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BScThesis ThermalLoadingEffectsinBeams-DeFilippo
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Facoltà Di Ingegneria
Corso di Laurea in Ingegneria Edile
Relatore: Candidato:
Chiar.mo Prof. Ing. Michele De Filippo
Giovanni Romano N41/561
Correlatrice:
Prof. Ing. Marina Diaco
1
Contents
Abstract 1
1 Fundamental principles 3
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Thermal stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Statically determined structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Statically undetermined structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5 Thermal expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.6 Thermal bowing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.7 Combinations of thermal expansion and bowing . . . . . . . . 13
1.8 The temporal variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3 Mechanical behavior 32
3.1 Elastic equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.2 Simple flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2.1 Straight flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.2.2 Skew flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.3 Centered normal force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.4 Eccentric normal force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.5 Homogenous sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2
4 Thermal behavior 50
4.1 Analysis of thermal loading effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.2 Navier’s theory including thermal loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.3 Measurements of temperature variations . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.4 Elastic equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Bibliography 67
3
List of Figures
4
5.1 Bimetallic strip subjected to temperature increase . . . . . . . 61
5.2 Cross-section of bimetallic strip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.3 Bending of a shelf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.4 Dilatation and stress diagrams at the cross-section of the
bimetallic strip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5
Abstract
The theory is valid for small dilatations, for linear and non-linear
stress-strain relationships, and has been assumed the hypothesis of conser-
vation of planar sections that allows the geometrical dilatation diagram to
be linear.
The object of the analysis, in the most general case, is a beam constituted
by longitudinal fibers of different Young’s modulus and coefficient of thermal
expansion, therefore not homogeneous.
The materials constituting the longitudinal fibers of the beam are assumed
elastically and thermally isotropic.
The hypothesis of thermal isotropy allows to simplify the problem from a
computational point of view, so to consider a unique coefficient of thermal
expansion.
1
The problem can be divided into two parts: thermal conduction on the
beam and effects of thermal variation on the beam
2
Chapter 1
Fundamental principles
1.1 Introduction
When a beam is subjected to temperature gradient or when a composite
material consisting of two or more materials of different coefficients of
thermal expansion is subjected to a temperature rise, either uniformly or
non-uniformly, the longitudinal fibers tend to expand different amounts in
accord with their individual temperatures and coefficients of thermal expan-
sion.
To enable the body to remain continuous rather than allowing each fiber to
expand individually, a system of thermal stresses and associated stresses may
be introduced depending upon the shape of the beam and the temperature
distribution.
If the material cannot withstand the stresses, rupture will occur.
Brittle and ductile materials react in considerably different manner to
stresses.
Brittle materials can endure only a very small amount of strain before
rupture, while ductile materials can undergo appreciable strains without
rupture.
Thermal stress behavior depends essentially on the ability of the material
to absorb the induced strains necessary to maintain a continuous body
upon the application of thermal gradient, Brittle materials cannot readily
withstand these superimposed strains without inducing enough stresses to
cause rupture.
Ductile materials, on the other hand, can usually withstand these additional
strains, but they may ultimately fail if subjected to a number of cycles of
imposed temperature.
3
The problem of thermal stress is of great importance in current
high-power engines.
The present trend toward increasing temperatures has necessitated the use
of refractory materials capable of withstanding much higher temperatures
than normal engineering materials.
One salient property of these materials is lack of ductility.
For this reason, thermal stress is one of the most important design criteria
in the application of these materials.
Thermal stress is also currently receiving considerable attention in
connection with ductile materials since there is significant evidence that
failure of many ductile engine components can be attributed to thermal
cycling.
The problem of high-speed flight, with attendant increases of temperature
and thermal gradients in aircraft bodies, has further generated concern over
the significance of thermal stress field in ductile materials.
Thermal stress and thermal shock may be distinguished by the fact that
in thermal shock thermal stresses are produced by transient temperature
gradients, usually sudden ones.
For example, if a body originally at one uniform temperature is suddenly
immersed in a medium of different temperature, a condition of thermal shock
is introduced.
At any instant the stresses are determined by the temperature
distribution and are not the same as they would be if the temperature
distribution is obtained in a steady-state condition.
The temperature gradients, that can be established in the transient state,
are generally much higher than those occurring in the steady state.
Hence thermal shocks are of relative concern in comparison with ordinary
thermal stresses because of higher stress field so induced.
Another peculiar aspect of thermal shocks is that the rate of variation
of stress is very high, and many materials are affected by the rate at which
stress increases.
