- Hydrogen, Helium, Lithium
Structure & Age of the Universe
THE UNIVERSE & THE
SOLAR SYSTEM
- Big Bang Theory: most accepted theory
- Radiation Era: dominance of radiation
- Matter Era: dominance of matter
- composed of galaxies such as the milky way
- contains stars such as the sun
˃ Stars: 1st heavenly body
▪ Average Stars: suns to red giant then
explodes (super nova) to white dwarf to
black dwarf
▪ Massive Stars: super red giant then
explodes to blackhole neutrons then
clears up the horizon
˃ Sun: came from the interstellar nebula (Nebular
Theory)
- contains solar system/s
˃ Solar System: formed about 4.6 billion years ago
from the gravitational collapse of an interstellar
molecular cloud; gravitationally bound system of
planets, the Sun, and objects that orbit it
˃ planets, and asteroids
▪ Planet: revolves around the sun; has gravity;
clear its orbit
˃ Terrestial Planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars
▪ composed of rocks and hard matter
˃ Gas Giants: Jupiter & Saturn (composed primarily of
hydrogen & helium)
˃ Ice Giants: Uranus & Neptune
▪ no solid surface; low gravity & temperature
▪ a.k.a. “Jovian Planets” (‘Jovian’ = Jupiter-like)
˃ Pluto is a dwarf moon-sized planet because it only
lying on Kaiper belt
- Nebula: clouds of dust (particles)
Composition of the Universe
Composition Meanings
-4.6% ; ordinary matter
Baryonic Matter -protons, electrons, neutrons, planets,
stars, galaxies, nebulae
-24% ; matter that has gravity but doesn’t
Cold Dark Matter
emit light
-71.4% ; source of anti-gravity
Dark Energy -force that counteracts gravity and causes
the universe to expand
- Dark Matter: holds everything together because it has
gravity
3 Most Abundant Elements in the Universe
Stars: building blocks of galaxies; born out of clouds of
-
gas & dust
- Galaxies: cluster of billion of stars;
˃ Superclusters: clusters of galaxies
- Universe: 13.8B years old
Non-Scientific Thoughts
Beliefs Significance
-believed in Gods and myths
Ancient Egyptians -the world arose from and infinite sea at
the first of the rising sun
- a creator God (Mbombo or Bumba) who,
Kuba People of alone in a dark and water covered Earth,
Central Africa felt an intense stomach pain and then
vomited the stars, sun, and moon
-Gods sacrificed Purusha, the primal man
India whose head, feet, eyes, and mind became
the sky, earth, sun, and moon respectively
-supreme being created the universe
Judaism
including man & organisms
Early Theories About the Origin of the Universe
Theories Significance
-God separated light from darkness
Genesis
-created sky, sea, moon, etc. in 6 days
-Hindu; universe is an oscillating universe
-came from a ”cosmic egg” ; Brahmanda
Rigveda
expanded & will eventually collapse again
-Concentrated Point: Bindu
-believed in a primordial universe
-original state of cosmos was primordial
mixture of all its ingredients which existed
in infinitesimally small fragments of
Anaxagoras
themselves but not entirely uniform
>the mixture was set in motion by the
action of “nous” or mind which separated
the ingredients thus producing cosmos
-atomic universe (very small, indivisible, &
Leucippus & indestructible atoms)
Democritus -Stoic philosophers believed that the
universe is like a giant living body
-Theory of Geocentrism: stayed motionless
Aristotle &
in the heavens & everything was revolving
Ptolemy
around it; earth is in the center
-Theory of Heliocentrism: sun is in the
Nicolaus center; demonstrated that the motions of
Copernicus celestial objects can be explained w/o Earth
being the center of the universe
-Solar System is not in the center of the
Giordano Bruno
universe; merely just another star system
-static, steady state, & infinite universe
-matter on a large scale is uniformly
Sir Isaac Newton
distributed and the universe is
gravitationally balanced but unstable
-outlined a Cartesian vortex model of the
universe with many characteristics of
Newton’s static, infinite universe
Renes Descartes -vacuum of space was not empty at all but
was filled with matter that swirled around
in large & small vortices
-gravitational effects
-Theory of Relativity: study of time and
space in constant motion always
Albert Einstein
-believed that the universe was static
(neither expanding nor contracting)
Modern Theories on the Origin of the Universe
Big Bang Theory
- Singularity: pure energy compressed
- Bang --> continuous expansion of tiny particles & cosmic
inflation
1. The universe came from a singularity which exploded
13.7M years ago thus the universe expanded; at first, it was
just pure energy (blackhole; hot and densed point)
