p.9).
Source: http://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/article/view/547/1180
2) The contemporary form of GUIDE QUESTIONS

interview is more fluid because 1. According to the selection, how do the interviews in “popular” media differ from those
qualitative research?
the individuals (both the
interviewer and interviewee)
engage in insightful dialogue and
meaningfully exchange ideas and 2. How can you describe the contemporary form of interview?
experiences.
3) Yes. The conduct of interview
3. Have interviews really changed the society (at least in the relevant aspects of life)? Why or
has improved the peoples’ why not?
critical thinking skills: how they

recognize the most important
issues in the society, identify the 4. What do you think is the utmost importance of interview in a qualitative research?
appropriate solutions to long-

persisting problems, etc.
72 • Practical Research 1 Methodology and Design for Qualitative Research 155

IN VE STIGATION
4) The conduct of interview in
GATHERING AND GENERATING DATA qualitative research is vital in
Having established what previous researchers have discovered, documented, and published
on the topic of interest, the next step in conducting a study is gathering and generating new data.
seeking truth and distinguishing
This step requires the researchers to answer the following questions: the real meanings of subjects of
• What are the gaps in existing knowledge that the study seeks to fill?
• What kind of information is needed to fill those gaps?
interest.
• How will the study collect that information?
• How does one ensure that the information collected in the research is the kind needed to
fill the gaps and answer the initial inquiry?
Before proceeding, it is necessary to define the terms that will be used in this chapter, and to
differentiate them from one another.
Investigation
• A method is a technique which the researcher uses to gather and generate data about the
subjects of their study.
• A methodology is the section of the research paper which explains why the researcher
chose to use particular methods. The methodology also includes descriptions of any and
all theoretical and/or ideological concepts informing and influencing the course of the
Gathering and Generating Data
study, and the researcher’s rationale behind adhering to these concepts.
• A research design is a plan which structures a study to ensure that the data collected and 1. Ask the students if they had
generated will contain the information needed to answer the initial inquiry as fully and
clearly as possible. conducted an interview in the past.
MAIN METHODS USED IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 2. Ask them what the topic of
As the qualitative approach to research focuses less on “hard,” numerical data and more on the interview is, who their
abstract information, the methods used to collect and generate data for qualitative research
should be designed to be descriptive, observational, conceptual, and analytical. Some of the most interviewee/s is/are, and what their
commonly used data collection methods in qualitative research are individual interviews, group
interviews, observations, and surveys. purpose was in conducting it.
Individual interviews are like conversations which are designed to elicit the information
that the researcher needs. However, unlike casual, everyday conversations, interviews must be 3. Have the students discuss and
conducted as rigorously, systematically, and transparently as possible to ensure the reliability and
validity of the information obtained. compare method, methodology, and
research design.
156 CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 4. Discuss the three terms further by
identifying their application in the
research study.
Group interviews are conducted with several participants simultaneously, and may be
more appropriate in some cases, such as when the study concerns a community issue or shared
experience.
Observations are conducted to document and analyze behavior and social phenomena as Main Methods Used in Qualitative Research
they occur in their natural context, and may be useful in identifying, for example, discrepancies
between what people say (such as in interviews) and what they do.
1. Discuss the different data collection
Although surveys and questionnaires are more often used in quantitative research, they
may also be designed to be applicable to qualitative studies. Doing so requires that the questions methods in a qualitative research.
be structured to be open-ended, with few to no restrictions on the respondent’s answers—
resembling an interview but in written form.
2. Provide examples for each method
COMMON RESEARCH DESIGNS for further context.
As stated, the objective of a research design is to ensure that the data collection and generation
methods are geared towards gathering the specific information which will help answer the initial
inquiry as clearly and fully as possible. If the researcher does not design their study carefully and
3. Have the students recall the
appropriately, the data they gather may be extraneous or irrelevant to the problem at hand, and interview they had previously
they might not be able to adequately answer the research problem. As a result, the study may
prove weak or inconclusive. conducted.
It must be asserted, then, that there is no single best way to conduct research, nor is there a
universally applicable research design—only general approaches which the researcher will, to 4. Ask them to describe the manner by
varying extents, have to modify and adjust to best suit their study. The following are some of the
more common designs used in qualitative research. which they conducted the interview
Phenomenological Design and what preparation they did
This design focuses on obtaining descriptions of the subjects’ or respondents’ lived
experiences either in writing or through interviews. The goal of this study is to analyze the
before conducting it.
meaning behind these experiences for each subject, rather than generalizing to a greater
population. (Donalek, 2004)
To wholly understand the subjects’ experiences, the researcher must set aside their own
feelings and expectations towards the study. Those feelings and expectations may hinder the
researcher from seeing the experience through the subjects’ perspectives. This process is called
bracketing.
Example: What are the experiences of a student who failed in his or her subject?
The researcher may have their own notions regarding this problem due to first-hand or
second-hand experience. During the data collection, the researcher must put aside all the
assumptions in order to identify the real essence of the answers of the participants.
Methodology and Design for Qualitative Research 157

The following are characteristics of a phenomenological design:
1. The researcher applies bracketing by focusing on the meaning of the perceived experience
or on the interpretation of the said data.
Common Research Designs 2. It uses unstructured or semi-structured data collection. When conducting an interview,
the researcher starts with an open-ended question followed by general probes.
1. Define research design and discuss 3. It uses appropriate and systematic data analysis methods or adapts established and
credible processes to suit the study’s purposes.
its purpose in research. 4. The research process is transparent.

5. It uses the first person perspective. For example, the participant may say, “I am experiencing
2. Have the students explain the sleepless nights….”

6. The researcher identifies the phenomenon not just in themes or categories.
importance of proper research 7. It collects data in groups, such as in a focus-group interview.
designing. Historical Design

This design focuses on the identification, location, evaluation, and synthesis of data or
3. Discuss each type of research design evidence from the past to confirm or reject a hypothesis. Data for historical research may be
found in printed documents, such as official records, reports, archives, and even diaries; or in
and explain the focus of each one. non-textual artifacts, such as relics, maps, pictures, and audiovisual material.
A historical study must be unobtrusive, meaning that the process of research must not involve
4. Ask the students to discuss the range any interventions which will affect the results of the study. This also means that there is no way to
manipulate the factors of the study for different variables or contexts. On the other hand, this non-
of topics the types of research are invasive approach is well-suited for archival purposes, such that sources of historical data may
applicable to. be stored accurately and consistently, and be accessed and used over and over to study various
research problems.
When material provides first-hand information, then it is considered as a primary source.

5. Have them recall their conducted Examples are oral histories, written records, diaries, eyewitnesses’ accounts, pictures, videos,
interview and ask them to classify and other physical evidence. The minutes of meetings can also be considered primary sources.
Secondary sources are materials containing second-hand information, such as when a person
which research design would have reinterprets information from the original source, or commentary on and analyses of an original
document. When the minutes of historical meetings are summarized and transferred to a different
been applicable if they conducted a medium, they are now considered secondary sources.
The most valuable criterion for historical data sources is authenticity, and any source to be
study about it. used for historical research must undergo internal and external criticism. External criticism is
based on the analysis of the printed material; the ink and the type of paper used; the layout and
6. Present sample studies for each type physical appearance; as well as its age and texture. Carbon dating is useful in determining the age
of substances in objects such as paper. Internal criticism involves establishing the authenticity
for further context. and originality of the materials by looking at the consistency of information. Motives and possible
biases of the author must be considered in trying to determine the accuracy of the materials.
Case Study Design

A case study is a comprehensive, in-depth examination of a specific individual, group of
people, or institution. It may be used to gain insights into an obscure or specific problem; provide
background data for broader studies; or explain socio-psychological and socio-cultural processes.
Some of the disadvantages of case studies are the problems of general application, since the study
focuses only on specific subjects; the difficulty of determining the adequacy of data; the possibility
of biases; and the expense entailed by the design.
A case study may be considered quantitative or qualitative research, depending on the

purpose of the study and the approach chosen by the researcher. This is also true to other types of
qualitative studies, for a case study to be considered qualitative, the researcher must be interested
in abstract ideas and concepts, such as the meaning of an experience to a subject, rather than in
generalizing results to other groups of people. Case studies are not used to test hypotheses, but
hypotheses may be generated from case studies (Younger, 1985).
The data from case studies is evaluated through content analysis. It involves the examination
of communication messages. Care must be exercised in selecting subjects for case studies. The
researcher should avoid choosing only those participants who are expected to respond favorably
or unfavorably to the instrument.
The following are characteristics of a case study:
1. Case studies are time-consuming and may be quite costly.

2. It needs in-depth analysis of single or multiple case/s.
3. It uses multiple sources of data such as documentation, interviews, observation, and
environmental detail.
4. It may result in descriptions of themes and assertions.
5. It clarifies cases and contexts.
6. It can select and develop issues.
Grounded Theory Design

Grounded theory is a systematic research approach developed by two sociologists, Barney
Glaser and Anselm Strauss, in which rigorous procedures (such as open coding—identifying,
naming, categorizing, and describing phenomena encountered in the study, as well as their
characteristics) are used to collect data, analyze that data, and formulate a theory on the matter at
hand. This theory can then be used to explain, provide a perspective on, or even predict behavior
in and of the particular context of the study’s subject.
The grounded theory method uses both an inductive and a deductive approach to theory
development. According to Field and Morse (1985), “constructs and concepts that are grounded
in the data and hypotheses are tested as they arise from the research.” In a deductive grounded
theory, a theory is formulated, then the collection of data follows. In an inductive approach,
74 • Practical Research 1 Methodology and Design for Qualitative Research 159

collection of data is conducted first, and then through the analysis of these data, the synthesized
form is the theory itself. Leininger (1985) asserts that a pre-study of the literature search could
lead to “premature closure.” This means that the researcher would go into the research setting
Review
expecting to find what is reported in the literature.
The following are characteristics of a grounded theory design:
1. Purposeful sampling is used. The researcher looks for certain subjects who will be able
to shed new light on the phenomenon being studied. Diversity rather than similarity is
1. Have the students classify
sought in the people that are sampled.
the research design they
2. Data is gathered in naturalistic settings (field settings). Data collection primarily consists
of participant observation and interviews, and data are recorded through handwritten will be using in the study.
notes and tape recordings.
3. Data collection and data analysis occur simultaneously. A process called constant
comparison is used, in which data gathered in the course of the study is constantly
2. Explain to them that they
compared to other data that had been gathered in previous studies.
should choose the research
4. It presumes that it is possible to discover fundamental patterns in all social life. These
patterns are called basic social processes. design carefully as it is
5. It is more concerned with the generation rather than the testing of hypotheses.
6. Theoretical sampling used is a part of analysis.
not ideal to change it in
7. A core category grounded in the data is identified (a study may not be able to fully develop the middle of the research
an explanatory theory but may usefully inform by description and exploration).
study.
Action Research Design
Action research is a design which involves a cycle of identifying a problem regarding a situation 3. Ask the students to
or process, developing a strategy for intervention (the ‘action’) with the purpose of improving
said situation or process, implementing said intervention, and observing and analyzing the answer the activity in an
results until a sufficient level of understanding of (or valid solution to) the problem is achieved.
Generalizing the findings is not a goal of this study, as in the case of quantitative research studies. intermediate paper.
In action research, the implementation of solutions occurs as an actual part of the research
process.
4. Have them share their
Participatory action research is a special kind of community-based action research in
which there is a collaboration between the respondents or participants and the researcher in all output to the class.
the steps of the study, including the determination of the problem, identification of the research
methods to use, analysis of data, and deciding how the study results will be used. One can say that
the participants and the researcher are co-researchers throughout the entire research study.
Meta-Analysis Design
This design is a systematic evaluation of multiple individual studies on a topic in order to
not only summarize the results, but also develop a new understanding of the research problem.
Planning the Research Design

1. Have the students read the steps in
planning the research design and
ask them to answer the questions
This design may also be used to analyze discrepancies in the results of individual studies, and its
presented in each number according
own results have a bigger potential for generalization to a greater population. However, due to its
complexity, studies following such a design may prove difficult, expensive, and time-consuming.
to their research proposal.
A good meta-analysis study is characterized by: 2. Discuss each step and provide a
1. precisely defined objectives, variables, and outcomes;
2. well-developed reasoning for its selection of studies, including an assessment and
sample section of a research paper
acknowledgement of any bias that may have influenced said selection;
for each one for further context.
3. a detailed description and analysis of the degree of heterogeneity in the sample; and
4. justification for the techniques used in the analysis of the sample.
3. Have the students discuss the stages
REVIEW in planning the research design.
Classify the kind of research design that your proposed study is going to take. Then, write a
short essay on why you chose that research design and why it is the most appropriate one
4. Ask them to explain how they will be
for your research. Each student will share his or her work in class. implementing these stages in their
research.
PLANNING THE RESEARCH DESIGN
Steps in Planning the Design
5. Discuss the examples on pages 162-
1. Establishing the purpose. Why do you want to address this research? What are its 163 for further context.
expected benefits? Who will benefit from the research?
2. Methodological location. What methods and strategies do you intend to use?
3. Scoping. Revisit the scope and delimitation of your research. What will the study cover?
What will it not cover? What major and sub-variables will you focus on? These details will
significantly affect what kind of research design will best suit your study.
4. Nature of the data. Take a look at the research problem. What kind of data is needed to
answer the inquiry? What sorts of data are relevant and available? How should the data
be handled? What research methods will most likely generate the data needed? Does the
study intend to focus on specific, isolated subjects, or generalize to a greater population?
Will the study implement or avoid direct intervention in generating and collecting data?
5. Thinking ahead. How big will the data be? What is the intended result of the study? At
this stage, the researcher must be analytical and skeptical. Asking other researchers can
help in planning the design best suited to the study.

Stages of the Project Research Design Example 3:
Planning your research design will also entail delineating the stages of the study and setting
a pace for completion. A good rule of thumb is to schedule the different tasks well ahead of time, This study utilized the qualitative type of study which according to Nieswiadomy
in order to avoid unnecessary time constraints. (2004) is a naturalistic method of inquiry of research, which deals with the issue of human
complexity by exploring it directly. In this type, the emphasis is on the complexity of
1. Conceptualizing stage. This includes the literature review and the critiquing of other
humans, their ability to shape and create their own experience, and the idea that truth
studies. A poorly or hastily conceptualized project may lead to hazy, inconclusive results.
is a composite of reality. This study utilizes the case study method. Case study method
2. Setting up a data management system. This should be planned meticulously. Failing to involves a comprehensive and extensive examination of a particular individual, group, or
systematize data collection can prove disastrous for a project. situation over a period of time. It provides information on where to draw conclusion about
3. Sampling and theoretical sampling. Unless you intend to implement convenience the impact of a significant event in a person’s life (Sanchez, 2002).
sampling, you should not assume that your intended subjects are readily and immediately
This design is fitted to this present study since the focus is on the psychological processes
available. Take the necessary time to locate your sample.
of a group of students who failed on their academic performance in physics, soliciting their
4. Collecting and generating data. All the preparations made thus far were done for this personal views and perceptions relative to the queries given by a panel of interviewers
stage of the study. This is where you will put your chosen methods to work. Depending during the third quarter of the school year 2013-2014.
on the nature of the study, this may require fieldwork—entering a physical location or a
social space from which you will gather information. Take time to acclimatize to the field
in question, whether your study is observational or interventional in nature.
5. Analysis. In addition to the actual analysis of the data, you should also allow time for
the coding of data, recoding of exploratory categories, management and exploration of
C HA PTER SU MMARY
category systems, and coding validation and reliability exploration. 1. Some of the more common qualitative research designs include: phenomenological
Time should be allotted for asking questions and incorporating the answers into the analysis, design, historical design, case study design, grounded theory design, action research
and, above all, for writing, rewriting, revisiting the data, and verifying the conclusions. design, and meta-analysis design.
2. The phenomenological design examines human experiences through the eyes of the
Research Design Example 1: subject/s and with the help of a process called bracketing.
3. The historical design concerns the identification, evaluation, and synthesis of data
A researcher wants to explore the impact of social media on first-time voters and their from the past to confirm or reject a hypothesis.
choice of candidates in the 2016 Philippine national elections. Due to the nature of the study,
4. The case study design is an in-depth examination of an individual, group of people, or
the researcher decides to employ a combination of phenomenological and case study designs,
entity, and usually does not intend to generalize its conclusions to greater populations.
using one-on-one interviews with first-time voters from ten different colleges and universities.
5. The grounded theory design involves a rigorous, systematic collection of rich data and
formulating a theory based on that data.
Research Design Example 2:
6. Action research seeks to improve practice through the implementation of interventional
actions and study the effects of those actions.
A researcher notes that a number of studies have been conducted on the long, storied
career of a beloved president of her alma mater, under whose term that school became 7. There are five steps in planning the design: establishing the purpose, methodological
one of the top educational institutions in the Philippines. However, despite focusing on the location, scoping, nature of the data, and thinking ahead.
same general topic—the factors that made this president’s career so successful, including 8. The stages of the project are as follows: conceptualizing stage, setting up and managing
progressive educational reforms implemented during his term—these studies have a data management system, sampling and theoretical sampling, collecting and generating
somewhat inconsistent conclusions. The researcher then decides to conduct a meta-analysis data, and analysis.
of all these previous studies in an attempt to gain a better perspective of the bigger picture.
162 CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Methodology and Design for Qualitative Research 163
C HEC K - U P
Encircle the letter of the best answer:
AssessMent Activities 1. Which of the following is NOT a qualitative research method?
a. interviews c. focus group discussions
b. observations d. surveys with numerical questions
2. Which of the following is included in the methodology of a study?