Some materials are embrittled by rapid application of stress and therefore
may not be able to withstand thermal shock stresses while stress variation
of some amount could readily be absorbed.
4
1.2 Thermal stresses
Mechanical stresses are induced in a beam when some or all of its parts are
not free to expand or contract in response to changes in temperature.
In most continuous bodies, thermal expansion or contraction cannot occur
freely in all directions because of geometry, external constraints, existence
of non-uniform temperature gradients, and so stresses are produced.
Such stresses caused by temperature changes are known as thermal stresses.
εthermal = α ∆T
5
The most fundamental relationship that governs the behavior of
structures when subjected to thermal variations is the law of addition of
stretchings
The geometrical strains, given by the direct sum of the thermal and
mechanical contributes, govern the deformed shape of the structure through
kinematic or compatibility considerations.
In chapters 3 and 4 the mechanical and thermal contributions will be studied
in depth.
6
These two behavior cases correspond to two precise constraints
configurations:
εgeometrical = εthermal 6= 0
In this case as effect of the thermal load applied, forces explicated by the
constraints (reactions) may occur, so the strain state does not vanish, but
the frame is not free to expand, and a self-equilibrated stress state will arise.
εthermal + εmechanical = 0
7
1.5 Thermal expansion
If in each cross-section a uniform temperature rise, ∆T is applied to a
simply supported beam without axial restraint, the result will simply be an
increase in terms of length equals to α∆T l as shown in Fig. 1.1.
Therefore the total (geometrical) strain, εg , is equal to the thermal strain
(indicating εt = εthermal ) and there is no mechanical strain (indicating
εm = εmechanical ) which means that no stresses develop in the beam.
P = E A εm = − E A εT = −E A α ∆T
8
If the temperature is allowed to rise increasingly, then there will be two
basic responses, depending upon the slenderness of the beam.
If the beam is sufficiently stocky, then the axial stress will sooner
or later reach the yield stress σy of the material, and if the material has
an elastic–plastic stress–strain relationship, the beam will continue to yield
without any further increase in stress, but it will also store an increasing
magnitude of plastic strains.
9
1.6 Thermal bowing
In the previous sections the effects of a uniform temperature rise on axially
restrained beams have been discussed.
In real thermal irradiations the temperature distributions are however not
uniform.
In a moderate size compartment of regular shape one may assume that the
compartment temperature is roughly uniform at a given time.
The temperature of the structural members in the compartment depends on
the material they are made of and on other details of geometry, construction
and design.
Imagine that the outer surfaces of it on the roof are exposed to irradiations,
so they are at a much higher temperature than the ones on the inside of the
compartment.
This causes the outer surfaces to expand much more than the inner surfaces
inducing bending in the member, this effect is called thermal bowing.
10
Assuming that the beam is simply supported (as shown in Fig. 1.4), it
is possible to derive the following relationships
T2 − T1
T,y =
d
A uniform curvature (θ) is induced along the length as a result of the
thermal gradient T,y ,
θ = α T,y
lθ
1 − sin 2
εθ = lθ
2
11
Figure 1.6: Fixed end beam subjected to uniform thermal gradient
Fig. 1.6 shows a fixed ended beam (by adding rotational end restraints to
the beam of Fig. 1.5) subjected to a uniform temperature gradient through
its depth.
Recall that a uniform curvature θ = αT,y exists in a simply supported beam
subjected to gradient T,y : If that beam is rotationally restrained by support
moments M (uniform along length) an equal and opposite curvature induced
by the support moments cancels out the thermal curvature and, therefore,
the fixed ended beam remains ”straight” with a constant moment M = EI θ
along its length.
From the above discussion it is clear that the effect of boundary restraints is
crucial in determining the response of structural members to thermal actions.
12
In this case, the restraining moment in the springs as a result of a
uniform thermal gradient T,y can be found to be
EI α T,y
Mk =
1 + 2kEI
rl
Figure 1.8: Combined thermal expansion and bowing in a fixed end beam
13
The fundamental pattern of behavior of a beam whose ends are laterally
restrained (but rotationally unrestrained, see Fig. 1.5), subjected to thermal
expansion and thermal bowing separately was established in the previous
sections.
Restrained expansion resulted in compression and bowing resulted in
tension.
This helped to illustrate that two opposite stress regimes can occur
depending upon the thermal regime applied, however, the apparent response
of the beam is the same (i.e. downward deflection).