2. Extremely hot wherein the quarks combined to make
protons and neutrons
3. The universe cooled down which resulted the protons and
neutrons to fuse together and make Hydrogen and Helium
4. While cooling down, the particles solidifies thus creating
the planets
- 4 Fundamental Forces:
˃ Gravity: attraction between bodies
˃ Electromagnetic: binds atoms into molecules
˃ Strong Nucleus: binds protons & neutrons
˃ Weak Nucleus: breaks down atom’s nucleus &
produces radioactive decay
Eras Significance
-universe came from a singularity which
Hot & Densed
exploded 13.7M years ago thus the
Point
universe expanded (from blackhole)
-dominance of radiation after big bang
-Epochs:
a) Planet Epoch: pure energy only; 5
forces; no matter existed
b) Grand Unification Epoch: gravity;
strong nuclear
c) Inflationary: universe rapidly
Radiation Era expanded; very hot (electrons)
d) Electroweak Epoch:
e) Quark Epoch: too hot & dense for
subatomic particle to form
f) Hadron Epoch: cooled down & quarks
combined to make protons and neutrons
g) Nuclear Epoch: helium was created
(1st chemical in the universe)
a) Atomic Epoch: temperature cooled down
for neutrons to attach to nuclei; atomic
clouds
>Recombination: creation of hydrogen
Matter Era
b) Galactic Epoch: seedling of galaxy
c) Stellar Epoch: stars are formed (ripple
effect); heat of stars caused the production
of elements
Oscillating Universe
- followed theory of relativity questions
- the universe is just a cycle; big crunch then big bang
again
Steady State Theory
- proposed by Fred Hoyle, Thomas Gold, & Hermann Bondi
- the universe expanded but did not change its density
- density is constant; that makes it different from the BBT
Inflationary Universe
- proposed by Alan Guth which based on BBT
- incorporated a short early period of exponential cosmic
inflation in order to solve the uncertainties of the
standard big bang model like horizon & flatness problems
- another proposed a different inflationary model (cyclic
model) by Paul Steinhardt & Neil Turok which
incorporated the ideas based on superstring theory
Multiverse
- Andrei Linde developed the concept of inflationary
universe from his chaotic inflation theory where the
universe is just one of many bubbles that grew as a part
of a multiverse
- “many worlds”
Theories About the Expansion of the Universe
Theories Significance
-universe expanding
Red Shift
-moving faster in red spectrum
-if farther, it is in the red side of the
spectrum = longer wavelength & lower
frequency
-if closer, it is in the blue side of the
spectrum = shorter wavelengths & higher
frequency
-if a galaxy is red, it is far even if it looks
bigger ; if blue, it is close even if it looks
smaller
-the theory that inspired the red shift theory
Doppler Effect
-
-1st Radiation
Cosmic Microwave -300,000 years after BBT
Background -constant static energy
Radiation -surface on earth expands
>Inflation: uncontrolled expansion
Theories on the Origin of the Solar System
Theories Significance
-planets are isolated in orderly intervals
-orbits are elliptical (nearly circular) & are
Large-Scale in the same place
-periods of revolution increases as the
distance from the Sun increases
-most planets rotate prograde
(counter-clockwise)
-Terrestrial Planets: high densities, thin/no
atmosphere, rotates slowly, rocky, poor in
ices and helium and hydrogen
Small-Scale -Jovian Planets: low densities, thick
atmospheres, rotates rapidly, many moons,
fluid interiors, rich in ices, helium &
hydrogen
-most of the outer solar system objects (not
just jovian planets) are ice-rich
-rogue star passed close to the sun &
stripped hot gases
-they spun in the same direction then went
very close to each other until they formed
smaller lumps
-Advantages:
>explains why outer planets are less
dense than inner planets (outer planets are
Encounter made out of rogue star material which is a
Hypothesis less dense material)
>explains why all the planets revolve in
the same direction (counter-clockwise)
-Disadvantages:
>encounter between stars are extremely
rare
>hot gases expand, they don’t contract
so it’s questionable how they’re able to
form lumps and become planets
-large cloud of gas that contracted due to
self-gravity
-conservation of angular momentum pulls
cloud into a disk and begins to rotate
-central mass forms proto-Sun
-centrifugal force balances gravitational
force and forms a ring; ring forms into a
planet
Nebular
-Advantage: incorporates basic physics
Hypothesis
(angular momentum)
-Disadvantages:
>How and why did the disk became
individual planets?