check-Up a. the chosen research methods
b. theoretical concepts used in the study
Ask the students to exchange their books c. explanations for the methods and concepts
for correction. d. all of the above
3. Which of the following statements is true concerning historical research?

a. Internal criticism should be considered before external criticism.
b. External criticism should be considered before internal criticism.
c. Both internal and external criticism should be considered simultaneously.
d. Either internal criticism or external criticism is enough; there is no need to conduct both.
4. Case studies may concern an in-depth examination of ____________.

a. individuals c. groups of peoples
b. institutions d. all of the above
5. Consider this title: “The Lived Experience of Surviving a Tornado.” Which of the following
designs did the researcher most likely use?
a. ethnographic c. historical
b. phenomenological d. grounded theory
6. The review of related literature is _______________.

a. never conducted prior to the beginning of the study
b. sometimes conducted prior to the beginning of the study
c. always conducted prior to the beginning of the study
d. always dependent upon the researcher to decide
76 • Practical research 1 164 CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

7. Which type of qualitative research approach would be most appropriate to study the
practice of actively changing or modifying teaching techniques in order to improve students’
learning experience?
a. action research c. phenomenological study Application
b. grounded theory d. historical study
Ask the students to exchange their books
8. Gabriel, a senior high school student wanted to find out the performance of the previous two
officers of the student body council. He was involved in what type of qualitative research? for correction.
a. action research c. historical study
b. meta-analysis d. grounded theory
9. The Metro Manila Development Authority is set to review the traffic management scheme
being implemented in the metropolis. Several studies have been conducted in the past, but
these produced inconsistent results. Which design should the MMDA use for its new study?
a. action research design c. historical design
b. meta-analysis design d. case study design
10. The qualitative research entitled, “The Experiences of Students Engaged in Bullying: Basis
for the Program of Prevention,” is a type of ___________.
a. case study c. grounded-theory study
b. action research d. historical study
AP P L IC ATION
Select the correct answer from the choices in the box and write it on the spaces provided.
phenomenology internal criticism bracketing
meta-analysis historical grounded theory
case study primary sources oral reports
external criticism action research deductive
inductive secondary qualitative
1. The basis of data in historical study
2. Setting aside one’s own feelings and/or experiences and seeing

the experiences of the participants through their eyes
3. The type of paper, watermarks, and ink of documents are analyzed.
4. Examples of these are recorded interviews, minutes of meeting,

and autobiographies.
5. Collection of rich data which gives birth to a theory
6. This design examines and compares several similar individual

studies to develop a new more comprehensive understanding of
the research problem.
7. A theory is formulated first before data is collected.
8. This design examines human experiences.
9. Ensuring the content of a document is reliable.
10. An in-depth examination of UNICEF

Name : Date :
reseArch Activity 8 RESEARCH ACTIVITY 8

RESEARCH DESIGN
the sections with the required Answer the following based from the discussions. Refer to your proposed research study
for the other questions.
information.
2. Allow them to go to the library Proposed study:_____________________________________________________
1. Based on what you have learned, which research design is most applicable to your research
to research on relevant resource project? Explain how and why it is so. If you would like to use a design not listed in this
chapter, please indicate so.
materials and utilize the computers
for research purposes.
identifying the most applicable 2. Begin composing the methodology of your proposed study by providing the required
research design and methodology for information below.
Definition of specific method(s) to be used:

their research study.
Reference:
nOte:
1. You have the option to let this
constraints and the necessity for Definition and description of theoretical concepts to be used:

2. Carefully check the students’
outputs. Rationale for choosing this specific methodology:

CHAPTER
14 Sampling for Research

Objectives
At the end of this
Pretend that you are cooking a meal for your family. You
will be able to are preparing your specialty dishes—pork adobo and will be able to
1. differentiate the sinigang na bangus—and, of course, steamed white rice to
complete the meal. You are almost finished, but you want
various methods of
sampling and to check if everything tastes good and has been cooked 1. differentiate the various methods of
2. formulate the
criteria for choosing
just the way your family likes it. What will you do?
sampling and
the participants
of their respective
studies.
2. formulate the criteria for choosing
the participants of their respective
studies.
1. Of course, you do not need to eat everything to find out how the dishes taste. But how
much do you need to eat to find out whether or not the dishes are as desired?
2. The rice and even the adobo are more or less homogenous. What about the sinigang and
its multiple ingredients? How do you check if it is well done and tasty?
3. How do you think this activity is related to research?
Sampling for Research 169
OPENING ACTIVITY
1. Ask the students to analyze the two pictures.
2. Have them answer the guide questions.
3. Ask the students to share their output to the class.
4. Refer to the sample answers provided below.
1) A single serving of the dish is sufficient to find out if the dish passes your personal criteria.
2) One has to taste a sample or piece of the different ingredients in the dish to check if they are well
done.
3) The single serving of the dish represents the sample group to be used in the study that is chosen
as an applicable representative of the entire population. On the other hand, having to check the
individual ingredients of the dish represent the selection of suitable individual subjects to ensure
the quality of the sample group.

It is important for the researcher to use an acceptable sample size to ensure that their study
will be accurate. Generally, the larger the sample, the more reliable the results of the study will
IN VE ST I G AT IO N
be. Hence, it is advisable to have a sample large enough to yield reliable results, yet small enough
to be manageable within the constraints of the study.
SAMPLING IN RESEARCH
Sampling is a process through which a researcher selects a portion or segment from the Factors to Consider in Determining the Sample Size
population at the center of the researcher’s study. The population is a group of persons or objects 1. Homogeneity of the population. The higher the degree of homogeneity of the population,
that possess some common characteristics that are of interest to the researcher, and about which the smaller the sample size that can be utilized.
the researcher seeks to learn more. There are two groups of population: the target population and
2. Degree of precision desired by the researcher. The larger the sample size, the higher
the accessible population. The target population is composed of the entire group of people or
the precision or accuracy of the results will be.
objects to which the researcher wishes to generalize the findings of the study, while the accessible
population is a portion of the population to which the researcher has reasonable access. For 3. Types of sampling procedure. Probability sampling uses smaller sample sizes than non-
example, in a study about the common difficulties encountered by senior high school students probability sampling.
in their first semester of school year 2016-2017, the target population may be all senior high
Various Approaches to Determining the Sample Size
school students in Metro Manila. However, the researcher may have access only to the students of
a specific school—these students comprise the accessible population. 1. Sample sizes as small as 30 are generally adequate to ensure that the sampling distribution
of the mean will approximate the normal curve (Shott, 1990).
Researchers commonly select samples for study rather than entire populations due to
constraints in budget, time, and manpower. A good sample should be representative of the 2. When the total population is equal to or less than 100, this same number may serve as the
population, such that the characteristics of the population—especially those pertinent to the sample size. This is called universal sampling.
study—are reflected in the sample with a fair amount of accuracy. 3. Slovin’s formula is used to compute for sample size (Sevilla, 2003)
The individual participants in the study are often referred to as subjects or respondents. N
n=
The subjects are individuals or entities which serve as the focus of the study. Respondents 1 + Ne2
are individuals or groups of people who actively serve as sources of information during data where: n – a sample size
collection. The subjects of a study may also be its respondents, but there also times that these are
N – population size
two groups of different individuals or entities. Subjects and respondents may also be referred to
as elements—particularly if said elements are objects, rather than people. e – desired margin of error
Take for example a study focused on the behavior of the students who belong to broken Example: The population total is 8,000 with a desired 2% margin of error
families. The students who belong to these families are the subjects of the study, which may also N
n=
be the respondents the researcher seeks to interview directly. If the researcher interviews or 1 + Ne2
surveys the classmates of these students, the students remain the subjects, and the classmates 8,000
=
then become the respondents. 1 + 8,000 (0.02)2
A statistic is a number describing a property of a sample, whereas a parameter is a number 8,000
=
describing a property of a population. A statistic can be used to estimate the parameter in what 1 + 8,000 (0.0004)2
is called a statistical inference. For example: a researcher, examining all marriages in the 8,000
=
Philippines in the year 2016, wants to find a particular parameter—the mean age of all the men 1 + 3.2
in those marriages. From a sample of 1,000 subjects, she obtains a sample mean of 31 years. 8,000
This figure is a statistic. Using this figure, she concludes that the mean age of Filipino men who =
4.2
married in 2016 is likely to be close to 31, as well.
= 1,905
170 CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Sampling for Research 171
investigAtiOn 4. According to Gay (1976), the following are the acceptable sizes for different types of
research:
a. Descriptive research – 10% to 20% may be required
b. Comparative research – 15 subjects or groups
sAMpling in reseArch 5. By using Calmorin’s formula, the problem is solved as follows:

NV + [ Ss2 + (1 – p) ]
Ss =
1. Define sampling and describe its NSe + [ V2 + p(1 – p) ]
where: Ss – sample size

purpose in the research. N – population size
V – standard value (2.58) of 1% level of probability with 99% reliability
2. Ask the students to describe Se – sampling error
situations where sampling can be p – the largest possible proportion
Example: Getting statistic from a parameter of 800

applied. NV + [ Ss2 + (1 – p) ]
Ss =
NSe + [ V2 + p(1 – p) ]
3. Define population and identify its 800 (2.58) + [ (0.01)2 + (1-0.50) ]
=
two types. 800 (0.01) + [ (2.58)2 + 0.5(1-0.50) ]
2064 + (0.0001) (0.5)
=
8 + 6.66 (0.5)(0.5)
4. Ask the students to define and 2064.00005
=
compare target population from 8 + 1.665
= 214
accessible population.
5. Present examples for the two types Table 14.1 – Computed Sample Sizes Using the Calmorin’s Formula
N n N N N n N n
of population and let the students 150 122 400 182 650 205 900 218
classify which type of population is 200 141 450 188 700 208 950 220
being referred to. 250 155 500 194 750 211 1,000 221
300 166 550 198 800 214 2,000 238
6. Define and compare subject and 350 175 600 202 850 216 3,000 244
respondent. Legend: N – population

n – sample

Types and Subtypes of Sampling
In the book, Nursing Research: Principles and Methods, Polit and Beck (2004) list the different 7. Provide further context by
types and subtypes of sampling:
1. Probability sampling is a type of sampling in which all the members of an entire
presenting sample instances and
population have a chance of being selected. This is also called scientific sampling.
have the students them identify
a. Simple random sampling is a method of choosing samples in which all the members
of the population are given an equal chance of being selected. It is an unbiased way which of the elements described is
of selection, as samples are drawn by chance. There are various ways of obtaining
samples through simple random sampling (Treece & Treece, 1986). These include the the subject and the respondent.
roulette wheel, fishbowl method, and the use of a table of random numbers.
The fishbowl method observes the following steps: 8. Define and compare statistic and
i. The sampling frame, or a list of all the subjects or elements in the population in
question, should be prepared.
parameter.
ii. All the names of the subjects or elements should be written down on strips of
paper (one name per strip of paper). 9. Provide further context by
iii. The strips of paper with the listed names are then placed in a bowl or container.
presenting sample instances
iv. Samples can be drawn as desired.
A more systematic procedure for randomly selecting samples is the use of a that demonstrate how statistical
table of random numbers (see Figure 14.2). This table is a list of numbers that
have been generated in such a manner that there is no order or sequencing of inference works.
numbers. This table can be generated by a computer. These random numbers can
have any number of digits and are dependent on the size of the population.
Using a table of random numbers entails the following steps:
i. A number should be assigned to each element of the accessible population. Factors to Consider in Determining the
Sample Size
ii. The table of random numbers should be entered at an arbitrary or random
starting point. This can be done by closing one’s eyes and using a pen to point
at a number.
iii. A systematic movement should be followed for going up or down, left or right, 1. Ask the students to define and
or diagonally. The direction is not important but should be decided before
starting the process. This direction shall continue until the total sample is discuss each factor.
selected.
iv. Continue to select numbers until the desired sample is reached. 2. Discuss further how each factor
applies to the sampling process.
3. Present samples that provide further
context to the application of each
factor.
Various Approaches in Determining the

Table 14.2 – Table of Random Numbers
21 71 89 96 97
82 59 22 78 12 Sample Size
76 93 64 79 28
20 60 70 34 51 1. Discuss each approach and explain
93
68
58
63
36
19
93
21
90
91
how they apply in the sampling
18 32 36 27 71 process.
58 80 58 67 50
66 25 20 31 62 2. Present examples for each one
17 25 07 94 18
to provide further context in its
02 29 30 15 92
55 06 25 09 26 application.
38 11 01 47 93
42 47 73 25 84 3. For Slovin’s and Calmorin’s Formula,
82 04 23 08 88
highlight their use in the sampling
37 24 51 98 05
94 58 85 86 71 process by providing simple case
37 92 27 20 58 problems.
29 64 13 05 24
85 48 37 37 66
33 23 13 82 54
62 11 29 17 37
01 57 73 53 97
34 19 75 62 16
81 10 55 36 36
92 33 43 20 08
10 50 18 85 27
Source: Foundations of Nursing Research, 4th ed., R. Nieswiadomy, 2004

b. In stratified random sampling, the population is first divided into different strata, b. Quota sampling is somewhat similar to stratified sampling, in that the population
and then the sampling follows. Age, gender, and educational qualifications are some is divided into strata, and the researcher deliberately sets specific proportions in the
possible criteria used to divide a population into strata. sample, whether or not the resulting proportion is reflective of the total population.
Example: This is commonly done to ensure the inclusion of a particular segment of the
population.
A researcher will study the common effects of smoking on high school students.
Example:
The researcher decides to select equal numbers of students from the freshman,
sophomore, junior, and senior levels. A researcher wants to survey the employees of a company regarding
their thoughts on the company’s new policies. The researcher intends to have
representatives from all departments in his sample, but one department is so
c. Cluster sampling is used in large-scale studies, where the population is geographically
small that doing random sampling might result in that department not being
spread out. Sampling procedures may be difficult and time-consuming.
represented. The researcher then sets a quota of respondents from that
Example: department to ensure their inclusion in the sample.
A researcher wants to interview 100 teachers across the country. It will be
difficult and expensive on their part to have respondents in 100 different cities c. Purposive sampling involves handpicking subjects, usually to suit very specific
or provinces. Cluster sampling is helpful for the researcher who randomly selects intentions. This is also called judgmental sampling.
the regions (first cluster), then selects the schools (second cluster), and then the
Example:
number of teachers.
In a study about honor students, the researcher uses a list of honor students
d. Systematic sampling is a method of selecting every nth element of a population, and chooses the necessary number of respondents, to the exclusion of all other
e.g., every fifth, eighth, ninth, or eleventh element until the desired sample size is students.
reached.
2. Non-probability sampling. It is a process of selecting respondents in which not all In selecting the sample of a study, the following elements must be properly discussed: the
members of the entire population are given a chance of being selected as samples. There total population and its parameters; the sample and its statistics; the sampling method with
are cases that certain segments of a population are given priority over others, such as references to support it; an explanation and discussion of the sampling method; an explanation
when a researcher does not intend to generalize to a larger population. This is also called of how the sampling was done; an enumeration of the qualifying criteria; and the profiles of the
non-scientific sampling, and is commonly used in qualitative research. subjects and/or respondents.
a. Convenience sampling. It is also called accidental or incidental sampling.
Respondents and Sampling Procedure Example 1 :
Example:
A researcher intends to study the elementary students of a particular school, The Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Competencies of School Managers:
and has determined the desired sample size. Due to the study’s constraints, the Basis for the Formulation of the Human Relation Intervention Program
elementary pupils who are present at the time of the researcher’s visit to the (Cristobal, 2003)
school will be chosen as respondents. There were two groups of respondents of this study, as shown in Table 1: the school
managers and their corresponding secondary teachers.
Sampling for Research 175 176 CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Table 1
Population of the Study
Types and Subtypes of Sampling School Name Principal Head Teachers

Secondary
Teachers
Total
Bataan National High School 1 5 24 30

1. Define and compare probability and B. Camacho High School 1 5 11 17
Biotechnic School of
non-probability sampling. Fisheries
1 3 20 24
Hermosa High School 1 3 7 11

2. Let the students discuss the different Limay High School 1 5 11 17
subtypes of the two main types. Luakan High School

Mariveles-Cabcaben High
1 3 8 12
1 4 9 14
School
3. Explain and demonstrate how each Mariveles-Poblacion High
1 4 10 15
School
subtype is conducted. P. Roman High School 1 8 7 16
TOTAL 9 40 107 156
4. Present sample cases for further
The school managers included the 9 secondary school principals and 40 head teachers of
context. the public high schools in the division of Bataan.
The secondary school teachers included 107 teachers who are teaching in the public high
5. Present and discuss the examples on schools in the division under the school managers mentioned above handling the Teknolohiya,
Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan subjects. The four major areas of the subject are
pages 176-178. agriculture and fishery, home economics, industrial arts, and entrepreneurship.
Respondents and Sampling Procedure Example 2:
Management by Culture of Kapampangan School Managers

in Selected Universities and Colleges (De la Cruz, 2002)
Two universities and six colleges in Pampanga were considered in the study. These
schools include the Holy Angel University, University of the Assumption, AMA Computer
College (Angeles City), Systems Plus Computer College, STI Computer College, Republic
Central Colleges, Philippine State College of Aeronautics, and Pampanga Agricultural College.
The main respondents in this study included the college deans, assistant college deans, and
area chairpersons of the eight educational institutions. For in-depth probe, 10% of the college
faculty of each university or college was chosen using the simple random fish bowl technique.