εef f = ε1 ± ε2
Where ε1 is the strain field induced by the mean temperature rise, and
ε2 that one induced by the thermal gradient.
The variation of εef f (for various thermal regimes) can produce a large
variety of responses.
Positive values of εef f imply compression (if the effect of mean temperature
rise is dominant) and negative values imply tension (if the effect of thermal
gradients is dominant).
14
1.8 The temporal variable
Another very relevant factor, wrongly not considerated till now in the
applications viewed, is the temporal variable.
15
Secondly, by introducing the temporal variable, the whole procedure
would have to be integrated between an initial time t0 and a final one t1 .
This would be the most correct and rigorous method of analyzing the
temperature variations and the consequent changes in terms of stresses and
strains in the structure.
This procedure would be computationally too expensive, therefore comes to
be useful to refer to some single temporal moments, considered to be the
most crucial.
16
Chapter 2
17
2.2 Saint Venant’s principle
The solution provided by Saint Venant relates to particular fields of stresses
acting on the basis of the beam.
It would seem, therefore, of limited interest, and by the way not useful for
applications.
The possibility of giving validity to such general solution, although in an
approximate format, but still quite satisfactory for applications, is all due
to the genius of Saint Venant.
18
2.3 Assumptions on stress state
In the following will be denoted with σ̃ the tensor of stress state, and with ε̃
the strain state one.
The solution to the problem of the beam provided by Clebsch and Saint
Venant is based on the idea of considering the beam as a bundle of
longitudinal fibers that transmit only tangential interactions, and therefore
assumes the absence of any transversal interaction.
This is equivalent to assume zero normal stresses on lying postures parallel
to the beam axis, which is the geometric locus of the centers of the straight
sections.
To show the implications of this hypothesis on the stress state, consider an
orthonormal reference {O, ī, j̄, k̄} with the unit vector k̄ parallel to the axis
of the beam.
The intersections between the prism and the planes perpendicular to the
prism generators are called cross-sections of the beam.
x̄ = xī + y j̄ + z k̄
19
Let n̄ be the unit vector normal to the lying posture parallel to k̄, then
clearly, for the orthogonality of n̄ and k̄ their vectorial product is equal to
zero.
n̄ · k̄ = 0
Applying the tensional matrix staggered along n̄ are obtained its generic
components, or rather the direction cosines nx e ny .
σ̃n̄ · n̄ = 0 ∀n̄ ∈ V : n̄ · k̄ = 0
σn = σx n2x + σy ny 2 + 2 τxy nx ny ∀ nx , n y
The matrix is representative of the stress state in each point of the beam,
thus takes the form as following
0 0 τxy
σ̃ = 0 0 τyz
τzx τzy σz
Therefore
τ̄ = τx ī + τy j̄ + 0 k̄ = τx ī + τy j̄
20
With τ instead will be indicated the magnitude of the shear stress
q
τ = |τ | = τx2 + τy2
0 0 τxy
σ̃ = 0 0 τyz
τzx τzy σ
σ̃ = σ k̄ ⊗ k̄ + 2 sym (k̄ ⊗ τ̄ )
It remains anyway to define the stress state, which is easily derived from an
elementary assessment concerning the invariants of the tensor σ̃.
Specifically in this case the invariants of the tensor σ̃ are the unknown
factors of the equation in terms of the eigenvalues, more commonly known
as the secular equation
λ3 − I1 λ2 − I2 λ − I3 = 0
21
The equation is of 3rd degree, and due to simmetry, it admits three
solutions that are the eigenvalues associated with the eigenvectors, dependent
on the I, scalar invariants, representative of the true identity of the tensor.
The stress state is defined by the invariants, solutions of the secular equation.
The invariants of the tensor σ̃ are
σ̃n̄ = [σ̃ k̄ ⊗ k̄ + 2sym(k̄ ⊗ τ̄ )]n̄ = σ̃(k̄ · n̄)k̄ + (k̄ · n̄)τ̄ + (τ̄ · n̄)k̄
22
Figure 2.2: Illustration of a plane stress state
23
2.4 Principal directions
The principal directions are no more than those preferred directions
according to which the respective vectors parallel to these directions suffer
the maximum strain, dilatation or contraction, without angular slidings.
The principal stresses are trivially those related to the principal directions,
and are of particular interest because they are the most critical in terms
of strain and can be easily calculated since, being the stress state plane, it
means that at least one of them is surely null and therefore the determination
of the other requires to find the zeros of a polynomial of 2nd degree.