>99% of the mass of the solar system is
from the sun, but 99% of the angular
momentum is from the planets, mostly in
outer planets too
-Planetisimals: asteroid-sized aggregates
that orbited the center of the solar nebula
-from nebula, came the sun and planets
-working model; incorporates many
Protoplanet
components of the nebular hypotheses
Hypothesis
-Milky Way was filled with cold clouds of
molecules, hydrogen gas, and dusts (dust
site for the condensation of gas)
-the cloud collapsed under self-gravity then
 the ice-covered dust stuck to each other, - contains all life forms and even organic matter that has
forming the rotating disk not yet decomposed
-Inner Region: denser & collapsed faster - Biomes: regions that have similar plants, animals, terrain
then it formed the proto-sun before other
and climate
planets
>warmer since it’s closer to the sun
- covers all ecosystems
which vaporizes the lighter compounds - zone where interaction of all other subsystems of the
(H2O, CO2, NH4) then the metals and earth is dynamic
silicates stayed as solids
>those solids formed planetisimals then Atmosphere
became larger due to gravitational - “atmos” = air/gas
attraction then formed terrestrial planets - thin gaseous layer that envelops the lithosphere
-Outer Region: evolved slower into thin disk
- Composition
of particles & a thicker outer disk of gases;
colder since it’s farther from the sun
˃ 78% nitrogen
>there was turbulence (eddies); build up ˃ 21% oxygen
of large bodies in eddies ˃ 0.9% argon
>more volatile (easily evaporates at ˃ other gases
normal temperature) ices and gases = - Layers:
more mass
Layers Significance
>icy planetisimals formed due to lower
Troposphere -80; where all weather takes place
condensation temperature = more
accretion -no weather
>jovian planets are more efficient in Stratosphere -layer that helps absorb harmful rays
capturing planetisimals (ozone)
Mesosphere -coldest layer; almost no breathable gas
-no breathable gas; where some satellites
Thermosphere
are flying
Exosphere -outermost layer
LIFE ON EARTH: Water Cycle
EARTH’S - Purpose: to produce water in the 3 phases of matter
(solid, liquid, & gas)
SUBSYSTEMS - Precipitation --> Surface Run-off --> Infiltration
(osmosis) --> Evaporation (humans) & Transpiration
(plants) --> Condensation
- How come earth can sustain life?
˃ Atmosphere (has oxygen for us to breathe)
˃ Climate (not too hot/cold = can sustain life)
˃ Water (hydrosphere; edible & drinkable)
˃ Light (photosynthesis)
˃ Sun (heat, light, etc.)