Respondents and Sampling Procedure Example 3 :
C HA PTER SU MMARY
Correlates of English Performance of Second Year Students in Selected High School
1. The individual participants in a study are referred to as subjects, respondents, or
elements. Subjects are those who are the focus of the study, and may or may not be
The number of sample respondents from each school was determined using the the sources of the data. Respondents are sources of data, but may or may not be
proportional allocation-based size and the following formula: subjects themselves. Elements are objects, entities, or non-human subjects.
ni = number of student respondents for each school 2. A population is the complete set of persons, entities, or objects that possess some
n = desired number of respondents common characteristics that are of interest to the researcher and are the focus of the
Ni = total number of second year students in each school study. Populations are classified into target populations and accessible populations.
N = total number of second year students in the congressional district
3. A parameter is a numeric characteristic of a population.
The sample number was equivalent to 30% of the second year population in the selected
high schools of Congressional District 2, Nueva Ecija (Table 1). Lottery method was used to 4. A statistic is a numeric characteristic of a sample.
arrive at 438 student respondents. The total population of second year students was 1,462.
5. A sample is a subset of the entire population and serves as respondents of the study
Complete enumeration was used in determining the English teacher respondents (51) from
first to fourth year in the secondary schools (Table 1). 6. The factors in determining sample size are homogeneity of the population, degree of
precision, and the types of sampling procedure.
Table 1. Population of the Schools and the Sample Student and Teacher Respondents
English Second Year Students 7. The types and subtypes of sampling include probability sampling, where all the
School
Teachers Population Sample elements of the population are given equal chances to be included in the sampling, and
Non-probability sampling, where not all elements of the population are given with
Talugtog National High School 6 208 62
equal chances to be part of the sampling.
Digdig National High School 5 176 53
Pantabangan National High School 8 171 51
Llanera National High School 6 148 44
Tondod National High School 6 148 44
Canaan East national High School 4 138 41
A. Bonifacio National High School 4 130 39
Bicos National High School 4 129 39
San Isidro National High School 4 122 37
Capintalan National High School 4 92 28
TOTAL 51 1,462 438
178 CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Sampling for Research 179
CH E CK- UP
AssessMent Activities
Match column A with column B. Write the letter of the correct answer corresponding to
the statements on the blank before each number.
A B
1. A group of entrepreneurs is asked to fill out a

a. statistic
check-Up
survey.
2. A sampling method where all members of

the population are given equal chances to be
included in the sample.
b. subjects
Ask the students to exchange their books
3. The mean age of the population is 35. c. respondents
for correction.
4. The respondents had, on average, spent

d. probability
Php 2,000 on clothes in the last month.
5. Individuals who are the focus of the study,

e. quota
but do not serve as data sources
6. This number of elements generally forms an

f. systematic
adequate sample.
7. A sampling method which uses every nth

g. simple random
element of the population.
8. Every person who enters the gate is included

h. parameter
in the sample.
9. Names are put into a bowl, and the

researcher draws them at random to i. 30
generate a sample.
10. The researcher made sure to include

15 honor students in his sample of 100 j. convenience
students.

APPL IC ATIO N
ApplicAtiOn Answer the following questions.
Ask the students to exchange their 1. What is the importance of describing the participants of the study in a research?
books for correction. Refer to the sample

answers below. Ask them to share their
output to the class afterwards.
2. What is the difference between a subject and a respondent?
1. Presenting a description of the

participants of the study sets a
definite limitation to the research,
gives a general idea of the 3. Why does the sample need to be representative of the population?
applicability of the results, and

improves the study’s overall validity.
2. A subject is the focus of the study
4. Why do researchers draw samples instead of examining entire populations?
while the respondent is the source
of data. A subject can also be a
respondent if he or she is also a
direct source of data for the research.
3. A sample has to be a proper
representative of the entire
population for reasons of feasibility
of the processes and accuracy of the
results. Sampling for Research 181
4. While it is more accurate to include

huge portions or even the entire
Name : Date :
population as the subjects of the
study, this may prove impractical RESEARCH ACTIVITY 9
PARTICIPANTS OF THE STUDY
because of the costs entailed in doing
so. Using a representative sample Answer the following questions based on the discussions. Use of additional references is
encouraged.
provides realistic costs, improves
accuracy of results, and simplifies 1. Describe the population of your study and its pertinent characteristics.
the process of monitoring and

controlling the subjects.
reseArch Activity 9
the sections with the required 2. How big will your sample be? How did you arrive at this sample size?
information.
84 • Practical research 1 Sampling for Research 183

3. What sampling method will you use? Explain why you chose this method.
3. Give additional guidelines

identifying and verifying their
sample for their research.
4. How will you draw your sample? State your steps in doing this. 5. Ask the students to submit the
nOte:
5. What are the qualifying criteria for the selection of your sample?
their outputs.

CHAPTER
15 Data Collection
objectives
At the end of this chapter, the students At the end of this
will be able to chapter, the students
will be able to
Name the following devices and indicate how you think
they can be used in research. Then, answer the guide
1. differentiate the questions that follow.
1. differentiate the various types of various types of
data-gathering
data gathering methods and their methods and
their tools and
tools and instruments and instruments and
2. choose or design
their own data-
2. choose or design their own data- gathering methods
1. 2.
and instruments.
gathering methods and instruments.
opening activity
1. Ask the students to analyze the

pictures provided.
3. 4. 5.
2. Have them identify their functions in
a research study.
3. Let them answer the guide questions.
4. Ask them to share their answers to Data Collection 185
the class.
5. Refer to the sample answers below.
GUIDE QUESTIONS
1) Camera – This is used to capture
1. Why is it necessary to use the right method or instrument for a particular task?
pictures of important events in
the gathering of data.
2) Recorder – This is used to collect
2. Do you think devices and tools always work to the benefit of the user? Why or why not?
voice recording of the subject in
an interview, for instance.
3) Laptop – This is used in
researching relevant information 3. Do you agree that not all instruments or tools are physical objects? Why or why not?
and for encoding the collected

data.
4. In a research study, why do you think there is a need for the use of specific research tools?
5. What can happen if a researcher’s methods and instruments are not prepared meticulously?
86 • Practical Research 1 186 CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

4) Pen and paper – This is used to make a written record of important data and transactions, usually
in events that are continuous and do not provide ample time to set up recording devices.
5) Video camera – This is used to capture videos of actual events that are sources of information for
the research.
Guide Question Sample Answers

1. Using the appropriate method and instrument for a particular task in research provides cost-
effectiveness and accuracy of results.
2. Using the right tools and devices will always benefit the user because it facilitates the entire research
process and produces more accurate answers.
3. Yes, not all instruments and tools are physical objects. The techniques used in doing some processes
are also considered tools since the latter contribute to their completion.
4. The use of specific research tools in research ensures the validity and accuracy of the results.
5. There will be a higher margin of error and the validity and reliability of the results can become
questionable.
IN VES TIGATION
investigation
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEIR INSTRUMENTS
An exciting part of research is personally meeting the subjects or respondents of the study
and reading their responses through the data-gathering instruments. The task of the researcher
is to devise a way to examine and analyze the variables of interest so that the answers to the
research problem can be derived. The decisions on what tools and instruments to use and how
they are implemented are very critical issues that determine the validity and reliability of the
Research Methods and Their Instruments
findings.
1. Ask the students to describe the
MOST FREQUENTLY USED DATA COLLECTION METHODS
research methods and instruments
Individual Interviews
Interviews are conversations that are designed to obtain specific kinds of information. The
they are planning to use in their
skill of the interviewer is necessary to enable the interviewee to express his or her thoughts
clearly. Life histories are also needed in this area. These are narrative self-disclosures about the research.
individual’s life experiences. The interviewer must guide the respondents to narrate the accounts
in sequence. 2. Have them explain why they chose
Data obtained from an interview may be recorded on audiotapes or videotapes with the
permission of the respondent. This is because some researchers believe that recording responses those research methods.
by hand jeopardizes rapport, reduces the amount of eye contact, and may disrupt the pace and
flow of the interview.
3. Discuss the importance of choosing
Types of interview
the appropriate methods and
1. Unstructured. The researcher must be skilled in steering the course of the interview. The
interviewer must be knowledgeable on the subject or topic of concern. This can be in the instruments in a research study.
form of normal conversations or a freewheeling exchange of ideas.
2. Structured. The conduct of questioning follows a particular progression and has a
well-defined content. The interviewer does not ask questions that are not part of the
questionnaire but he or she asks the interviewee to clarify his or her answers.
3. Semi-structured. There is a specific set of questions, but there are also additional probes
that may come in the form of follow-up questions that are not included in the list of
original questions. Through this process, the researcher can gather additional data from
a respondent that may add depth and significance to the findings.
The instrument often used in this method is the interview schedule. Although interviews
are often dynamic, and it is very difficult to get different interviews with different people to follow
exactly the same flow. Researchers can use interview schedules to ensure that the interview stays
on track, and even to give their interview the desired amount of structure.
Data Collection 187

Sample Schedule for Individual Interview :
most frequently used data collection The Research and Teacher Learning Study (Kennedy, 2001)
methods Topic: Views about Teaching
Before we start, could you just remind me again of the following?

– What grade you currently teach?
Individual Interviews And Group Interviews – Have you always taught at this level?
– Where is your school?
– How long have you been teaching?
1. Define interview and discuss its – What was your major field of study in college?
purpose in the research study. 1. First, try to think about the best teacher you know of. This could be someone you
actually had as a teacher or someone you know about as a colleague or have observed
somewhere?
2. Have the students discuss the a. Why do you think this person is such a good teacher?
different types of interview. [If nothing is said about the teacher’s practice]
b. What kinds of things does he or she do in the classroom?
[If nothing is said about student work]
3. Ask the students to recall the c. What kinds of things do the students do? What is the atmosphere like in his or her
interview they had conducted in the classroom?

d. Are there particular things (he, she) is especially good at helping students learn?
past and have them classify which Why?
e. Are there particular types of students (he, she) is especially successful with? Why?
type of interview they did.
2. Now I’d like you to tell me about your own teaching.
4. Present and discuss the examples on a. What is your favorite subject to teach and why? In your mind, what is this subject
about?
pages 188-189. b. What is your least favorite subject to teach and why? In your mind, what is the
subject about?
5. Discuss group interview and the 3. I’d like you to think back over the last two or three weeks and recall a particular lesson
that you were especially pleased with.
processes involved in conducting it. a. What happened that day that made you satisfied with the lesson?
b. If I have been observing your class that day, what would I have seen? (If nothing is
6. Ask the students to compare said about the teacher’s role) What would I have seen you doing?
[If nothing is said about the students]
individual interview with group c. What would I have seen your students doing?
interview. What do you think the value of this lesson was for the students?
7. Discuss the two types of group 188 CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
interview and compare them

according to their application.
4. Now try to recall an event that you were especially disappointed with. What happened
that day that disappointed you?
Observation a. If I had been observing your class that day, what would I have seen?
[If nothing is said about the teacher’s role]
1. Ask the students to discuss b. What would I have seen you doing? [If nothing is said about the students]
c. What would I have seen your students doing?
observation and explain what kinds d. What do you think the students learned compared to what you had hoped they
of information can be obtained using would learn?
5. Suppose you were in the middle of a lesson in (your favorite subject) and a student said,
this approach. “This is boring. Why do we have to learn this?”
a. How would you respond and why?
2. Let them identify how a proper 6. Now, imagine that at the beginning of the year, your principal calls each teacher in to
investigatory observation should be learn what their goals are for the school year.
a. What would you tell the principal your goals would be for (your most favorite
conducted and what the different subject)?
dimensions of an observation are. b. What would you tell the principal your goals would be for (your least favorite
subject)?
3. Discuss the observation checklist 7. Now I would like you to imagine that you are teaching seventh or eighth grade and the
students in your class are writing reports. One of your students, Jessica, hands you this
and its function in the observation report:
[Hands interviewee Jessica’s report]
process. a. What do you think Jessica understands and does not understand about writing
reports?
4. Present and discuss the sample b. How would you respond to Jessica? Why?
observation checklist on pages 191- 8. Now here is a copy of some math homework from Bill.
193 to provide further context on [Hands interviewee Bill’s math paper]
a. What do you think Bill understand and does not understand about subtraction?
how observation works. b. How would you respond to Bill? Why?
(Then, a closing section in which the teacher is given some articles to read in preparation for the
next interview)
88 • Practical Research 1 Data Collection 189

REVIEW
Divide the class into four groups. Each group will think of a scenario between partners (e.g.,
guidance counselor to parent; teacher to student; principal to teacher; barangay captain to
Review
barangay tanod;and nurse to patient) in which one is interviewing the other about a topic
pertinent to their situation. Each group will be given time to prepare. The presentations
will be critiqued by the teacher.
1. Divide the class into four

Group Interviews groups.
Group interviews are interviews conducted with several respondents simultaneously—
ideally six to ten people. This method may be used when a certain effect is desired, or if a topic
calls for it. For example, if the study seeks to examine a communal experience like commuting to
2. Ask the students to prepare
school or work, rather than a personal experience, then engaging respondents via group interview their presentation for 10
may yield better results. Researchers conducting group interviews often use instruments called
topic guides, which resemble interview schedules, but are less restrictive in structure to allow minutes.
the respondents a more free and dynamic exchange of ideas. It is not uncommon to have two
researchers moderating a group interview—one to facilitate the discussion, and the other to take
notes, handle logistics, and the like. With permission from all the respondents, a group interview 3. Provide the student some
may also be documented via a video or audio recording device.
Group interviews can be classified into two types:
additional guidelines when
1. Focus groups – Participants in a focus group are selected by the researcher according to choosing their roles.
specific sampling criteria, e.g., licensed dermatologists who have been practicing for at
least ten years; current college students majoring in English who are vying for honors.
4. Refer to the rubrics
2. Natural groups – The participants belong to a group that exists independently of the
study, e.g., all members of the marketing department of a certain company; members of a below in judging the
local sports team.
performances.
Observation
This method enables the researcher to conduct research in an immersive manner, collecting
data on natural phenomena or behavior as it occurs. The instrument often used in conjunction
with this method is called an observation checklist or observation guide. Observation checklists
are quantitative in nature, and make use of ratings or numerical rankings; observation guides are
more qualitative, and allow for more general, descriptive documentation.
Observation must be done in a quiet, inconspicuous, and unobtrusive manner to get realistic
data. It can be used to gather information such as the characteristics and conditions of individuals,
verbal communication, non-verbal communication and activities, and environmental conditions.
The following dimensions should be taken into consideration: the focus of observation:
CRITERIA 4 3 2 1
Content More than 5 4 concepts were 3 concepts were Less than 3
concepts were displayed. displayed. concepts were
displayed. displayed.
Creativity 75% - 100% 50% - 74% creative 25% - 49% creative 1% - 24% creative
creative
Coordination 0 to 1 instance of 2 to 3 instances of 4 to 5 instances of More than 5
discoordination discoordination discoordination instances of
discoordination
Participants 75% - 100% 50% - 74% 25% - 49% 1% - 24%
participated participated participated participated
Props More than 5 props 4 props were 3 props were Less than 3 props
were displayed displayed displayed were displayed
appropriately. appropriately. appropriately. appropriately.

concealment, the condition wherein the subject of observation has no knowledge of that he or
she is being observed; duration; and the method of recording the observations. II. Instructional Competencies
Example of an Observation Checklist: 1. Mastery of the subject matter 5 4 3 2 1 0
2. Clarity of tasks and learning objectives 5 4 3 2 1 0