Assuming that the y-axis is parallel to the τ in the point in question, the
secular equation is
−σp 0 0
det(σ − σp ) = det 0 −σp τ = −σp [−σp (σ − σp ) − τ 2 ]
0 τ σ − σp
s
σ σ2
σp1 = 0 σp2 , σp3 = + ± τ2
2 4
24
It is possible to get to the same result by plotting the Mohr circle relative
to the bundle of lying postures orthogonal to the stress plane (Ref. Fig. 2.3).
s s
σ2 σ σ2
r= + τ2 σmax , σmin = ± + τ2
4 2 4
25
2.5 Equilibrium conditions
The discussion on the equilibrium of Saint Venant is nothing more than
a specialization of the equilibrium equations of Cauchy in relation to the
assumptions made on the beam model, therefore, the significant reduction
of the matrix σ̃ previously seen.
Since the hypothesis of null mass forces, the differential condition of
equilibrium b̄ = −divσ̃ = 0 dictates that
τ¯0 = 0 div τ̄ = −σ 0
dσ
In order to simplify the dissertation have been defined σ 0 = and
dz
dτ̄
τ¯0 =
dz
The condition τ¯0 = 0, is obtained very trivially from the first two
equations, and results in the property: The field of shear stresses is repeated
identically on each cross-section of the beam.
26
τ̄ · n̄ = 0 ⇐⇒ τx nx + τy ny = 0
In the points of the contour of the cross-sections the shear stresses τ are
therefore tangent to the contour line, as shown in Fig 2.4.
¯ are written
The equilibrium conditions on the basis of normal k̄ and −k
respectively
p̄ = σ̃ k̄ p̄ = −σ̃ k̄
27
2.6 Characteristics of interactions
Occurs to define, at this point of the dissertation, which are the possible
characteristics of interactions that may arise within the solid due to an
applied load, with obvious reference to what has been said so far, and for all
the assumptions made.
Let O be the origin of a reference and r̄ its relative radius vector which
identifies the points in the plane of a cross-section of the beam of area A.
The resultant of the tensions, acting on a cross-section with the outgoing
normal vector k̄, is the vector
Z
R= (σ̃(r̄) k̄) dA = N k̄ + T
A
The scalar component of N along the axis of the beam is the normal
force
Z Z
N= (σ̃(r) k̄ · k̄) dA = σ̃(r̄) dA
A A
and in components
Z Z
Tx = τx (r̄) dA Ty = τy (r̄) dA
A A
The axial vector of the resultant moment with respect to a pole O is worth
Z
M0 = r̄ × σ̃ k̄ dA = Mt k̄ + Mf
A
28
where the symbol × denotes the vectorial product
The scalar component Mt along the axis of the beam is the twisting
moment
Z Z
Mt = (r̄ × τ (r̄) · k̄) dA = (k̄ × r̄) · τ (r̄) dA
A A
Or rather
Z
Mt = [τy (r̄) x − τx (r̄) y] dA
A
Z
Mf = r̄ × k̄ σ dA
A
Z Z
Mx = σ(r̄) y dA My = σ(r̄) x dA
A A
29
2.7 Constitutive relations
Consider the isotropic linear elastic relationship σ − ε, for the hypothesis
of linearity, as already said, therefore will exist a factor of proportionality
between stress and strain defined as the longitudinal modulus of elasticity,
and for the isotropy hypothesis, this factor will be independent from the
position of the object considered.
But it is although important to consider that in addition to the deformation
concordant with the applied efforts, the material will receive a further
transversal strain, for the hypothesis of isotropy to a longitudinal expansion
along the direction 1 correspond two contractions in the directions 2 and 3
of equal intensity ν, defined as Poisson’s ratio.
So what has been said means that to a state of uni-axial stresses corresponds
a state of tri-axial strain.
It is now possible do define the Navier’s elastic relation.
1 ν 1+ν ν
ε1 = v σ̃1 − tr(σ̃) I = σ̃1 − tr(σ̃) I
2G E E E
substituting the expression of the stress state of Saint Venant
σ̃ = σ k̄ ⊗ k̄ + 2 sym (k̄ ⊗ τ̄ )
1+ν ν 1 1
ε= [σ k̄ ⊗ k̄ + 2 sym (k̄ ⊗ τ̄ )] − σ I = σ (k̄ ⊗ k̄ − ν Π) + sym (k̄ ⊗ τ̄ )
E E E G
where Π̄ = I¯ − k̄ ⊗ k̄ is the projector orthogonal to the plane of the
cross-section.