˃ Ozone Layer (traps UV rays from the sun)
˃ Earth’s Magnetic Field (comes in the form of
radiation through the solar wind)

System
- set of interconnected components interacting to form a
unified whole
- closed system El Niño
˃ exchange of heat/energy but not matter - ENSO: El Niño Southern Oscillation; pacific ocean cycle
- involves temperature fluctuations in the eastern pacific
Subsystems (Spheres) ocean near the equator (lack of water/drought)
Lithosphere - result of the interaction between the hydrosphere and
- “lithos” = rocky (includes rocks of crust and mantle) atmosphere. not merely an atmospheric condition (result
- rigid outermost part of Earth of 4 subsystems of the Earth working together)
- Geosphere: collective name of all non-living things
Carbon Cycle
Hydrosphere - carbon is stored
- “hydro” = water ˃ Biosphere: within planets
- totality of Earth’s water ˃ Atmosphere: as CO2 in air
˃ 70% ocean ˃ Hydrosphere: dissolved in the oceans (direct
˃ 3% safe water exchange with the atmosphere and indirectly
▪ 2/3 ice (cryosphere) through the weathering of rocks)
▪ 1/3 river, streams ˃ Geosphere: coal & oil depots
- Earth is the only planet in the solar system that contains
water in all 3 phases
˃ solid (ice)
˃ liquid (water)
˃ gas (vapor) ROCKS & MINERALS
Biosphere
- “bio” = life
- basic building blocks of rocks; inorganic, naturally
occurring solid that has definite chemical composition &
atomic structure
- comes in wide variety of sizes, shapes, color
- Uses (Daily Life):
˃ Halite (salt)
˃ Graphite (pencil)
˃ Diamonds (jewelry)
˃ Talc (powder)
˃ Fluorite (toothpaste - fluoride)
˃ Gypsum (gypsum blocks)
General Characteristics
- naturally occurring, inorganic solid with orderly
crystalline structure and definite chemical composition
˃ Solid: actual state/phase
˃ Naturally Occurring: not man-made or machine
generated
˃ Inorganic: not a product from biosphere
˃ Definite Chemical Composition: should express the
exact chemical formula
˃ Ordered Internal Structure: crystalline style
Mineral Properties
- Luster: quality and intensity of light
˃ Metallic: generally opaque and exhibit a
resplendent shine similar to a polished metal
˃ Submetallic: have the look of a metal but dulled
due to weathering
˃ Non-metallic: anything other than metallic
▪ Adamantine: having a hard, sparkly look
of a diamond
▪ Resinous: having a look of yellow, dark
orange, or brown that is slightly
reflective
▪ Vitreous: having the look of a pearl
▪ Pearly: having the look of a pearl
▪ Greasy: having the look of an oil coated
surface
▪ Dull: having a plain looking surface
▪ Earthy: having the look of soil or clay
▪ Silky: having the look of fine parallel
fibers
- Hardness: measure of resistance to being scratched
˃ Moh’s Scale of Hardness
▪ Pros:
• easy to do the test
• can be done anywhere &
anytime
• highly relevant to field
geologists (use of scratch kits)
• can be done without/few kits
▪ Cons:
• scale is qualitative & not
quantitative
• can’t be used to test accurate
hardness of industrial material
- Color & Streak
˃ Color: most obvious but not reliable characteristic
for identification; absorption or lack thereof of
visible light
˃ Streak: color of the mineral in its powdered form
- Crystal Form/Habit
˃ Form: result of the crystallized structure of its
chemical composition
˃ Habit: outward appearance of the crystal form
- Cleavage: tendency to break along the repetitive planes
of weakness
˃ Types:
▪ Perfect: produces smooth surfaces
▪ Imperfect: produces planes that are not
smooth
▪ Poor: less regular
- Fracture: irregular and non-planar broken surface
˃ Types:
▪ Conchoidal: fracture surface is a smooth
curve, often bowl-shaped (common in
glass); quartz, flint, natural glass,
diamond
▪ Hackly: produces sharp jagged edges
▪ Uneven: surface is rough and irregular
▪ Fibrous: surface shows fibers or splinters
- Density: specific gravity
- Breakage:
˃ minerals that display cleavage break along
smooth planes parallel to zones of weak
bonding
˃ minerals that display fracture tend to break along
curved surfaces w/o definite shape
- Other: magnetism, odor, taste, reaction to acid
- James Dwight Dana: mineralogist at Yale University from
1850 to 1892 developed a classification system for
minerals based on chemical composition
- All of a mineral’s physical characteristics are result of its
internal arrangement of atoms
Common Rock Forming Elements
- there are almost 5000 known mineral species, yet the
vast majority of rocks are formed from combinations of a
few common minerals, referred to as “rock-forming
minerals”
˃ feldspars, quartz, amphiboles, micas, olivine,
garnet, calcite, pyroxenes
Mineral Groups