FACULTY EVALUATION FORM
3. Organization of presentation of the lesson 5 4 3 2 1 0
NAME: SUBJECT: TIME/DAYS: 4. Relating the topic to other fields 5 4 3 2 1 0
5. Provocation of critical thinking ability 5 4 3 2 1 0

INSTRUCTION: Please rate the instructor/professor based on the scale below by encircling the
number that corresponds to your rating. 6. Ability to motivate students 5 4 3 2 1 0
5 – Superior (S); (4.2-5) – when the indicator is 81% to 100% observed 7. Skills in asking questions 5 4 3 2 1 0
4 – Above Average (AA); (3.4-4.1) – when the indicator is 61% to 80% observed 8. Skills in using teaching aids 5 4 3 2 1 0
3 – Average (A); (2.6-3.3) – when the indicator is 41% to 60% observed
9. Ability to answer queries 5 4 3 2 1 0
2 – Below Average (BA) (1.8-2.5) – when the indicator is 21% to 40% observed
10. Maximization of time 5 4 3 2 1 0
1 – Poor (P); (1-1.7) – when the indicator is 1% to 20% observed
0 – Not Observed (NO) – when the indicator is not observed 11. Variety of methods and strategies in TLP 5 4 3 2 1 0
12. Application of the principles of the TLP 5 4 3 2 1 0

I. Teacher’s Personality
1. Level of grooming/modest dressing/uniform 5 4 3 2 1 0

III. Classroom Management
2. Level of composure 5 4 3 2 1 0
1. Course requirements implementation 5 4 3 2 1 0
3. Level of articulation 5 4 3 2 1 0
2. Clarity of grading system 5 4 3 2 1 0
4. Modulation of voice 5 4 3 2 1 0
3. Application of rules and regulations 5 4 3 2 1 0
5. Level of communication 5 4 3 2 1 0
4. Presence of routines 5 4 3 2 1 0
6. Level of enthusiasm 5 4 3 2 1 0
5. Clarity of procedures 5 4 3 2 1 0
7. Dedication in teaching 5 4 3 2 1 0
6. Presence of positive atmosphere 5 4 3 2 1 0
8. Fluency in the use of medium of teaching 5 4 3 2 1 0
7. Checking of assigned tasks 5 4 3 2 1 0
9. Respectful of students 5 4 3 2 1 0
8. Notation of orderliness and sanitation 5 4 3 2 1 0
10. Role modeling of institutions’ values 5 4 3 2 1 0
Data Collection 191 192 CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
IV. Student’s Behavior

5. Discuss the two types of observation. 1. Wearing of prescribed uniforms 5 4 3 2 1 0
6. Present sample observation 2. Level of participation 5 4 3 2 1 0
3. Level of attention 5 4 3 2 1 0
scenarios and have the students 4. Level of enthusiasm 5 4 3 2 1 0
identify which type of observation 5. Rapport with each other 5 4 3 2 1 0
it is. 6. Level of freedom and acceptance 5 4 3 2 1 0
7. Level of intelligence 5 4 3 2 1 0
7. Ask the students to identify
and discuss the advantages and V. Total
disadvantages of observation. CRITERIA WM CRITERIA WM AWM VD
Teacher’s Personality Classroom Management

8. Explain the different guidelines on Instructional
Student’s Behavior
properly conducting observation. Competencies
Legend: WM – Weighted Mean (Add all scores/Number of indicators)

AWM – Average of WM
VD – Verbal Description
VI. REMARKS
90 • Practical Research 1 Data Collection 193

There are two types of observation:
1. Structured. The researcher devices a checklist as a data collection tool wherein expected
behaviors of interest have been specified. The researcher just records the frequency of
the occurrences of the behavior.
2. Unstructured. This is performed by the researcher as he or she tries to explain events
without any preconceived ideas about what will be observed. The researcher observes Review
things as they happen.
Advantages of Observation 1. Divide the class according

1. It is the most direct measure of behavior.
to the four directions:
2. It provides direct information.
3. It is easy to complete and is efficient. North, East, West, and
4. It can be used in natural or experimental settings.
South.
Disadvantages of Observation
1. It may require training. 2. Have the class arrange
2. It is susceptible to bias.
3. Observer’s presence may create an artificial situation.
themselves in lines
4. It can potentially overlook meaningful aspects. according to their assigned
5. It is open to misinterpretation.
6. It is difficult to analyze. direction.
Improving your Observation Skills (Revenaugh, 2010: Cox, 2015)
1. Look at everyday life in a clear manner. Empty yourself of preoccupied thoughts.
3. Let them observe the
2. Be curious. As you look for some objects try to focus and look at every side of it, the color, school surroundings
the shape, what makes it up and other details.
3. Be inquisitive. Always try to ask people questions.
according to their direction.
4. Be open to new experiences. Develop a positive attitude towards experiencing new things.
5. Know your own behavior attitudes and personal skills and how they impact others. Go on
4. Facilitate the observation
research. Surf the net. Read more.
by providing the distance
6. Be willing to seek the inputs of others. Be humble enough to receive criticisms, this will
open your mind to new avenues and perceptions. limit and preventing the
7. Be open to new ideas. Listen to someone. Attend meetings and convocations.
8. Practice good listening skills.
disruption it may cause
9. Set aside personal biases to the school activities of
10. Be comfortable with ambiguity.
other classes.
194 CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 5. Have them answer the table
provided in the book.
6. Ask each group to
REVIEW consolidate their output
Mechanics: and share it to the class.
1. Divide the class into four groups. To do this, each student will count off by saying North,
South, East, West. Then, group yourselves according to your direction. 7. Instruct the other groups to
2. Each group will form a single line with each student holding the shoulders of his or her
classmate in front of him or her. cross out the observations
3. Each group will move to an area of the school in the direction corresponding to
their group’s name and explore it for five minutes. The objective is to observe the that are the same with
surroundings very keenly using all their senses.
4. After the walk, each group will consolidate their observations in the table below.
those of the other groups.
Using sight Using hearing Using smelling Using touch Using taste
8. Ask the students to submit
their assessed papers for
evaluation and to identify
5. Each group will present its output in the class.
the winning group.
6. The whole class will synthesize the outputs by crossing out the commonalities of the
observation.
7. The group with many uncrossed observation is considered the most observant group.
Surveys or Questionnaires Survey or Questionnaires

Surveys, also known as questionnaires, are perhaps the most commonly used instrument in
research—particularly in quantitative research. It is a list of planned, written questions about a
particular topic, with spaces provided for the response to each question, intended to be answered
1. Ask the students to define survey.
by a number of persons. This means that questionnaires are both a method and an instrument. It
is relatively inexpensive, easy to administer, potentially more consistent than the other methods, 2. Discuss how a survey or
assures confidentiality, and minimizes biases based on question-phrasing modes. However, it
also has its own disadvantages: respondents may interpret the questions differently, and may questionnaire is properly conducted.
answer them in ways the researcher did not intend. There is also the strong possibility that some
respondents will choose not to fill out or return their questionnaires.
The questionnaire can be structured or unstructured. It is structured if possible answers

are provided and respondents just have to select from them. It is unstructured if the questions
are open-ended—no options are provided and the respondents are free to answer however they
wish. Structured questionnaires are generally used for quantitative research, while unstructured
questionnaires are more suited to qualitative research.
Data Collection 195

Types of Questions Characteristics of a Good Data-collection Instrument
1. Yes or No type. Items are answerable by a yes or a no. 1. It must be concise yet able to elicit the needed data. According to Shelley (1984), the
Example: Do call center agents have length of a questionnaire must be two to four pages and the maximum time of answering
the right to refuse calls? ( ) Yes ( ) No is ten minutes. Shelley added that a desirable length of each question is less than 20
words.
2. Recognition type. Fixed alternative answers are already provided, the respondents
simply choose from among the given choices. It contains close-ended questions. 2. It seeks information which cannot be obtained from other sources like documents
available at hand.
Example: Educational qualification
3. Questions must be arranged in sequence, from the simplest to the most complex.
Elementary school graduate College graduate
4. It should pass validity and reliability tests.
High school graduate MA/PhD
5. It must be easily tabulated and interpreted.
Technical/Vocational school graduate Others (pls. specify)
3. Completion type. The respondents are asked to fill in the blanks with the necessary
information. Questions are open-ended.
Scales Commonly Used in an Instrument
Example: As a teacher, after seeing a misbehavior done by a pupil, I will Particularly for quantitative research, the data collected via the various instruments needs to
be managed in a measurable manner. The following scales are used in research instruments to
.
make respondents’ answers uniformly measurable:
4. Coding type. Numbers are assigned to names, choices, and other pertinent data. This
1. Likert Scale. It is a common scaling technique which consists of several declarative
entails knowledge of statistics on the part of the researcher, as statistical formula
statements that express a viewpoint on a topic. The respondents are asked to indicate
application is necessary to arrive at the findings.
how much they agree or disagree with the statements. The answers usually come in the
Example: On a scale of one to ten, how will you rate your student’s communication form of acronyms, e.g., SA for Strongly Disagree, A for Agree, D for Disagree, and SD for
skills? Strongly Disagree.
5. Subjective type. The respondents are free to give their opinions about an issue of concern. Example: A Likert scale that measures attitudes towards the ban of cell phones in school
Example: What can you say about teachers who are deeply committed to their work? ITEMS
Researchers may choose to construct questionnaires consisting of a single type of question, or a. There would be difficulty in contacting my parents. SA A D SD
divide their questionnaire into two or more short sections, each using a different type of question. b. I will be able to concentrate my time in listening
to my teachers. SA A D SD
Wordings of Questions
c. It would stop cell phone thefts in school. SA A D SD
Nieswiadomy (2014) provides the following guidelines in formulating questions:
2. Semantic Differential Scale. The respondents are asked to rate concepts on a series of
1. Questions should be stated in an affirmative rather than in a negative manner.
bipolar adjectives. The advantages in using this are that it is flexible and easy to construct.
2. Ambiguous questions, such as those which contain words like many, always, usually, and
Example: Description of the School Librarian
few should be avoided.
Competent 5 4 3 2 1 Incompetent
3. Double negative questions, e.g., “Don’t you disagree with the idea that…?”, should also be
avoided. Punctual 5 4 3 2 1 Not punctual
4. Double-barreled questions, like when asking two questions in one, should not be Pleasant 5 4 3 2 1 Unpleasant
practiced. For example, “Do you want to become the class president and seek a position in
the student council?”
196 CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Data Collection 197
The following items should be discussed on the formulation of the instrument of the study;
3. Define structured and unstructured the type of instrument used; the conceptual definition of the instrument with corresponding
references; the rationale or reasons why the researcher decided to use the instrument; and the
questionnaires and describe what kinds description of the essential parts of the instrument.
of questions are involved in each type. Data-gathering Instrument Example 1:

4. Ask the students to discuss the different Basis for the Formulation of the Human Relation Intervention Program
(Cristobal, 2003)
types of questions and have them The data gathered to answer the specific questions were drawn by sets of questionnaires,
provide examples for each one. documents like the Performance Appraisal for Secondary Teachers (PAST), division reports,
and other school records.
5. Ask the students which question types The questionnaires used were composed of two sets. The first set was for the school
managers that were composed of three parts. The first part was to find out the personal profile
belong to which questionnaire type. of the school managers which included age, working experience as managers, educational
attainment, work values, home atmosphere, home management styles, level of religiosity,
hobbies, human virtues, health condition, and involvement in civic and religious organization.
The second set assessed the awards received by the teachers and students in the national,
regional, and district level.
Wording of Questions Part 3 assessed the intrapersonal competency of school principals, which is sub-divided into
six major variables. These are locus of control, Machiavellianism, self-esteem, self-monitoring,
1. Discuss the different guidelines in risk-taking, and type “A” personality. These variables were based from the book of Stephen
Robbins (1996) entitled Organizational Behaviors. The standardized tests presented in the book
formulating questions. was improved to fit in the Philippine culture and with the addition of some items in several
related literatures, the assessment checklist was completed then validated. Each variable has
a minimum of ten indicators. The responses used were the following:
2. Present examples showing one 5 = Completely True (81% to 100% True)
improperly worded question for each 4 = Generally True (61% to 80% True)
3 = Moderately True (41% to 60% True)
guideline and have the students revise it. 2 = Partly True (21% to 40% True)
1 = Not at all True (0% to 20% True)
3. Discuss the general importance of Thus, when a respondent indicated his response as “5”, this would mean that a particular
statement is observed to be commonly practiced 81% to 100% or believed all the time by the
asking properly-worded questions. school manager. Whereas, a response of “1” would mean that a particular statement has never
been observed to be practiced by the school manager, or it is 0% to 20% true to the school
manager.

Part B of the third part assessed the interpersonal competency of the school managers The researcher employed the rating scale which has the following descriptions or verbal
which is composed of 5 variables: role in management; learning and training; understanding interpretation:
and motivating teachers; and positive attitudes and problem solving techniques. These Value Scale Verbal Interpretation
variables were based from the book of Ernesto Appodaca (1997) entitled, Human Relations for
5 4.20 – 5.00 Very Great extent
Supervisors. The guide questions presented in the book with the addition of other items from
other sources were the basis of the items in the checklist; it was then improved and validated. 4 3.40 – 4.19 Great Extent
This was composed of 60 items, 10 items per variable. The same responses in the assessment
3 2.60 – 3.39 Moderate Extent
of intrapersonal competency were used.
Thus, when the respondent indicated his response as “5”, this would mean that a particular 2 1.80 – 2.59 Low Extent
statement is 80% to 100% observed to be commonly practiced by the school managers. 1 1.00 – 1.79 No Extent
Whereas, a response of “1” would mean that a particular statement is 0% to 20% unobserved to
be practiced by the school managers.
A parallel questionnaire was designed for the secondary school teachers. Data-gathering Instrument Example 3:
Management by Culture of Kapampangan School Managers

Data-gathering Instrument Example 2: in Selected Universities and Colleges (dela Cruz, 2002)
The study called for the development and use of instruments to measure the application
Extent of Participation of Nursing Students in Infection Control Practices at the
of Management by Culture. These instruments are the following:
Neo-Natal Intensive Care Unit (NICU): Basis for Enhanced RLE Supervisory Program
(Quiazon, 2007) a. Personal Data Sheet. This includes the personal attributes of the respondents and
other relevant information vital to the study. Specifically it includes the following
The study used a questionnaire as the primary research instrument. Padua (2001) defined variables: age, sex, civil status, highest educational attainment, managerial position &
a questionnaire as a list of planned, written questions related to a particular topic, with space experiences and duration of stay in Pampanga.
provided for the responses to each questions. In the same manner, the questionnaire is
b. Questionnaire
commonly used in normative survey and in the measurement of attitudes and opinions (Good,
1991). In other words, the questionnaire is the best instrument that can supply the necessary 1. Managerial Practices. To determine the responses of the respondents, a five-point
information to complete a research study as it is commonly used in behavioral research or scale was used from greater extent, great extent, less extent, lesser extent, and does
social research (Calderon & Gonzales, 2005). not practice.
Two sets of questionnaires were prepared: one for the student respondents and another 2. Kapampangan Managerial Traits. This includes the top ten desirable and ten
for the clinical instructors. The student’s questionnaire included the respondent’s profile undesirable managerial traits.
namely: age, gender, civil status, and types of hospital assigned. The second part deals with c. Interview Schedule. This method was used to check (to verify or to refute) the accuracy
infection control practices in the NICU. The CI’s questionnaire was similar with that of the of the impression the researcher gained through observations.
student-respondents except that this did not contain the questions on the profile of the
student-respondents.
Data-gathering Instrument Example 4: Characteristics of a Good Data Collection

Correlates of English Performance of Second Year Students in Selected High School Instrument
The main instrument in data-gathering is the survey questionnaire for the students and
for the teachers. The student questionnaire was divided into three parts, namely, socio-
1. Enumerate the different characteristics
demographic characteristics, home factors, and school factors.
of a good data collection instrument.
The first part (A) of the students’ questionnaire was designed to elicit information on
students’ age, sex parents’ highest educational attainment, parents’ occupation, monthly
family income, extra-curricular activities, favorite subject, ambition in life, and study habits. 2. Have the students explain the
The second part (B) was intended to inquire about their home factors in terms of availability
of reading materials, language and dialect spoken, and exposure to media and technology. importance of following each one.
Finally, the last part (C) gathered data on school factors about the exact count of the school’s
instructional and non-instructional resources. This was verified from the school’s property
custodian’s records.
3. Provide additional characteristics for
On the other hand, the teachers’ questionnaire was divided into three parts, namely further context.
professional competencies, teaching methods, and school facilities. The first part comprised
a checklist and questions regarding teacher’s age, sex, highest degree earned in a field of
specialization, present position, length of teaching experience, and English-related seminar/
in-service trainings attended for the last 3 years. The second part was an evaluation checklist
concerning their perceptions on the frequency and effectiveness of teaching methods and Scales Commonly Used in an Instrument
approaches they use in teaching English. This was rated in a five-point scale where 5 is always
used and very effective and 1 is never used and very ineffective. 1. Ask the students to discuss and
Secondary data like the NAT results, average English grades, and inventory of school
resources and facilities were obtained with permission from official records at the school compare the Likert scale and the
office.
Semantic Differential Scale.
2. Discuss how the two scales are applied
and in which scenarios they are
applicable.
3. Present and discuss the examples on
pages 198-201 and relate them to the
other concepts discussed in the chapter.
Data Collection 201 Enhanced Teacher’s Manual • 93

CHAPTER S UM M ARY APPL IC ATIO N
1. The most frequently used data collection methods are: individual interviews, group
interviews, observations, and questionnaires. Think of one person that you always wanted to interview on a certain subject. Write below
at least 10 questions that you want to ask them. Remember to apply the rules for the proper
2. Individual interviews are conversations designed to obtain specific information.
wording of a question.
Interview schedules are the tools used for interviewing. Interviews can be structured,
semi-structured, or unstructured.
Interviewee:
3. Group interviews are discussions among several respondents simultaneously. Topic
guides are used to facilitate group interviews and keep them on track while giving
respondents room to discuss. 1.
4. Observation is an immersive method of collecting information or data on natural
phenomena or behavior as it occurs. Observation guides or checklists are instruments
used to facilitate observations. 2.
5. Surveys or questionnaires are the most commonly used instrument in research, and
are made of a list of planned written questions or statements of a particular topic. They 3.
are both a method and an instrument, and can be structured or unstructured.
4.
C H E CK- UP 5.
Complete the table by providing the required information.
Other Important Information 6.