The strain tensor ε̃ is then the sum of an axial component and a transversal
one
1
εa = σ k̄ ⊗ k̄ = εa k̄ ⊗ k̄
E
1 ν
εt = sym(k̄ ⊗ τ̄ ) − σ Π̄ = sym (k̄ ⊗ γ) + εt Π̄
G E
30
where the following relations have been imposed.
1 1
εa = σ εt = −ν εa ν= τ
E G
Decomposing now the displacement field in the sum of the axial
component w̄ and the transversal one v̄
ū = w k̄ + v̄ with v̄ · k̄ = 0
σ = E εa = E w 0 εt = −ν εa = −ν w0
ε00a = w000 = 0
ε00t = −ν w000 = 0 =⇒ ε00 = 0
γ 0 = G1 τ 0 = 0
31
Chapter 3
Mechanical behavior
Starting from the assumptions made so far, as following will be threated the
mechanical behavior of the beam model introduced in the previous chapter.
It comes to be fundamental to introduce the elastic theory of Navier,
formulated by the French scientist and engineer at the beginning of the 19th
century.
In structural mechanics, the theory of beams, or technical theory of beams, is
a simplification of the theory of elasticity in linear field for the analysis of
beams’ mechanical behavior.
In particular, it is a simplification of Saint Venant’s problem.
It was formulated around 1638 and developed in the 17th and 18th centuries.
After the success demonstrated in the 19th century with the construction of
metal bridges in France and England, the Eiffel Tower and Ferris wheels, the
theory of beams had a big success and was considered one of the cornerstones
of engineering.
32
The stresses on the cross-sections are purely normal, it is assumed
that the stress state tensor is uniaxial with axis parallel to the geometric
axis k of the beam
σ̃ = σ k̄ ⊗ k̄
Figure 3.1: Beam model loaded by normal force and bendig moment
33
3.1 Elastic equilibrium
As consequence of the absence of shear stresses, the differential condition of
equilibrium in the direction of k̄ requires that the diagram of normal stresses
σ is repeated identically in each cross-section
τ̄ = 0, div τ̄ = − σ =⇒ σ = 0
ε(r̄) = ḡ · r̄ + ε0
or in terms of components
ε(x, y) = gx x + gy y + ε0
The plane containing the axis of the deformed beam is the flexure
plane and the track on the cross-section is the flexure axis f , parallel to the
gradient ḡ.
The plane, parallel to the axis of the beam, on which the linear strains
ε are equal to zero, and therefore even the normal stresses σ, is the neutral
plane and the track on the cross-section is the neutral axis n of the flexure.
εmax − ε0
|g| =
dmax
34
Figure 3.2: Generic cross-section and its relative stress diagram
The straight line n∗ is the parallel to the neutral axis passing through the
origin O, and dmax is the distance from n∗ to the points of the cross-section
in which there is the maximum strain.
The normal stresses on the cross-sections are provided by the elastic
relationship:
Equilibrium conditions :
Z
N= σ(r̄) dA
Z A Z Z
M̄f = r̄ × σ(r̄) k̄ dA ⇐⇒ k̄ × M̄f = σ(r̄) r̄ dA
A A A
35
Expressing the normal stresses σ in terms of strains, we have that
Z Z Z
N= σ(r̄) dA = ( E(r̄) r̄ dA) · ḡ + ( E(r̄) dA) · ε0
Z A AZ Z
k̄ × M̄f = r̄ × σ(r̄) dA = ( E(r̄) r̄ ⊗ r̄ dA) · ḡ + ( E(r̄) r̄ dA) · ε0
A A
N = S̄0 ḡ + A(E) ε0
k̄ × M̄f = J˜0 (E) · ḡ + S̄0 (E) ε0
Note that
π
Denote by R̃ the tensor making the counterclockwise rotation of 2
in the
plane of the cross-section.
36
The matrix associated to it with respect to the basis {i, j} is
" #
0 −1
R̃ =
1 0
k̄ × r̄ = R̃ r̄ k̄ × M̄f = R̃ M̄f
" # " #
−y −My
k̄ × r̄ = R̃ r̄ = k̄ × M̄f = R̃ M̄f =
x Mx
Figure 3.3: Bending moment applied on beam model and its relative
cross-section
So the equilibrium conditions could be written in terms of components
as
37
or in terms of matrix
A(E) Sx (E) Sy (E) ε0 N
Sx (E) Jx (E) Jxy (E) gx = −My
S̄0 (E)
r̄G =
A(E)
of components
Sx (E) Sy (E)
xG = yG =
A(E) A(E)
The solution of the linear system leads more conveniently to assume the
origin coincident with the elastic center, because in this case the elastic
static moment vector will be equal to zero S̄0 (E).