- “-ates” = oxygen ; “-ides” = metals
˃ Silicates (silicon-oxygen tetrahedons)
˃ Carbonates
˃ Sulfates
˃ Oxides
˃ Halides
˃ Sulfides
˃ Native Elements
Igneous Rocks
- derived from the cooling and solidification of magma or
lava (molten rock materials)
- usually hard and crystalline
- rate of cooling as one of the most important factors that
control crystal size
˃ Slow Cooling: forms large interlocking crystals, a
texture called phaneritic
˃ Fast Cooling: doesn’t promote the formation of
large crystals
- solidification can occur along the surface of the earth or
beneath the surface of the earth
- Plutonic or Intrusive Rock: formed with solidified magma
underneath the earth; formed from the gradual lowering
of temperature causing slow cooling/crystallization
˃ displays phaneritic textures (have mineral grains
that are large enough to be seen by the naked
eye or hand lens)
˃ have large crystals
˃ Ex: granite, diorite, gabbro
- Volcanic or Extrusive Rock: solidified lava at or near
earth’s surface; fast rate of cooling/crystallization; have
small/no crystals
˃ Common Textures:
 ▪ Aphanitic: rapid rate of surface cooling
results in microscopic crystals
▪ Porphyritic: have larger mineral grains or
phenocrysts in a matrix of smaller
grains
▪ Vesicular: extrusive rock containing voids
left by gas bubbles that escape as lava
solidifies (eg. pumice)
˃ Ex: rhyolite, andesite, basalt
- Pyroclastic Rocks: fragmental rocks associated with
violent explosion (volcanic eruption)
Sedimentary Rocks
- formed at or near the surface of the earth; fragments of
rock broken down as a result of weathering
- only type of rocks that may contain fossils or evidence of
past life
- sedimentary process include: weathering of rocks,
erosion, sediment transport, and deposition (compaction
& cementation)
- Common Sedimentary Features:
˃ Fossil Assemblages: remains and traces of plants
and animals preserved in rocks
˃ Stratification or Layering
▪ Bedding: strata which is > 1cm
▪ Lamination: strata which is < 1cm
- Layering: result of a change in grain size and
composition, each layer represents a distinct period of
deposition
- Clastic Sedimentary Rocks: grains, matrix, and cement are
the components of clastic rocks; commonly classified
based on particle size; has volcanic origin; presence of
variable grain sizes
- Non-Clastic Sedimentary Rocks: evaporation &
precipitation from evaporation/precipitation of minerals
in water; solution or lithification of organic matter;
classified as evaporites (halite, gypsum, and dolostone),
precipitates (limestone) and bioclastics (coal, coquina)
Metamorphic Rocks
- formed below the surface of the earth through the
process of metamorphism
˃ recrystallization of minerals in rocks due to intense
changes in pressure and temperature conditions
˃ Contact Metamorphism: heat & reactive fluids as
main factors; creates non-foliated metamorphic
rocks
˃ Regional Metamorphism: pressure as main factor;
creates foliated metamorphic rocks
Rock Cycle
EXOGENIC PROCESS
- geological phenomena or Earth processes that externally
affects the Earth's surface
Weathering
- physically or chemically breaking down & changing of
rocks as a result of exposure to environment
- Physical Weathering: breakdown of rocks into sediments
w/o changing their composition
˃ Frost Action: freezing/thawing of ice cracks rocks
˃ Exfoliation: alternating hot/cold cracks rocks;
peels off outer layers of rocks which are
immediately affected by heat
˃ Abrasion: grinding of rock against rock
˃ Root Wedging: plant roots growing into rocks
˃ Block Disintegration: caused by successive heating
& cooling that causes expansion & contraction of
rocks
- Chemical Weathering: altering of rocks as a result of
exposure to diff. substances
˃ Oxidation: iron + oxygen = iron oxide (rust)
˃ Carbonation: acid rain dissolves limestone (caves);
process involving types of carbonates in rocks
˃ Hydration: result of absorption/combination of
water & a particular substance on rock leading
to a change in shape
˃ Solution: process where some minerals in rocks are
directly dissolved in water
- Biological Weathering: rocks are weathered by plants,
animals, & human beings; can be physical and chemical
Erosion
- physical removal & transportation of sediments that have
been broken down by weathering processes
- Agents of Erosion: gravity, running water, waves, glacier,
humans
˃ Mass Movement: whenever gravity pulls sediments
downhill; include soil creep, debris flow, rock
slide, & mud slide; deposit angular, unsorted
sediment

Deposition
- dropping off of sediments that have been weathered &
eroded
- Changes shape, size, and texture of land-forms (i.e.