Data Collection Method Tool Used
(Write at least two)
7.
1. Individual interview
8.
2. Group interview
9.
3. Observation
10.
4. Questionnaire
202 CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Data Collection 203
Name : Date : 4. What rating scale will you use? Discuss it in detail.
RESEARCH ACTIVITY I0
DATA COLLECTION
Answer the following questions thoroughly. The use of additional references is encouraged.
1. What methods and instruments will you use to gather data to answer your research problem?
Describe them. Remember to cite your references.
5. Formulate a question that centers on one of your study variables or sub-variables. Cite at least
five indicators for your chosen variable or sub-variable.
2. Why did you choose these methods and instruments?
3. What are the parts of your methods and instruments? Include the major variables and
sub-variables.

assessment activities
Check-up
Ask the students to exchange their books for correction. Refer to the sample answers provided below.
Data Collection Method Tool Used Other Important Information

Individual interview Interview Life histories are needed in this area; Interview
schedule schedule can be structured, semi-structured or
unstructured.
Group interview Topic guides It resembles interview schedule but allows respondents
a free and more dynamic exchange of ideas; Group
interviews can involve focus groups or natural groups.
Observation Observation It allows for a more general, descriptive
guides documentation; Observation must be done in a quiet
and inconspicuous manner.
Survey Questionnaire It can be structured or unstructured. An unstructured
questionnaire is more appropriate in qualitative
research.
Application
1. Ask the students to think of the person they have always wanted to interview.
2. Instruct them to write 10 questions they would like to ask to that person.
3. Remind them to follow the guidelines for the proper wording of interview questions.
4. Ask the students to share their work to the class.
Research Activity 10
1. Ask the students to fill in all the sections with the required information.
2. Allow them to go to the library to research on relevant resource materials and utilize the computers
3. Give additional guidelines identifying the appropriate methods and instruments for gathering data
for their research.
4. Provide one-on-one student consultation when necessary.
5. Ask the students to submit the accomplished Research Activity 10 by detaching it from the book.
NOTE:
1. You have the option to let this classroom activity be a take-home assignment depending on time
constraints and the necessity for additional research materials.
2. Carefully check the students’ research activities because the final research paper will be based on
their outputs.

CHAPTER
Objectives
16 Validity and Reliability
will be able to
At the end of this
chapter, the students Read the vignette below. Then, answer the following guide
will be able to questions.
1. differentiate validity from reliability 1. differentiate The Vignette

validity from
A Christmas party on December 15 was scheduled
and reliability and
for the Grade 11 students of Saint Maura Academy. One
2. establish the of the highlights of the said celebration is the Christmas
2. establish the validity and reliability validity and
reliability of an
class dance contest. The four sections of the grade level
prepared for the contest. As early as December 1, the
of an instrument. instrument. students started planning their dance steps, costume,
props, and schedule for the practices. The parents of
the students also assisted in designing and making their
costumes and props. The class advisers supervised the
practice of the students after class hours.
During the contest proper, the friends of the PE teacher serve as panel of judges. The
presentations were exemplary and the section of Cathriona became the crowd’s favorite due
opening activity
to the polished execution of the dance steps, and synchronization of the costume and the
props. However, another group which performed rather poorly became the winner.
Because of this, the section of Cathriona and the other sections wanted to know the bases
for the judging and raised their concerns to the Vice Principal for Students’ Activities. After
1. Ask the students to read and analyze conducting an investigation, it turned out no judging criteria were set and no judging sheets
were used.
the selection.
GUIDE QUESTIONS
2. Have them answer the guide 1. What are the facts of the story?
questions. A dance contest is the highlight event of the Christmas party on

December 15 of Saint Maura Academy.
output to the class.
Validity and Reliability 207
2. How did the students prepare for the event?
investigation The students prepared for the contests by planning early their dance steps,
costumes, props, and schedule for the practices.
3. What was the overall quality of the presentations witnessed by the class?
Validity The overall quality of the presentations witnessed by the class was
exemplary.
1. Ask the students to define
validity and have them explain its 4. Were the students satisfied with the result of the contest? Why?
importance in research. The students were not satisfied with the result of the contest because the
section Cathriona which performed really well and was pegged for winning
2. Have them relate validity with real the first place lost to another group which performed rather poorly.
life situations.
5. What do you think are the things that must be done to avoid said concern?
3. Discuss validity further by explaining To avoid the said concern, a valid criteria and judging sheet must be used
for the contest.
its significance and purpose in
conducting research.
INVESTIG ATIO N
Some qualitative studies combine quantitative aspects in its research methods, e.g., sampling
and analysis of quantitative elements. In this highly technological age, studies seek to create
new knowledge and lean more towards technical and scientific research topics rather than
philosophical and descriptive ones. In doing so, research topics that have a qualitative theme
utilize quantitative methods in establishing the credibility of its results. This is why evaluating
the validity and reliability of the instrument to be used is also essential in a qualitative study.
VALIDITY
Validity refers to the quality of the instrument of being functional only within its specific
purpose. That is, an instrument is valid if it measures what it is supposed to measure. Since the
instruments of the study are used by the researcher in the methodology to obtain the data, the

validity of each one should be established beforehand. This is to ensure the credibility of the
findings, and the correctness and accuracy of the following data analysis. For instance, when a
study investigates the common causes of absences, the content of the instrument must focus
on these variables and indicators. Similarly, when a researcher formulates a problem about the
4. Have the students discuss the
behavior of the students during school assemblies, the instrument must consist of the indicators different types of validity.
or measures of the behavior of students during such times.
Types of Validity 5. Ask them what concepts are

In Educational Testing and Measurement: Classroom Application and Practice, Kubiszyn and
Borich (2007) enumerate the different types of validity.
involved in each one and have them
1. Face validity. Also known as logical validity, it involves an analysis of whether the explain how each one applies in
instrument is using a valid scale. The procedure calls only for intuitive judgment. Just by
looking at the instrument, the researcher decides if it has face validity. It includes the font
research studies.
size, spacing, the size of the paper used, and other necessary details that will not distract
respondents from answering the questionnaire.
2. Content validity. This kind of validity is determined by studying the questions to see
whether they are able to elicit the necessary information. An instrument with high content Reliability
validity has to meet the objectives of the research. This type of validity is not measured by
a numerical index, but instead relies on logical judgment as to whether the test measures
its intended subject. 1. Have the students define reliability
Content validity is measured by subjecting the instrument to an analysis by a group of
experts who have theoretical and practical knowledge of the subject. Three to five experts
and compare it with validity.
would suffice. The experts assess the items of the questionnaire and determine if the items
measure the variables being studied. Then, the experts’ criticisms will be considered in 2. Ask the students if validity and
the revision of the instrument.
3. Construct validity. This type of validity refers to whether the test corresponds with its
reliability can be evident in a single
theoretical construct. It is concerned with the extent to which a particular measure relates instrument at the same time.
to other measures and to which it is consistent with the theoretically-derived hypothesis.
Therefore, the process of construct validation is theory-laden. Factor analysis, a relevant
technique to construct validity, is a refined statistical procedure that is used to analyze the 3. Discuss the significance and purpose
interrelationships of behavior data.
of establishing the reliability of a
4. Criterion-related validity or equivalent test. This type of validity is an expression of
how scores from the test are correlated with an external criterion. There are two types of research instrument.
this validity.
a. Concurrent validity. It deals with measures that can be administered and validated
at the same time. It is determined by administering both the new test and the
4. Let the students discuss the methods
established test to a group of respondents, then finding the correlation between the used in establishing research and
two sets of the scores. Validity is established with an accepted and availed second test
that measures what the researcher is trying to measure. how they are conducted.
5. Discuss further the two methods by
explaining their applicability with
certain topics.
Example:
The Stanford-Binet V, a widely accepted standardized IQ test is used to 6. Have the students discuss the other
determine the IQ of nursing students. A researcher published a design for a short
screening test that measures the same. The scores on the Standard-Binet V and criteria used for assessing validity
the short screening test are compared to assess the relationship between scores.
b. Predictive validity. It refers to how well the test predicts the future behavior of the
and reliability.
examinees. This is particularly useful in aptitude tests, which are tests to predict how
well test-takers will perform in some future setting.
It is advised that when a drafted questionnaire is to be subjected for validation, a rating

sheet of the acceptability of the indicators must be provided for the experts to mark and give his
judgment. The markings and comments of the experts that validated the proposed questionnaire
will be the basis of the revision of the proposed instrument or questionnaire.
Directions: Please assess the attached questionnaire and rate the acceptability of the
indicators used by checking the appropriate column.
INDICATORS HA A LA NA
Common causes of students’ tardiness
1. Family
a. Parents are too busy working.
b. The student is left alone in the house.
c. No curfew imposed in the use of the computer
and gadgets.
INDICATORS HA A LA NA
2. Environment
a. There is dearth of vehicles in the area
b. Heavy traffic
c. Ongoing road construction
Legend: HA (Highly Acceptable); A (Acceptable); LA (Less Acceptable); NA (Not Acceptable)
Comments:

RELIABILITY OTHER CRITERIA FOR ASSESSING VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
Reliability refers to the consistency of the results of an instrument in repeated trials. A There are also other forms of criteria that can used in assessing the literature (Polit & Beck,
reliable instrument can also be used to verify the credibility of the subject if the latter yield 2004):
the same results in several tests. However, this is only true if the instrument used is valid. It 1. Sensitivity. The instrument should be able to identify a case correctly, i.e., to screen or
is important to note that, while a valid instrument is always reliable, a reliable instrument is diagnose a condition correctly.
not always necessarily valid. This is most especially true when the subjects are human, who are 2. Specificity. The instrument should be able to identify a non-case correctly, i.e., to screen
governed by judgment and prone to error. Nevertheless, testing the reliability of an instrument is out those without the conditions correctly.
very crucial in research studies that deal with a lot of samples.
3. Comprehensibility. Subjects and researchers should be able to comprehend the behavior
For example, Jaycee, who is monitoring her weight, uses a weighing scale. She weighed herself required for accurate and valid measurements.
in the morning, afternoon, and the evening and recorded the results afterwards. Her recorded
4. Precision. The instrument should discriminate among people who exhibit varying
weights are 65 lbs, 68 lbs, and 70 lbs respectively. The weighing scale can be considered reliable
degrees of an attribute as precisely as possible.
since the deviation of the results is small and negligible.
5. Speed. The researcher should not rush the measuring process so that he or she can obtain
reliable measurements.
Methods in Establishing Reliability 6. Range. The instrument should be capable of detecting the smallest expected value of the
variable to the largest, in order to obtain meaningful measurements.
1. Test-retest or stability. In this method, the same test is given to a group of respondents
twice. The scores in the first test are correlated with the scores in the second test. When there 7. Linearity. The researcher normally strives to construct measures that are equally
is a high correlation index, it means that there is also a high reliability of the test. Some of the accurate and sensitive over the entire range of values.
problems here are the observations that some subjects may be able to recall certain items 8. Reactivity. The instrument should, as much as possible, avoid affecting the attribute
given during the first administration of the test, and that the scores may differ because the being measured.
students have adapted to the test.
The following are examples of establishing the validity and reliability of an instrument:
Carmines and Zeller (1979), in their book Reliability and Validity Assessment, list the
weaknesses identified in using the test-retest method:
Example 1:
a. Even if the test-retest correlation can be computed and established, its interpretation
is not necessarily straightforward. A low test-retest correlation may not indicate that Correlates of English Performance of Second Year Students in Selected High School
the reliability of the test is low but rather signify instead that the underlying theoretical Congressional District II, Nueva Ecija (Valenton, 2009)
framework has changed. The longer the time interval between measurements, the
Data gathering employed two sets of survey questionnaires for the students and for the
more likely that the concept has changed.
teachers. This was developed by the researcher of the approval of the advisory committee.
b. Reactivity refers to the fact that sometimes, the very process is not done logically and Pre-testing was done to improve the survey-questionnaires for the students of Doña Juana
that phenomenon can induce change in itself. Chico National High School and for the teachers of Rizal National High School. They did not
c. Overestimation due to memory is another weakness in using the test-retest method. serve as respondents of the study.
The person’s mental recollection of his or her responses which he or she gives during
The results of the pre-test were analyzed to ensure clarity and to determine whether they
the first measurement is quite likely to influence the responses which he or she gives
could yield data needed in the study. The pre-test results showed a Cronbach’s Alpha Reliability
during the second measurement. Memory effects may influence reliability estimates.
Coefficient of 0.923, indicating a good reliability of the instrument. As a rule, Cronbach Alpha
2. Internal consistency. If the test in question is designed to measure a single basic concept, must be at least 0.80 to be considered reliable.
it is reasonable to assume that a respondent who gets one item right is likely to be right in
another similar item. In other words, items should to be correlated with each other and the
test ought to be internally consistent.
Validity and Reliability 211 212 CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Example 2: To establish the reliability of the instrument, the questionnaires were administered to
4 school managers, 3 master teachers, and 15 TEPP teachers and the re-administration was
Staff Nurses’ Roles on the Accuracy of Specimen Collection in Selected Government
done after two weeks. This is shown in Table 2 in the next page. The reliability coefficient was
and Private Hospitals in Bulacan: Relations to Their Work Performance (Reyes, 2007)
computed using the Pearson-Product Moment of Correlation. The rxy was 0.75 and showed
The instrument underwent validation. It was pre-tested at Dr. Gloria D. Lacson General high relationship. This means that there is a high relationship between the two tests scores,
Hospital in San Leonardo, Nueva Ecija, which is not included in the study. therefore, the instrument used is very reliable. Downie and Heath (1974) state that there are
A group of seven staff nurses, and two nurse supervisors were requested to answer the various conditions, which affect the technique, limiting its effectiveness. The length of time
questionnaires, upon approval of the permit addressed to the hospital director. Results were between the administrations of the test is important in determining the size of reliability
checked and analyzed. After 15 days, the corrected questionnaire was administered to the coefficient. In general, the longer the time between two administrations of the test, the lower
same respondents. A reliability coefficient of 80% and above indicated that the instrument is the correlation is. If the period between the administrations is very short, as the second test
already valid, reliable, and ready to use. immediately following the first, individuals may remember their answers and put the same
responses down the second time without making a new effort to react to the test item. Such
behavior tends to make the reliability coefficient artificially high. When the period between
Example 3: testing is short, memory may be an important factor affecting the results. As the period
increases in length, learning, maturation, and many other variables may enter the situation to
The Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Competencies of School Managers: Basis for the lower the correlation coefficient. The coefficient of reliability was obtained by test and re-test
Formulation of the Human Relation Intervention Program (Cristobal, 2003) methods computing the Pearson-product moment coefficient of correlation.
The researcher collected information from different literatures like books, journals, and The total-item correlation was computed for the construct validity and internal consistency
unpublished materials like theses and dissertations. The variables that were considered were of the instrument. The cut-off point of confidence of the item used was 0.05 and 0.0001.
numerous, so with the advice of colleagues in the field and experts, the variables used to (Note: This is just a part of the original validation of instrument in the original manuscript.)
measure the intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies were selected.
The first draft of questionnaires had 140 items. This first draft was submitted to the advisers, Table 2. Correlation of the First and Second Tests Showing the Test Reliability
master teachers, and a head teacher. With their comments, corrections, and suggestions, Cases First Test Second Test
the items were simplified. The second draft was then showed to the advisers. The advisers
1 3.15 3.10
suggested additional variables for measuring school effectiveness. Thus, variables like work
values, home atmosphere, home management styles, level of religiosity, human virtues, 2 3.05 3.00
hobbies, health condition, and involvement to civic and religious organizations were included 3 3.38 3.43
and then permitted for face and content validation.
4 3.28 3.16
A group of experts was chosen to scrutinize and evaluate the instrument. The following
comments were recorded: “Has very long instrument; is very exhaustive; remove “most,” 5 3.94 3.85
“always,” and “enough;” avoid duplication, there’s a need of rephrasing; and observe uniform
6 3.40 3.60
format and make a clear instruction.” These comments and suggestions to improve the
questionnaire were integrated to revise and polish the questionnaires. Besides the comments 7 3.90 4.30
and suggestions, the evaluators rated each item in accordance with the item appropriateness: 8 1.95 2.05
3 for “Very Appropriate”, 2 for “Appropriate,” and 1 for “Not Appropriate.” The items that
were rated “Not Appropriate” were removed from the list and for uniformity. Each variable 9 2.72 2.83
was given 10 indicators, thus, the 140-item questionnaire was narrowed down to 110 items. 10 3.45 3.30
The level of appropriateness was computed and it showed that all of the variables were rated
11 3.78 3.80
“Very Appropriate” and it has a grand mean of 2.59 and equivalence of “Very Appropriate.”
The content validation took place from September 16, 2002 to September 30, 2002.
98 • Practical Research 1 Validity and Reliability 213 214 CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Cases First Test Second Test
12 4.04 4.01
13 4.49 4.45
14 3.04 2.95
15 3.50 3.34
16 3.95 3.93
17 3.75 3.93
18 2.97 2.79
19 3.43 3.17
20 3.74 3.57
21 2.86 3.30
22 2.79 4.45
23 3.90 3.85
24 3.78 4.63
25 3.40 3.31
26 3.26 2.97
Reliability Coefficient 0.75
C HAPTER S UM M ARY
1. Validity refers to the quality of the instrument of being functional only within its specific
purpose.
2. The types of validity are face validity, content validity, construct validity, and criterion-
related validity.
3. Reliability refers to the consistency of the results of an instrument in repeated trials.
4. The methods in testing reliability are test-retest or stability test and internal consistency
test.
5. The other criteria used to assess validity and reliability are sensitivity, specificity,
comprehensibility, precision, speed, range, linearity, and reactivity.
CH E CK- U P
Choose the correct answer from the box and write the letter of your answer on the space
AssessMent Activities
provided.
A. Concurrent validity F. Construct validity