N = A(E) ε0 ⇐⇒ N = A (E) ε0
k̄ × M̄Gf = J˜G (E) ḡ ⇐⇒ -MGy = gx JGx (E) + gy JGxy (E)
MGx = gx JGxy (E) + gy JGy (E)
or in terms of matrix
A(E) 0 0 ε0 N
0 Jx (E) Jxy (E) gx = −My
0 Jxy (E) Jy (E) gy Mx
38
The parameters ε0 and ḡ are obtained, therefore, by the relations
N
ε0 = ḡ = J˜G−1 (E) (k̄ × M̄Gf )
A(E)
Note that the elastic area A(E) and elastic inertial moment J˜0 (E) are both
positive.
The elastic inertial tensor, being defined positive is invertible.
The inverse tensor J˜G−1 (E) is called flessional deformability tensor of the
cross-section.
N
ε(r̄) = + [J˜G−1 (k̄ × M̄Gf )] · r̄
A(E)
N
σ(k̄) = E(k̄) + E(k̄) [J˜G−1 (k̄ × M̄Gf )] · r̄
A(E)
If x and y axes are the principal axes for the elastic inertial tensor of the
section, the inertial product JGxy (E) vanishes.
JGx (E) 0 0 gx −MGy
0 JGy (E) 0 gy = Mx
0 0 A(E) ε0 N
39
So in the case of non-homogeneous sections strains and stress of the
longitudinal fibers have then the simplified expression, well known as
Navier ’s formulas
N MGy MGx
ε(x, y) = − x+ y
A(E) JGx (E) JGy (E)
!
N MGy MGx
σ(x, y) = E − x+ y
A(E) JGx (E) JGy (E)
Fig. 3.4 shows the typical diagrams of longitudinal strains and normal
stresses on a beam in bending where longitudinal fibers have different elastic
moduli.
40
3.2 Simple flexure
If the normal force N is null, the cross-section is loaded by a simple flexure.
The neutral axis passes through the elastic center of gravity G of the
section.
By placing the origin in G and choosing the principal inertial axes x and y,
the dilatation of the longitudinal fibers has the expression
MGy MGx
ε(x, y) = − x+ y
JGx (E) JGy (E)
!
MGy MGx
σ(x, y) = E − x+ y
JGx (E) JGy (E)
41
3.2.1 Straight flexure
Straight flexure occurs if the bending moment has the direction of one of the
principal inertial axes of the cross-section.
MGx MGx
ε(y) = y σ(y) = E y
JGy (E) JGy (E)
The neutral axis thus coincides with the x -axis and is orthogonal to the
interaction axis.
42
3.2.2 Skew flexure
In the case the bending moment does not have the direction of one of the
principal inertial axes, the flexure axis f and the interaction axis s do not
coincide.
The interaction is then said skew flexure to emphasize the fact that the
axis of the beam is deflected in a plane inclined with respect to that of
interaction.
43
3.3 Centered normal force
The interaction is called normal centered force if the normal force N is
different from zero and the resultant moment with respect to the center of
gravity is equal to zero.
The force is tensile or compressive depending on whether N is positive or
negative.
The dilation of the longitudinal fibers of the beam is constant and equal to
N
ε=
A(E)
νN
εt = −
A(E)
E(r) N
σ(r) =
A(E)
44
3.4 Eccentric normal force
The interaction is called eccentric normal force or composed flexure when
both, the normal force N and the bending moment M̄Gf , are different from
zero.
The central axis of the interaction is parallel to the beam axis.
Its intersection C with the plane of the section is called center of the
interaction.
If r̄C is the position vector of C with respect to the elastic section center
GE , the resultant moment vector with respect to C is given by
M̄Gf
r̄C × k̄ =
N
Figure 3.7: Eccentric normal force on a generic beam model and its relative
cross-section
k̄ × M̄Gf R̄ M̄Gf
r̄C = =
N N
45
which, written in terms of components, provides the coordinates of the
center of interaction
MGy MGx
xc = − yc =
N N
The distance between |r̄c | and the elastic center G is called eccentricity.
From the following expression of the position vector rc of the interaction
center
N r̄C = k̄ × M̄Gf
N
ε(r̄) = + [J˜G−1 (E) N r̄C ] · r̄
A(E)
" #
N
σ(r) = E(r̄) + [J˜G−1 (E) N r̄C ] · r̄
A(E)
!