mountains, riverbeds, and beaches)
- Soil, clay minerals and sedimentary rocks formation like
limestone and sandstone
- Weathering changes rocks to support flora and fauna
- Chemical weathering helps in reducing atmospheric
carbon dioxide.
- Formation of various new landforms
- Soil erosion deposits soil rich in minerals to places that
were not fertile, making them agriculturally productive.
ENDOGENIC
PROCESS
- acting inside the earth
- Volcanism: eruption of molten rock (magma) onto Earth’s
surface through a vent (volcano)
˃ Geothermal Gradient: change in temperature
where temperature increases with depth; result
of residual heat of primordial Earth
PLATE MOTION
- Plate in motion: collide, pull apart, or scrape against each
other
- Plate Tectonics: movement of lower molten layer
- Each type of interaction causes a characteristic set of
Earth structures or “tectonic” features
- Earth’s crust is made up of plates & continents sit on these
plates
- Convection: movement caused within a fluid by the
tendency of hotter and therefore less dense material to
rise, & colder, denser material to sink under the influence
of gravity
˃ convection currents in asthenosphere drive plate
motion
- Plate Boundary: Earth's outer layer, the crust, is divided
into a set of large moving plates; lines where they meet
- Subduction Zone: area where 2 plates are sandwiched on
top of each other
- Folding: occur when rocks are subjected to tectonic forces
from opposite sides
- Faulting: result of the fracture/displacement of rock
later/strata along a fault plane
˃ Fault shows displacement of 2 sides of a
nonvertical fault: hanging wall & footwall
˃ Dip-slip Faults: show vertical movement of
hanging wall & footwall
˃ Strike-slip Fault: shows horizontal & parallel
displacements of fault planes
- Continental Drift Theory: gradual movements of
continents over time
˃ Plates: upper layer of crust broken down into large
slabs
˃ Pangaea: once existed single landmass; named by
Alfred Wegener
- Seafloor Spreading: geologic process where tectonic
plates split apart as a result of mantle convection; occurs
at divergent plate boundaries
Types of Plate Boundaries
Types Meanings
Convergent where two plates are colliding
where two plates are moving apart
>Rift Zones: areas where the volcano is rifting
or splitting apart; rock in a rift zone has many
cracks and is relatively weak, and thus it is easiest
for magma to make its way to the surface
through these rift zones
Divergent
>Mid-ocean Ridge: underwater mountain
range; occurs when convection currents rise in
the mantle beneath the oceanic crust & create
magma where 2 tectonic plates meet at a
divergent boundary
 >Hot Spot: places within the mantle where
rocks melt to generate magma

where plates slide passed each other

Transform
> Earthquake

3 Types of Convergent Plate Boundaries

3 Types of Stress in Earth’s Crust

Types Meanings
-causes the rocks to push or squeeze against
one another
-targets the center of the rock and can cause
either horizontal or vertical orientation
-in horizontal compression stress, the crust can
thicken or shorten
Compression -in vertical compression stress, the crust can thin
out or break off
-force of compression can push rocks together
or cause the edges of each plate colliding to rise
-Mountains are a result of high-impact
compression stress caused when two plates
collided
-opposite of compression; forces the rocks to
pull apart
-can happen in 2 ways:
>separate plates can move farther away from
Tension each other, or the ends of one plate can move in
different directions
-Some scientists think tension stress caused the
ancient, massive continent Pangaea to break off
into the seven continents
-force of the stress pushes some of the crust in
different directions thus large part of the crust
can break off, which makes the plate size
smaller
Shear
-usually happens when two plates rub against
each other as they move in opposite directions.
-friction of a shear stress at the edges of the
plate can cause earthquakes