B. Specificity G. Range
check-Up
C. Concurrent validity H. Face validity
D. Linearity I. Reliability Ask the students to exchange their books
E. Precision J. Content validity
for correction.
1. It is also known as the logical validity.
Predictive validity
2. It refers to how well a test can predict future behaviors.
3. It refers to the consistency of the results of an instrument in repeated trials.
4. It refers to quality of an instrument of being equally accurate and sensitive over the
entire range of values.
5. Instruments having this kind of validity are able to elicit the necessary information.
6. It refers to how well an instrument can identify a non-case correctly.
7. It refers to the capability of an instrument to detect the smallest expected value to

the largest.
8. This kind of validity refers to whether the test corresponds with its theoretical
construct.
9. It refers to the capability of the instrument to precisely discriminate among people

who exhibit varying degrees of an attribute.
10. This kind of validity deals with measures that can be measured and validated at the
same time.

APPL IC ATIO N
ApplicAtiOn Read the description of a sample research topic below. Then, write an essay about the
reliability and validity of the instruments in the study. Use the questions below as a guide
1. Ask the students to read the sample in writing your piece.
Sample Study:
description of a research instrument. Knight, Worosz, and Todd (2007), in their research paper entitled “Serving Food
Safety: Consumer Perceptions of Food Safety at Restaurants,” they sought to study
2. Have them answer the guide the perceptions of consumers regarding food safety at restaurants as compared
questions. to those of the other food system actors such as farmers, food processors and
manufacturers, and grocery stores and supermarkets. The data collection approach
used in the study was through interviews with 1,014 randomly selected US adults.
3. Have them write their essay in a one The goal of the study is to gain a better understanding of the consumer perceptions
whole intermediate pad. towards food safety, and highlight the importance of creating and adopting food
safety practices.
4. Refer to the sample answers to

GUIDE QUESTIONS
the guide questions below in the
1. Based on the sample study, what instrument was used to gather the data?
assessment of the students’ papers.
1) The instrument used in the
sample study was an interview
schedule. 2. How important was it to establish the validity and reliability of the study, considering the
subjects of the research were chosen randomly?
2) Establishing reliability and

validity ensures that correct
and accurate answers are still
obtained even though the
subjects are chosen randomly.
3) In establishing the validity, the Validity and Reliability 217
interview schedule must be read
and commented by at least three
experts. 3. What methods do you think can be used to assess the validity and reliability of the instrument
used in the study?
4) Survey questionnaires can also
be used because of the sample
size.
4. Besides an interview, what other valid and reliable instruments can be used to collect the
data? Why do you think so?

Name : Date :
RESEARCH ACTIVITY 11
ESTABLISHING VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF AN INSTRUMENT
reseArch Activity 11
Answer the following questions thoroughly. The use of additional references is encouraged.
1. How will you establish the validity of your instrument? Describe the process step by step. information.
assessing the validity and reliability
2. What kind/s of validity will you use as criteria for your instrument? Justify your answer. of the instrument they will be using
for their research.

nOte:
3. How will you determine the reliability of your instrument? Describe the process step by step. assignment depending on time
their outputs.
4. Do you think your instrument is valid and reliable? Justify your answer.

UNIT
4
ANALYZING THE
MEANING OF THE
DATA AND DRAWING
CONCLUSIONS
CHAPTER
17 Drawing Patterns
and Themes
Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the students At the end of this
Read the selection and answer the following guide questions.
will be able to will be able to
THE ARCHETYPE
1. infer patterns and
Defining the Archetype
1. infer patterns and themes from the themes from the
gathered data and In literature, an archetype is a typical character, an
gathered data and 2. relate patterns to
relevant literatures.
action, or a situation that seems to represent such universal
patterns of human nature.
An archetype, also known as universal symbol, may
2. relate patterns to relevant literatures. be a character, a theme, a symbol, or even a setting. Many
literary critics are of the opinion that archetypes, which
have a common and recurring representation in a particular
human culture or entire human race, shape the structure and
function of a literary work.
Carl Jung, a Swiss psychologist, argued that the root of an archetype is in the “collective
unconscious” of mankind. The phrase “collective unconscious” refers to experiences shared
by a race or culture. This includes love, religion, death, birth, life, struggle, and survival. These
experiences exist in the subconscious of every individual and are recreated in literary works
or in other forms of art.
opening activity Archetypes in Characters

1. The Hero: He or she is a character who predominantly exhibits goodness and struggles
against evil in order to restore harmony and justice to society, e.g., Beowulf, Hercules, and
D’artagnan from “The Three Musketeers.”
1. Ask the students to read the 2. The Mother Figure: Such a character may be represented as a fairy mother who guides
and directs a child, Mother Earth who contacts people and offers spiritual and emotional
selection. nourishment, and a stepmother who treats their stepchildren roughly, e.g., Galadriel from
The Lord of the Rings, Glinda from the Wizard of Oz, and the stepmother in Cinderella.
2. Have them answer the guide 3. The Innocent Youth: He or she is inexperienced with many weaknesses and seeks safety
with others, but others like him or her because of the trust he or she shows in other
questions. people. Usually, the innocent youth experiences a coming of age in the later parts of
the narratives. Examples include Pip in Dickens’ Great Expectations, Nicholas in Dickens’
Nicholas Nickelby, and Joseph from Fielding’s Joseph Andrews.
output to the class. 222 ANALYZING THE MEANING OF THE DATA AND DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
4. The Mentor: His or her task is to protect the main character. It is through the wise advice
and training of a mentor that the main character achieves success in the world, e.g.,
Gandalf in The Lords of the Rings, Parson Adams in Fielding’s Joseph Andrews, and Senex
in L’Engle’s A Wind in the Door.
5. Doppelganger: It is a duplicate or shadow of a character that represents the evil side of his
personality. Examples are in popular literary works such as Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Mary
Shelley’s Frankenstein, Poe’s William Wilson, and Stevenson’s Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde.
6. The Scapegoat: A character that takes the blame for everything bad that happens, e.g.,
Snowball in Orwell’s Animal Farm.
7. The Villain: A character whose main function is to go to any extent to oppose the hero
or one whom the hero must annihilate in order to bring justice, e.g., Shere Khan from
Kipling’s The Jungle Book stories, and Long John Silver from Stevenson’s Treasure Island.
Function of the Archetype

The use of archetypical characters and situations gives a literary work a universal
acceptance, as readers identify the characters and situations in their social and cultural context.
By using common archetypes, the writers impart realism to their works, as the situations and
characters are drawn from the experiences of the world.
Source: Archetype by Literary Devices, n.d.
GUIDE QUESTIONS
1. What is an archetype?
2. What is the function of an archetype in a story?
3. Did you recognize the archetypes in the characters mentioned in the selection? Cite one
character and explain his or her archetype.
104 • Practical Research 1 Drawing Patterns and Themes 223

4. Did recognizing the archetype help you understand the story of a movie or a book better?
Why do you think so?
investigation
5. How can you relate the character archetypes in movies and books to the patterns and themes
drawn in research data?
Analyzing Qualitative Data

1. Have the students define qualitative
data analysis.
IN VE STIGATION 2. Ask the students to explain what
ANALYZING QUALITATIVE DATA processes are involved in analyzing
Qualitative data analysis involves the identification, examination, and interpretation of
patterns and themes in textual data and determines how these patterns and themes help answer
qualitative data.
the research questions at hand.
The National Science Foundation (1997) describes qualitative analysis as “unguided by

3. Explain the overall purpose of
universal rules; has a fluid process that is greatly dependent on the evaluator and to the context
of the study; and adaptable to progressing studies and data.”
qualitative data analysis in the
This section will provide a loosely structured guide for the steps one should take when research study.
analyzing qualitative data. It is important to note that qualitative data analysis is an ongoing,
fluid, and cyclical process that happens throughout the data collection and evaluation stage of the
project and carries over to the data entry and analysis stages. Although the steps listed below are
Data Analysis Process

somewhat sequential, they do not always happen in isolation from each other.
DATA ANALYSIS PROCESS

As mentioned, qualitative analysis is an ongoing and cyclical process. However, it is 1. Discuss the different processes
important to note that while the earlier contents of the research paper is systematic (e.g., the
review of the related literature and studies), this process of qualitative data analysis is rather involved in the qualitative analysis
fluid. Methods happen simultaneously as they are immediately necessary.
process.
2. Let the students explain the “getting
224 ANALYZING THE MEANING OF THE DATA AND DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
to know the data” part of analysis
process.
The processes involved in the qualitative analysis are as follows:

3. Have the students compare focusing
1. Getting to know the data. This is done by reading and re-reading the text. The taped the analysis by topic, time period,
recordings should be played and listened to several times. Impressions should be written
down. These impressions may be utilized in another time. The purpose of this process is or event with focusing it by case,
to asses the quality of the data before the analysis.
2. Focusing the analysis. This can be done using two approaches:
individual, or group.
a. Focus by question or topic, time period, or event. This is usually done in open-ended
questions. This can be done by looking at how all individuals or groups responded to
each question or topic, or for a given time period or event; organizing the data by
question to look across all respondents and their answers to identify consistencies
and differences; consolidating all data from questions; applying the same approach
to particular topics, time periods, or events of interest; and exploring the connections
and relationships between questions.
b. Focus by case, individual, or group. A case can be a single family; an individual can
be a first-timer or teen participant; and a group can be categorized by ages.
3. Coding. This is the process of categorizing the data. This process reduces the data into
smaller groupings so that they are more manageable. This will help the researcher analyze
the relationships between categories and patterns of interaction. Codes can be developed
using predefined ones and those that emerge from the data.
a. Predefined codes refer to codes that are formulated by the researcher based his or
her knowledge through the reviewed literatures.
b. Emergent codes refer to codes that become apparent as one reviews the data.
Example:
Question: What do you need to continue your learning about evaluation?
Answers Coding
1. More advance data analysis Trg
2. More time and information on all concepts T, R
3. Just start doing it P
4. Another workshop Trg
5. Assessment feedback on the benefits of evaluation Fdbk
6. How to measure long range planning Trg
7. Do it P
8. Needs additional training Trg
9. Practice makes perfect P
10. Time to do actual problems T
Sample Coding Scheme
Drawing Patterns and Themes 225