N xc yc
ε(x, y) = 1 + 2x + 2y
A(E) ρx ρy
!
EN xc yc
σ(x, y) = 1 + 2x + 2y
A(E) ρx ρy
The neutral axis of the composed flexure n is then defined by the equation
!
xc yc
1 + 2x + 2y = 0
ρx ρy
46
3.5 Homogenous sections
In the case in which the longitudinal fibers of the beam are characterized by
a single Young’s modulus the diagram of normal stresses is proportional to
that one of strains and therefore has a linear trend.
N
ε(r̄) = + [(E J˜G )−1 (k̄ × M̄Gf )] · r̄
EA
N
σ(r̄) = + [(J˜G )−1 (k̄ × M̄Gf )] · r̄
A
Having indicated with J˜G the geometrical inertial central tensor of the
section evaluated with respect to the elastic center G
Z
J˜G = r̄ ⊗ r̄ dA
A
Z Z Z
2 2
JGx = x dA JGy = y dA JGxy = xy dA
A A A
in the principal inertial reference the strains and normal stresses in terms
of components have the following expressions
N MGy MGx
ε(x, y) = − x+ y
EA EJGy EJGx
N MGy MGx
σ(x, y) = − x+ y
A JGy JGx
47
Here is a summary of what has been shown so far
N MGy MGx
ε(x, y) = − x+ y
A E JGx E JGy E
N MGy MGx
σ(x, y) = − x+ y
A JGx JGy
N N
σ= ε=
A AE
Simple flexure (N 6= 0, M 6= 0)
Skew flexure
MGy MGx
ε(x, y) = − x+ y
JGy E JGx E
MGy MGx
σ(x, y) = − x+ y
JGy JGx
MGx MGx
ε(y) = y σ(y) = y
JGy E JGy
48
Mechanical behavior of non-homogeneous sections
N MGy MGx
σ(x, y) = − x+ y
A (E) JGx (E) JGy (E)
N N
σ=E ε=
A(E) A (E)
Simple flexure (N 6= 0, M 6= 0)
Skew flexure
MGy MGx
ε(x, y) = − x+ y
JGy (E) JGx (E)
!
MGy MGx
σ(x, y) = E − x+ y
JGy (E) JGx (E)
MGx MGx
ε(y) = y σ(y) = E y
JGy (E) JGy (E)
49
Chapter 4
Thermal behavior
50
situations which appear to be quite counter-intuitive if viewed from a
conventional structural engineering perspective.
The behavior of a common beam model due to the constraint configuration
and the type of thermal load has already been treated in sections 1.5, 1.6
and 1.7.
In the whole chapter the structural behavior with respect to low thermal
loads, with no fire, will be illustrated.
51
Figure 4.1: Thermal crack on a concrete bridge
Fig. 4.1 : Due to the temperature difference the cooler portion contracts
more than the warmer one, which restrains the contraction. If the restraint
results in tensile stresses that exceed the in-place concrete tensile strength
then thermal cracks appears.
52
Figure 4.3: Vertical or near vertical cracks in poured concrete
Fig. 4.4 : Concrete walls tend to display vertical cracks more similar to
that of Fig. 4.3, but frost heaving at a corner of a concrete wall can produce
diagonal cracks or breaks in that location.
These figures, showing cracks due to thermal loads, have been introduced
in order to illustrate briefly the dramatical consequences of thermal loads
on common real structures.
Therefore a correct valuation of the stress state comes to be fundamental.
53
4.2 Navier’s theory including thermal loads
The aim is to illustrate a general method that allows to evaluate the effects of
arbitrary changes of thermal scenery interesting the cross-section of a beam.
The context is that of the technical theory of beams based on the assumption
of conservation of planar sections (Euler-Bernoulli hypothesis).
x1 y1 1 gθ x θ1
x
2 y2 1
g
θy
= θ1
x3 y3 1 θ0 θ3
θ(r̄) = g¯θ · r̄ + θ0
where the vector g¯θ is the gradient of the temperature field changes and
θ0 represents the value of temperature field.
54
4.4 Elastic equilibrium
The hypothesis of conservation of planar sections implies that the dilation
field of the longitudinal fibers of the beam has a linear expression
ε(r̄) = ḡ · r̄ + ε0
The field of axial elastic dilatations induced in the cross-section, denoted
by εel , is derived from the stress-strain relationship under uni-axial stress
state.