4. Entering and organizing the data. This can be done manually by using a piece of paper Kapampangan Practices N
or through computers. Upon deciding the use of a word processing program, such as
5. Mayasikasu/biasing tanggap bisita (hospitality) 3
Microsoft Word, the recording will be easier to accomplish.
6. Biasang makiramdam karing problema at pisasabyan (empathy) 2
The following tips can simplify the recording process.
a. A file for each interview, observation site, or focus group should be created.
b. Within each file, the data should be organized by question, time intervals, or topic Table 17.2. Sample Key Point Coding
(depending on which method makes the most sense). ID Key Points from the Transcript Code
The process of entering qualitative data can be very tedious and time-consuming, Achieved present school-based management level because
thus, an effective plan must be created by the researcher beforehand. Once the data are Pa1 Collaboration
of my teachers
entered in the finalized format, the researcher should always review the data.
Pa2 What fuels the school-based management is teamwork. Teamwork
Example:
Achieved uncommon results because of a common goal in
Using data from a study, sample coding and tallying tables are given below (See Pa3 Shared vision
mind
Tables 17.1 and 17.2). These show what an organized data may look like in the actual Started with target setting and roadmapping and the target
research paper. However, the tables only serve an examples and organized data can Pa4 Target setting
set by the school
contain more details to provide more clarity to the information that they represent.
Doing one’s best to properly document our activities, Proper
Pa5
Table 17.1. Sample Coding and Tallying of Kapampangan Traits and programs and achievements documentation
Practices of Principals (Canlas 2013) Not confronting the person involved in the problem when I
Pa6 Stress tolerance
am “emotional by charged”
Kapampangan Traits n
Praying and reading Bible verses before confronting the Importance of prayer
1. Matatag kasalpantayan/Makadios (faith in God) 13 Pa7
person and reflection
2. Masaya at positiong panlalawe/mapamatula (happy and with sense of
12 Talking to their department head to know the background
humor) Pa8 Gathering data
of the person and the situation
3. Mayap makipagobra/tututu king obra (committed) 10 Talking to the person with one goal in mind: to make this Conflict management
Pa9
4. Atin metung salita/mapagkatiwalaan (honest) 9 person understand the situation skills
5. Relihiyoso/mapangadi (religious/prayerful) 8 Listening the person and reflecting whether I contributed Listening and
Pa10
to the problem and tried to find ways to correct them reflection
6. Mapanutu at mapanyaup (appreciative/supportive) 7
7. Diretsu o matulid at biasang desisyon (decisiveness) 5 5. Cleaning the data. This is a process of checking data for errors. The “dirty” data when not
eliminated can negatively influence the results of the study.
8. Matiaga/mapagtimpi (patience/peace loving) 4
There are three common ways of cleaning qualitative data (Washington County, 1996):
Kapampangan Practices N a. Spot-checking. This technique involves comparing the raw data to the electronically
1. Maayap makyabe anting katubale (strong family) 9 entered data to check for data entry and coding errors. For qualitative data, one
should use this approach to check whether the participants’ words were transcribed
2. Biasang makyabe/makibage (interpersonal relation) 8 accurately and attributed to the right individual.
3. Mapamye/mapandake lalo na para king kagiwan at pamangan (generosity) 6 If no error is found in the first round of spot-checking, the researcher should check
4. Pante panlalawe/alang kikilingan (fairness) 4 a random set of the raw data. If an error is found, and it is clear that it is not an isolated
incident, the researcher needs to go over the raw data to ensure that all data are
recorded correctly.
226 ANALYZING THE MEANING OF THE DATA AND DRAWING CONCLUSIONS Drawing Patterns and Themes 227
b. Eye-balling. This technique involves reviewing the data for errors that may have
resulted from a data entry or coding oversight.
For example, with the question, “Did you participate in the summer program?”
4. Have the students define coding Participants can only respond to this question with a “Yes” or “No.” “No” is assigned
a value of 0, while “Yes” responses are assigned a value of 1. Therefore, any number
and its function in research, and ask other than 0 or 1 in the same column as the said question on the sample spreadsheet
would be an obvious error.
them to describe the two types of If the researcher finds such errors, he or she needs to go back to the original raw
codes. data survey and enter that participant’s answer correctly.
c. Logic check. This technique involves a careful review of the electronically entered
5. Discuss how entering and organizing data to make sure that the answers to the different questions “make sense.”
Example:
the data can be conducted in If the participant on the sample spreadsheet indicated that they did not attend
the summer program in question 5, it would be illogical for this participant to have
research. provided a satisfaction rating in their response to the question. The only logical
response for this participant would or “not applicable.”
6. Ask the students what tool they As with the other types of errors, if the researcher finds one, he or she needs to go
back to the original raw data and enter the correct data instead.
prefer in recording and organizing Nevertheless, the best practice is to apply all three approaches so that the
their data and why they prefer that researcher is sure that all possible errors were eliminated. To do this, one should
always refer back to the research questions. Then, he or she can evaluate the research
tool. himself or herself or refer to the expertise of other individuals for a thorough
understanding of the program.
6. Identifying meaningful patterns and themes. This is the core process of qualitative
data analysis.
There are two primary ways to do perform this:
a. Content analysis. This is carried out by coding the data for certain words or content
by going through all the text and label words, phrases, and sections of the text; or
devising a matrix to group for categories of the texts when listening to a recorded
interview; identifying their patterns (ideas, concepts, behaviors, interactions,
incidents, terminologies, or phrases used); and interpreting their meanings.
106 • Practical Research 1 228 ANALYZING THE MEANING OF THE DATA AND DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
Table 17.3. Sample Display of Recurrent Themes b. Thematic analysis. This is a process of analyzing the data by grouping them
from Significant Experiences of Principals (Canlas 2013) according to themes. Themes either evolve directly from the research questions or
preset, or naturally emerge from the resulting data.
Questions Categories
The initial list of categories may change as one works with the data. This is an
What makes a quality educational Staff (Stf), relevance (Rel), participation (Part),
iterative process. One may adjust the definition of the categories, or identify new
program? timeliness (Time), and content (Con)
categories to accommodate data that do not fit the existing labels. Main categories can
What is the benefit of a youth-mentoring Benefits to youth (Y), mentors (M), family be broken into subcategories and then re-sorted into smaller, more defined categories.
program? (Fam), and community (COMM) This allows for greater discrimination and differentiation.
Practice (P), additional training (Trg), time (T), Example 1:
What do you need to continue your
resources (R), feedback (Fdbk), mentor (M),
learning about evaluation? Table 17.4. Sample Thematic Analysis (Canlas 2013)
and Uncertain (U)
Categories Sub-categories
The University of Surrey provides the following guidelines in doing content analysis:
School Performance (Y-SP)
i. The transcript should be copied and read through. This is made by writing brief Friendship (Y-F)
Benefits to Youth (Y)
notes on the margin. Self-concept (Y-SC)
ii. The notes made in the margins should be reviewed. Then, the different types of Role Modeling (Y-RM)
information found therein should be listed.
Promotion (M-P)
iii. Each item in the list should be categorized in a way that offers a description of Benefits to Mentor (M) Growth Level (M-GL)
what it is about. Behavioral Traits (M-BT)
iv. Whether or not the categories can be linked in any way should be identified. They
Closeness Level (F-CL)
should be listed as major and minor categories or themes.
Benefits to Family (F) Level of Satisfaction F-LS)
v. The various major and minor categories or themes should be compared and Quality Time (F-QT)
contrasted.
vi. If there is more than one transcript, the first five stages should be repeated for
each transcript. Example 2: Kapampangan Qualities and Practices (Canlas, 2013)
vii. When finished applying the steps above with all of the transcripts, all of the They love their language.
categories or themes should be collected, examined in detail, and evaluated to
They are proud of their race.
ensure that each one is appropriate and relevant.
viii. Once all the transcript data are categorized into minor and major categories They are excellent cooks. Kapampangan Qualities
or themes, they should be reviewed in order to ensure that the information is They are deeply religious.
properly categorized.
They have a carefree nature and a
ix. All of the categories should be reviewed and it should be ascertained whether
durable disposition.
some categories can be merged or if some need to be sub-categorized.
x. The original transcripts should be returned and it should be ensured that all
necessary information have been categorized.
Drawing Patterns and Themes 229 230 ANALYZING THE MEANING OF THE DATA AND DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
The relatives of a woman in labor

create loud noise for an easy delivery.
The baptismal clothes of a baby
serve as a house decoration. 7. Explain the purpose of cleaning
A man does the pamamanhikan
as a sign of respect to the parents of the girl
Kapampangan Practices the data in research.
A grandiose meal is held during the
1st death anniversary of a loved one. 8. Discuss the common ways used in
Some men perform physical penitence
to show their religious devotion.
cleaning qualitative data and their
The above diagrams are examples of data display. After identifying themes or content
application.
patterns, the data should be assembled, organized, and compressed into a display that
facilitates conclusion drawing. The display can be a graphic, table or matrix, or textual 9. Have the students explain the
display.
As the data are organized, the patterns, connections and methods used, both within
purpose of identifying patterns
and between categories, will be noted. This can be done by capturing the similarities or and themes in a research.
differences of the responses of the participants within a category by assembling all the
data pertaining to a category. From the smaller categories, a larger category comprising
sub-categories can be formed. 10. Discuss the two primary ways of
In identifying the more important categories, the researcher can count the number of identifying patterns and themes
times a particular theme comes up or the number of unique respondents who refer to the
same themes. This can reveal general patterns. and how they are applied.
Also, the researcher can discover two or more themes that may occur together
consistently in the data. Thus, when one sees one theme, there is always the other. For
example, youth with separated parents consistently list friendship as a result of mentoring.
This suggests a cause-effect relationship.
7. Interpretating the data. After identifying and analyzing, coding and organizing a
presentation, and identifying the themes and patterns, the next step is to interpret the
results. In this process, the results are synthesized into a coherent whole. Meaning and
significance are attached to the analysis of data. The themes and patterns serve to explain
the findings. The implications of the study are highlighted in this section as a preface for
the final parts of the research paper which are the summary of the findings, conclusion,
and recommendations.
The following are the steps in interpreting research findings:
a. Points or important findings should be listed.
b. The lessons learned and new things should be noted.

c. Quotes or descriptive examples given by the participants should be included.
d. The newfound knowledge from other settings, programs, or reviewed literatures When something bad happens to the member of a family of our co-teacher,
should be applied. she looks for time to go to the family. When she can’t do it, she makes it a
point that our teachers will go there.) – Teacher A
The following are the levels of interpretation as considered in organizing the discussion
“Atin yang kababan lub, makiramdam kareng kalupang tau at tatanggap
of the results (Ducut & Pangilinan, 2006):
ya mu naman kamalyan. Ali ya tatakut talakad king ustu, matapang ya ali king
a. Level 1. Data collected are compared and contrasted and any unexpected results may pisikal nune king pamanalakaran king namu ing tutu at ustu.” (She is humble,
be included. Comments on certain shortcomings of the study may be made but they knows how to listen, and accepts her mistakes. She is not afraid to stand for
should not overly emphasize the flaws. what is right. She is not only brave but has the fortitude to fight for what is
b. Level 2. The internal validity of the results, as well as their consistency or reliability, true and right.) – Teacher B
is explained. The causes or factors that may have influenced the results are described.
“Mapamaralan ya pu ing kekaming prinsipal. Ali ya kabud manaya na nanu
c. Level 3. The external validity of the results, that is, their generality or applicability of ibie na ning Division o Central Office. Gagamitan na ing kagiwan o gelingan na
external condition is explained. para nung nanu man ing kakulangan apatupad na la pamurin ding programa
d. Level 4. The data are related to theoretical research or with reviewed literature. ning eskwela. Marispetu ya naman pu karing manungkulan at kareng makatuang
maestro.” (Our principal is very resourceful. She does not only wait for what
Example: DepEd provides but she also uses her talent to look for ways on how to
implement the programs in our school. She is very respectful of authorities
Competencies and Performance Appraisal: Bases for the Development and also of the senior teachers.) – Teacher C
of Kapampangan Principal’s Leadership Framework (Canlas 2013) “Malugud, maganaka, at marispetu ya karing para nang tau. Eya maimut
The participants shared meaningful experiences on Kapampangan king pamandake kabiasnan lalu’t kailangan king panyulung ning kabiasnan.
qualities and practices. They narrated experiences and views this way: Tapat king keying katungkulan bilang talaturung atin a mayap o parasan. E na
pibuburian ing kamulangan at kapanakawan king obrang sinumpan.” (She is
“Siguruing pagiging matapang da ring Kapampangan. Kasi kailangan
well-loved, kind and respected by other people. She shares what she knows
bilang metung a principal ali kakatakot king pamaghayu at biasa kung
especially in developing the teachers. She is very honest and commits herself
manalakaran. Saka ing pagiging mayabang da ring Kapampangan. Kuanan
to what is good.) – Teacher D
ke ita king positibong paaaralan. Pota kasing magmayabang. Kumaen ke ita
kang kapanindiganan. Patse kasing magmayabang ka atin kang abilaidad, atin “Selfless service to the in-school youth, Magsilbi Tamu! Another technique
kang kapanindigan. Patse kasing magmayabang ku, ing malilyari king eskwela I used in school management as a Kapamangan school leader is whenever
ku balamu madidinan lang self-esteem ding kakung maestro at estudyante.” I go to other places, I make sure that I have simple pasalubong, usually food.
(I think the Kapampangans are courageous. As a principal, you should not be Madalas din potang atin okasyon king bale, kabukasan magdala ku pamangan.
afraid of change and you must stand for what is right. They are also boastful Agyang king miting mi sigurado mung atin pamangan agyang nanu mu. Kayari
but I take it on a positive way because when I boast, it means you excel on ning miting, eating katuki. Potang mamangan kayo abe-abe, mipapamye nung
something. I boast on the achievements of our school and that adds to the nanu ing atin pakiramdam mu, metung kayu mung pamilya at makakayanita
self-esteem of my teachers and students.) – Principal A king pagobran potang a establish mu ing family atmosphere kareng maestra
“Very kampampangan ya ing kekaming principal. Malugad yang tanggap mu.” (When there is an occasion at home, the following day, I bring food.
bisita. Maulaga mu rin kaya ding selebrasyun da ring pamilya lalo na potang I think it is effective, it makes you closer to one another. I want to establish
atin kepalyaran. Manintun yang oras para apuntalan nala ding pamilya not only a professional but also a personal relationship with the teachers.
(nung mesakit o kematen la) nung ali na la man apuntalan she makes it a Because when you eat together and share what you have, you establish a
point na munta la ding department heads at maestro. (Our principal is very family atmosphere. Even when we have our meeting, I make sure that we eat
Kapampangan. She is very hospitable. She gives importance to celebrations. together even if they are just simple snacks.) – Principal E
232 ANALYZING THE MEANING OF THE DATA AND DRAWING CONCLUSIONS Drawing Patterns and Themes 233
“Metung pa siguru ma’am itang pamanalakaran ku king ustu at tutu kasi

ikit da itang tapang kung arapan itang karapatan at dapat kung ilaban. Siguru
11. Ask the students to describe the daya ng kapampangan ita, “dayang asu” ada pero king pamanungkulan ing
tapang ita iya pin ing katapangan king pamanalakaran king ustu. Basta balu ku
data interpretation process based atyu ku king ustu ali katatakut.” (As a principal, I’m not afraid to stand and
fight for what is right. I think being brave runs in the blood of Kapampangans.
on their research. When you know what is right, never be afraid!) – Principal F
The aforementioned experiences imply that there are Kapampangan

12. Discuss the steps involved in and qualities and practices that principals value. They believed that Kapampangans
are brave when it comes to fighting for what is true or right, dedicated to their
the levels of data interpretation. work, fair, just, respectful, and honest. Though these qualities are generic,
the participants considered them as dominant qualities of Kapampangan
principals. Such qualities helped a lot in becoming an effective leader. These
Kapampangan traits manifested by the principals were also present in Sicat
(2003). He described the Kapampangan identity as courageous yet considerate
Guidelines for Analysis Process and humble. The famous Kapampangan educator, Alejandro Turla Quiboloy,
was known for his courage to fight for what is right. Dr. Vidal Tan the 8th
president of the University of the Philippines, also a Kapampangan, was
1. Discuss the guidelines in the overall described as a man with a sense of fairness and a keen mind. Former DepEd
analysis process. Secretary Andrew Gonzales, who is a Kapampangan, possessed commitment

and integrity and led the department by example. The qualities possessed by
Kapampangan school administrators were also manifested by principals as
2. Have the students answer the guide narrated in the experiences of the participants.
questions based on their research.

GUIDELINES FOR THE ANALYSIS PROCESS
3. Ask the students to explain the As the researcher moves between and within the steps of analysis, it is important to always
importance of having guide keep some guide questions in mind that will help one reflect on the study’s purpose, research
questions, and potential.
questions to follow in the middle of 1. What patterns or common themes emerged around specific items in the data? How do
the analysis process. these patters helped shed light on the broader study question/s?
2. Is there any deviation from these patterns? If there is, what factors could explain these
atypical responses?
3. What interesting stories emerged from the data? How can these stories help shed light on
the broader study question?
4. Do any of the patterns or common themes suggest that additional data needs to be
collected? Do any of the study questions need to be revised?
108 • Practical Research 1 234 ANALYZING THE MEANING OF THE DATA AND DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
5. Do the patterns support the findings of other corresponding qualitative analyses that
have been conducted?
fOrmat Of the Data analysis prOcess,

FORMAT OF THE DATA ANALYSIS, RESULTS, AND DISCUSSIONS
In writing this part of the research paper, it is differently titled by various educational
results, DiscussiOns
institutions. Some of these are “Results and Discussions,” “Presentation and Discussion,”
and “Analysis of Findings”. The presentation, discussion, and analysis are usually included in 1. Discuss the general format of the
Chapter IV of the paper. However, in an APA style of writing, the chapter includes the results
and discussion. data analysis process, results, and
Major Elements discussions when using an APA style.
1. Presentation of the data. This showcases the data for easy understanding of the
reader. They can be displayed using tables, diagrams, or other figures for easy 2. Have the students discuss the major
comprehension.
2. Analysis. In this part, the knowledge and logical understanding of the researcher is
elements of the section.
required. The important data are given enough attention as it will be the basis of the final
results of the study.
3. Interpretation. In this part, comprehensible statements are included after analyzing and
synthesizing the patterns and categories that are derived from the findings.
4. Discussion. After the analysis and interpretation of the data, the discussions and
explanations of the results are needed to give a more logical and empirical basis for
the conclusion. The transcripts and personal narration of events that serve as proof of
the themes and categories are mentioned in verbatim. In this part, the results of the
investigation are compared and contrasted with reviewed literature and studies.
C HAPTER S UM M ARY
1. Qualitative data analysis involves the identification, examination, and interpretation
of patterns and themes in textual data that answer the stated questions.
2. The following steps are involved in data analysis: getting to know the data; focusing on
the analysis; coding; entering and organizing the data; cleaning the data; identifying
meaningful patterns and themes; and interpreting the data.
3. The major elements of qualitative data analysis section are the presentation of the
data, analysis, interpretation, and discussion.
4. A researcher should keep in mind guide questions in moving from one step of the
qualitative data analysis to another.
AP P L IC ATION
Read the transcript and then write the objective codes. Then, analyze the data and write
your interpretation on the space provided.
applicatiOn
Interviewer: How are you adjusting to your current schedule?
Interviewee: Yun na lang ang ginagawa ko: differ my strategies. Mahirap 8 to 8 magdiscuss.
Interviewer: Giving you a new schedule, what will happen?
Interviewee: Nakakapagod talaga!
1. Ask two students to read the
Interviewer: What are your other needs? interview transcript.
Interviewee: Needs sources sa mga materials kasi kulang ako sa mga books.
Interviewer: Ibig sabihin we have no textbooks in the library? 2. Let the class listen to and analyze
Interviewee: Limited lang ang mga editions, at nauunahan pa ng mga students.We don’t
really have enough in the library. We must have foreign authors because we are
the conversation carefully.
using no books.
Interviewer: Why do you feel that we lack resources? 3. Have the students write their
Interviewee: Yes, ganun pa rin, kulang ang mga naiibigay. Sabi ko sa kanila we have limited
resources for you to discover additional information as you look for books in the
interpretation of the conversation.
library. Ganun ginagawa nila kahit sa Internet. Walang madalas sa library.
Interviewer: Besides these, what other needs do you have? 4. Ask the students to share their
Interviewee: Others? Wala kasi simple lang ako.Hindi ganon kapasyonista. Di ako nagfacial.
Ganun ako kahit dun sa previous job ko. Siguro what must happen are more
output to the class.
confidence, lack of preparation in the school. In the small things? Chalk siguro.
There are instances na walang chalk eh kaya di ako makapagsulat sa board.
Sometimes, I go to the other room to look for chalks.
Interviewer: How about professional needs?
Interviewee: Trainings and seminars to attend especially in communication, mostly about

dealing with students.
Interpretation:

Name : Date :
research activity 12 ANALYZING QUALITATIVE DATA
Provide the required information below. Refer to your proposed research study.
1. Proposed research:
information. 2. Conduct an interview using the questions you posted in Research Activity 12 to start coding,
and identifying themes and categories.
2. Allow them to go to the library 3. Write examples of transcript derived from the interview:
to research on relevant resource Question:
materials and utilize the computers Interviewee 1:

analyzing and interpreting the
data they have obtained for their Interviewee 2:
research.
5. Ask the students to submit the Interviewee 3:

nOte: Drawing Patterns and Themes 237

assignment depending on time 4. Based from the transcripts, what code (predefined or emergent) can be formulated?

research activities because the final 5. What themes did you identify?

output.
6. What categories emerged from the analysis?
7. What level of interpretation will you apply to your findings? Provide a sample opening
paragraph below.
110 • Practical research 1 238 ANALYZING THE MEANING OF THE DATA AND DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
CHAPTER The Formulation of the
Summary of Findings,
18 Conclusion, and
Recommendations Objectives

At the end of this chapter, the student will
At the end of this chapter,
the students will be able to Recall a story from a movie or a book where the be able to
protagonist is conflicted with a moral dilemma in the
1. discuss the ways of
formulating the summary ending. Write a summary of the story and then provide 1. discuss the ways of formulating the
of findings, conclusion, your own version of its conclusion. Refer to the questions
and recommendations below as a guide in your writing. summary of findings, conclusion,
and
2. formulate the summary and recommendations and
of findings, conclusion,
and recommendations of
your research paper. 2. formulate the summary of findings,
conclusion, and recommendations of
GUIDE QUESTIONS the research paper.
1. What is the story about? Write a summary of it.
2. How did the story end?
3. Do you think the ending and the choice of the protagonist justifies the earlier events of the
story? Why or why not?
The Formulation of the Summary of Findings, Conclusion, and Recommendations 239
Opening activity
1. Ask the students if they agree with how the movie story ended and if they want to improve or change
it and how.
2. Have them write their own version of the ending.
3. Let the students answer the guide questions and use it as a guide in writing their essay.
4. Have the students write the essay about their recollection in a one whole intermediate paper.

4. If you were the protagonist, how would you have chosen to end the story? What would you
have done in his or her place?
investigation
INVESTIG ATIO N
Concluding the Research Paper CONCLUDING THE RESEARCH PAPER

Similar to the opening activity, a research paper eventually comes to its end point where all
1. Ask the students to define the word the ideas presented in the earlier parts culminate and rationalize the findings of the study. This
last section is a very crucial part of the research paper because it binds all the concepts presented
“conclusion” based on their output in in the paper to point out which direction the research is ultimately headed.
the Opening Activity. However, no new information should be presented in this part of the research paper.
According to Berry (2000), the concluding part should be a nod to the opening part. In his book
The Research Project: How to Write It, he stated that “the formal aim of the paper should be
2. Have them explain the purpose of the stated in the opening paragraph; the conclusion should return to the opening and examine the
conclusion in a research paper. original purpose in the light of the data assembled. It is a prime error to present conclusions
that are not directly related to the evidence previously presented.”
In this part, the following are resolved in the research paper:

3. Discuss the objectives resolved in the 1. The main points of the study are restated and summarized.
conclusion section of the research 2. The researcher’s questions are validated by the findings.
paper. 3. A deeper meaning of the research is conveyed.

4. A need for further investigation on the topic is highlighted.
4. Ask the students to identify the 5. A solution to the problem is recommended.
The concluding part is comprised of the summary of findings, conclusion, and

sections of the conclusion section. recommendations.
Summary of Findings
This section serves as a brief restatement of the components of the research paper. This
section includes summarized statements for the overall purpose and objective of the study, the
type of research used, the nature and size of the sample, the locale of the study, the main and
sub-problems, and the major findings of the research. However, the restatements should be
straightforward but still meaningful.
It should also state the findings from which the conclusion will be derived. While these
should be written in a concise manner, the clarity of thought should be considered. To do so, the
statements should be written in a way that the questions under the statement of the problem are
expressed first followed by the findings that would answer it.
Summary of Findings Example 1:
Competencies and Performance Appraisal: Bases for the Development of

Kapampangan Principal’s Leadership Framework (Canlas, 2013)
In summary, the participants believed that the principals of the three divisions
exhibited six prevailing leadership styles as viewed by their teacher and themselves:
(1) being strategic leaders in facilitating the school improvement process; (2) being
instructional leaders in managing the processes of teaching and learning and managing
human resource and professional development; (3) being external leaders in designing
structures and process that result in community engagement, support and ownership;
(4) being managerial leaders responsible for various administration tasks of running
the school and seeing that the facilities and resources meet educational needs; (5)
being ethical or moral leaders in demonstrating conduct to the highest standard
through personal actions and interpersonal relationships; and (6) being cultural leaders
possessing positive Kapampangan traits and observing and valuing Kapampangan
practices that helped them become effective leaders of their schools.
Summary of Findings Example 2:
The Level of Performance of Instructors: Basis for the Formulation of an

Academic Intervention Program (Cristobal, 2015)
Looking at the qualitative descriptions of the students to the instructors in terms

of strengths, the instructors are strong in mastery of the subject matter; explain the
lessons; give enough examples; are good teachers; and have humor. This denotes that
the students are satisfied with the knowledge and inputs of their instructors as they
give enough examples. The theories and principles being discussed are thoroughly
understood by them. These strengths should be sustained if not continuously
enhanced.
For the areas of improvement, the students said that their instructors should
further improve the following: speaking in low volume; tardiness in class; lacking
of instructional materials; speaking in a fast pace; lacking interaction; repetitive
instructional methods; poor time management; boring classes; poor classroom
management; and unclear grading system. Labeling these comments, it could be
112 • Practical Research 1 The Formulation of the Summary of Findings, Conclusion, and Recommendations 241
inferred that instructors need more improvement in their instruction and classroom
management. This only affirms the indicators and variables that need further
improvement to establish quality of instruction. This is very important because though
instructors have a high knowledge of their subject matter, how to impart them also
Summary of Findings, Conclusions,
needs care and consideration.
Recommendations
Conclusions 1. Ask the students to define each

Essentially, the conclusion contains insights drawn from the findings of each problem. These section of the concluding part of the
insights answer the questions presented at the beginning of the research paper. However, the
conclusion to be drawn should not come from the indirect implications of the study. It should be paper.
limited within the information actually yielded by the conducted investigations.
The conclusion is simply stated and must be devoid of any elaborate discussion of the findings. 2. Have them describe the purpose of
Each item in the conclusion is a precise statement directly answering the stated problems. This
section should be stated in a way that reader will in no way doubt the correctness of the entire each section in a research paper.
research study.
Conclusion Example 1:
3. Discuss how these sections should
be written, what their contents are,
Competencies and Performance Appraisal: Bases for the Development
of Kapampangan Principal’s Leadership Framework (Canlas, 2013) and what their scope is.
The framework suggests a requirement for school leaders to develop a
portfolio of leadership styles. Principals need to be able to carry out holistic leadership, 4. Present the examples of each section
head, heart, hands, and feet aspects or styles of leadership and adapt their approaches
to the specific context. This framework reminds principals of the need to maintain on pages 241-244 and point out and
balance in dealing with their multi-faceted life.
discuss how the sample sections are
Conclusion Example 2: written.
Basis for a Human Intervention Program (Cristobal, 2003)
Based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions were drawn.
Intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies are highly related to each other. The
home management styles, hobbies, involvement to civic and cultural organizations,
self-esteem, self-monitor, and intrapersonal competency are positively but negligibly
related to school effectiveness, while age, educational attainment, training, home
atmosphere, locus of control, risk-taker, and all the other specific variables of
interpersonal competency are negatively and lowly related to school effectiveness.
Human virtues and machiavellianism are positively slightly related to school

effectiveness while administrative experience is negatively slightly related to
school effectiveness. The factors of school effectiveness are human relation
skills, professionalism, and management capability. The proposed human relation
intervention program is strongly agreed to be implemented.
Recommendations
Based on the findings and conclusions of the study, recommendations serve as practical
suggestions for future research in similar fields. They are envisioned to further improve the
pertinent variables that were the subject of the investigation undertaken.
Recommendations are expressed in clear and concise terms. They are relevant to the
research problems and are feasible for implementation. The general recommendations may also
be stated giving suggested measures to concerned agencies, institutions, or to the government
that may lead towards the betterment of society in general.
The researcher’s final recommendation is addressed to other researchers who may want to
pursue similar studies. Moreover, suggested topics of interest or variables are given. In the case that
the qualitative study is conducted to propose an intervention program, the recommendation will be
the adaption of said program.
Recommendations Example 1:
Competencies and Performance Appraisal: Bases for the Development

of Kapampangan Principal’s Leadership Framework (Canlas, 2013)
Since this study is limited to a specific context and sampled a small number of
principals, it is recommended that a similar study be conducted in different contexts
that would explore and elaborate the role of culture in managing successful schools.
It is also recommended that a research-based, competency-linked, and a 360-degree
evaluation or triangulation process for Kapampangan principals be developed for
evaluation of performance and basis in changing of high quality professional learning
programs.

Recommendations Example 2: to investigate whether they are likely to overcome the apparent disinterest of Americans,
particularly the youth, in foreign news. Besides testing those news outlets for one week,
we explored the coverage and financing of these outlets, and we are communicating with
The Level of Performance of Instructors: Basis for the Formulation of an
their editors and writers to best understand how and why they publish as they do. We
Academic Intervention Program (Cristobal, 2015)
will evaluate them, following a rubric, and categorize them based on their usefulness and
effectiveness.
With the abovementioned conclusion, an academic program to further develop
the performance of instructors in the different departments of the Saint Paul School Source: Sample Abstracts by University of Montana n.d.
of Business and Law is hereby recommended.
1. Summary of Findings:
a. Objective of the study:
CHAPTER S UM M ARY b. Nature and size of the sample:

1. The last section of the research paper includes the summary of findings, conclusion,
and recommendations. c. Locale of the study:
2. The summary of findings serves as a brief restatement of the components of the
research paper. d. Main problem:
3. The conclusion contains insights drawn from the findings of each problem which
answer the questions presented at the beginning of the research paper.
4. The recommendations are identified essentially to serve as practical suggestions 2. Conclusion (Imagine a plausible result of the study and write a sample conclusion for it.)
for future research among similar fields.
C H E CK- UP
Read the text below and provide the required information.
International Headlines 3.0: Exploring Youth-Centered

Innovation in Global News Delivery 3. Recommendations (Base your answer on your written conclusion.)
Traditional news media must innovate to maintain their ability to inform contemporary
audiences. This research project analyzes innovative news outlets that have the potential
to draw young audiences to follow global current events. On February 8, 2011, a Pew
Research Center Poll found that 52 percent of Americans reported having heard little or
nothing about the anti-government protests in Egypt. Egyptians had been protesting for
nearly two weeks when this poll was conducted. The lack of knowledge about the protests
was not a result of scarce media attention. In the United States, most mainstream TV news
sources (CNN, FOX, MSNBC, ABC) ran headline stories on the protests. Sparked by an
assignment in International Reporting J450 class, we selected 20 innovative news outlets
244 ANALYZING THE MEANING OF THE DATA AND DRAWING CONCLUSIONS The Formulation of the Summary of Findings, Conclusion, and Recommendations 245
checK-up
1. Have the students read the sample abstract of a research on pages 244-245.
2. Ask them to fill in the required information on the summary of findings, conclusion, and summary of
the sample abstract on page 245.
4. Refer to the sample answers below.
1) Summary of Findings
a. The objective of the study is to determine how traditional news media can innovate to
maintain their ability to inform contemporary audiences.
b. The sample involves 20 news outlets that are considered consistently practicing innovation
in delivering news.
c. United States of America
d. The main problem is how to overcome the apparent disinterest of Americans, particularly
the youth, in foreign news.

2) Conclusion
The study has found that while the traditional media outlets are pushing with innovative ideas
in delivering news, there is only much that a print media can do. Considering that information-
sharing is now greatly technology-driven, most people prefer reading their news in a more
accessible electronic format on portable or handheld gadgets such as laptops, smartphones,
tablets, etc., over the traditional forms of media. Thus, to further the innovation in news delivery,
these traditional media outlets should also consider utilizing contemporary forms of media.
3) Recommendations
This study has only focused on identifying the reason behind the disinterest of the people in
reading foreign news. Its results have shown that people now prefer using more handheld
technologies in reading their news. However, news in an electronic form requires an entirely
different understanding of how news delivery should be made as compared with the traditional
media. That is, future studies should focus on audience reach, news format and layout, search
engine traffic, and interactivity between the news writer and the readers, among others, as
considerations in news delivery.
research activity 13
information.
Name : Date :
CONCLUDING THE RESEARCH PAPER 3. Give additional guidelines in writing
summary of findings, conclusions, and
Provide the required information below. Refer to your proposed research study.
recommendations of their research.
1. Proposed research:

2. Write the Summary of Findings section of your research paper below.
3. Write the Conclusion section of your research paper below.
nOte:
4. Write the Recommendations section of your research paper below.
2. Carefully check the students’ research
activities because the final research
paper will be based on their output.


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Enhanced Teacher’s Manual

This page is intentionaly left blank.

Amadeo Pangilinan Cristobal, Jr., Ed.D.

C & E Publishing, Inc.

C & E Publishing, Inc. was

Enhanced Teacher’s Manual

Copyright © 2017 by C & E Publishing, Inc.,

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

Cover Design: Jenno dC. Diaz

Layout: Maricar L. Sanchez

1 The Nature of Research

Chapter 1 What is Research?........................................................................................................ 2

Chapter 2 Different Types of Research..................................................................................... 7

Chapter 3 Ethics in Research........................................................................................................ 15

Chapter 4 Research Title, Sources, and Considerations.................................................... 20

Chapter 5 The Introduction........................................................................................................... 25

Chapter 6 The Statement of the Problem................................................................................ 30

Chapter 7 The Scope and Delimitation and the Significance

Chapter 8 The Review Process..................................................................................................... 44

Chapter 9 The Standard Styles of Writing.............................................................................. 49

Chapter 10 Research Framework.................................................................................................. 54

Chapter 11 Related Literature........................................................................................................ 59

Chapter 12 Related Studies.............................................................................................................. 66

3 Conducting Qualitative Research

Chapter 13 Methodology and Design for Qualitative Research....................................... 72

Chapter 14 Sampling for Research................................................................................................ 79

Chapter 15 Data Collection............................................................................................................... 86

Chapter 16 Validity and Reliability............................................................................................... 96

UNIT ANALYZING THE MEANING OF THE DATA

Chapter 18 The Formulation of the Summary of Findings,

6. Any concern or issue confronted by the students is

8. The student-researcher must read literature related

Ask the students to answer Activity to the problem he or she is studying.

9. The researcher must avoid listening to another

their answers from the Activity A and B.

previous answers. system phenomena intuition guessing factual

2 • Practical research 1 What is Research? 3

DEFINITION OF RESEARCH InvestIgatIon

DeFInItIon oF research anD characterIstIcs

1. The research should be systematic. There is a system to follow in conducting research

6 THE NATURE OF RESEARCH What is Research? 7

research paper ROLES OF THE RESEARCHER

the students. 1. As principal investigator

2. Provide a brief definition of the 3. As identifier of researchable problems

purpose in the research paper. 6. As patient or client advocate during study

3. Ask volunteer students to read the IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH

As such, following are the importance of research:

4 • Practical research 1 8 THE NATURE OF RESEARCH

3. To observe accountability for the profession. Every action conducted by a professional

10 THE NATURE OF RESEARCH

1. Research entails an investigation of new facts leading to the discovery

2. The microsystem is the composition of chapters organized in a logical

3. In settings like the community, school, or workplace, unusual

5. Research provides an artistic basis for any practice or methodology in

6. According to Crawford, researchers serve different roles in a study such

interview on an intermediate pad. 10. Research promotes cost-effectiveness through documentation.

2. Refer to the given importance of

2. What is the importance of having a good research foundation and methodology?

4. As a student, what do you want to research on? Why?

THE NATURE OF RESEARCH

2. explains that simple units of experience have complex meanings

t h 4. Ask them to check their own work as

7. challenges the traditional qualitative analysis approach