The field of thermal dilatations, denoted as εθ , is proportional to the
coefficient of thermal expansion field α and to the temperature change field
θ.
σ(r̄)
εel (r̄) = εθ (r̄) = α(r̄) θ(r̄)
E(r̄)
The geometrical dilatation field ε is the sum of the elastic and thermal
dilatations, so that
ε(r̄) = εel (r̄) + εθ (r̄) = ḡ · r̄ + ε0
Once the geometrical dilatation has been computed, the field of elastic
expansions of the longitudinal fibers of the beam is found out by subtracting
thermal dilatations from geometrical ones
55
By recalling the definitions of normal force N and bending moment
Mf already viewed in Chapt. 3, and defining the contributions due to
thermal loads, Nθ and Mθ , which are obtained by the fictitious stresses σθ
hence they are fictitious as well, it is possible to derive the following relations
Z Z
N= σ(r̄) dA Nθ = σ θ (r̄) dA
A A
Z Z
Mf = σ(r̄)r̄ dA Mθ = σ θ (r̄)r̄ dA
A A
Z
AE = E(r̄) dA Elastic area (Moment of order 0)
A
Z
S̄E = E(r̄) r dA Elastic static moment (Moment of order 1)
A
Z
J˜E = E(r̄) r̄ ⊗ r̄ dA Elastic inertial moment (Moment of order 2)
A
56
If x and y axes are the principal axes for the elastic inertial tensor of the
section, the inertial product JGxy (E) vanishes and the normal stresses are
given by the Navier ’s formula including thermal loads, as follows
57
Then simply by summing respectively stresses and strains, it is possible
to evaluate characteristics of interaction due to mechanical and thermal
loads in homogeneous and non-homogeneous sections
N + Nθ N + Nθ
σ= ε=
A AE
Simple flexure (N + Nθ 6= 0, M + Mθ 6= 0)
Skew flexure
58
Mechanical and Thermal behavior of non-homogeneous sections
Simple flexure (N + Nθ 6= 0, M + Mθ 6= 0)
Skew flexure
59
Chapter 5
The bimetallic strips, first realized in 1759, nowadays are still commonly
used in thermostats, fire alarms, clocks, thermometers, heat engines and
electrical devices, like circuit breakers.
60
The strips are melted together throughout their length.
The two metals, when subjected to a temperature rise, tend to expand, and
because of their different coefficients of thermal expansion, display different
dilatations.
6 E1 E2 (h1 + h2 )h1 h2 ε
κ=
E12 h41 + 4 E1 E2 h31 h2 + 6 E1 E2 h21 h22 + 4 E1 E2 h32 h1 + E22 h42
Where E1 and h1 are the Young’s modulus and height of material one
and E2 and h2 are the Young’s modulus and height of material two.
ε is the misfit strain, calculated by:
ε = (α1 − α2 ) θ
61
5.2 Application of Navier’s theory including
thermal loads
The cross-section of the bimetallic strip is composed by nickel on the upper
side, and copper on the lower one, as in Fig. 5.2, where O is the elastic center
of the whole section weighted on the elastic moduli.
Nickel and copper strips of rectangular shape, of basis (B) 10 mm and height
(H) 2 mm, have equal dimensions.
- α [°C−1 ] E [GP a]
Nickel 1.30 × 10−5 220
Copper 1.70 × 10−5 130
62
The geometrical areas of nickel and copper laminae are both equal to
A = B × H.
The fictitious normal force equivalent to the thermal dilatation is calculated
as follows
Z
Nθ = E α θ dA = θA (αN i EN i + αCu ECu )
A
63
Considering that the bimetallic strip structural scheme is a shelf, its
deformation due to the temperature variation is reported in Fig. 5.3.
Assuming that the length of the strip is l = 10 cm, and being the rotation
uniform and the curvature constant along the strip, the rotation center is in
the middle of the shelf.
It is possible to calculate firstly the rotation of the free ending section φ,
and secondly the lowering v.
εθ (y) = α(y) θ
64
σθ (y) = E(y) α(y) θ
65
The two materials are welded along the whole length of the strip, so that
the dilatation diagram of longitudinal fibers must be continuous trough the
interface between nickel and copper.
Since the characteristics of interaction are null, the normal stress field
on the cross-section is globally self-balanced.
66
Bibliography
[2] A.S. Usmani, J.M. Rotter, S.Lamont, A.M. Sanad, M. Gillie: ”Fun-
damental principles of structural behaviour under thermal effects” Fire
Safety Journal 36 (2001) 721-744
67