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DGCS Vol 4 PDF
DGCS Vol 4 PDF
Contents
ABBREVIATIONS ..................................................................................................................................................... XVII
GLOSSARY ............................................................................................................................................................. XVIII
1 GENERAL PROVISIONS .................................................................................................................................... 1-1
1.1 SCOPE AND APPLICATION .......................................................................................................................................... 1-1
1.2 GOVERNING LAWS, LOCAL ORDINANCES, RULES & REGULATIONS, CODES AND DEPARTMENT ORDERS..................................... 1-1
1.3 REFERENCE MATERIALS ............................................................................................................................................. 1-1
1.4 GENERAL CONCEPTS ................................................................................................................................................. 1-2
1.5 HIGHWAY TYPES / CLASSIFICATION.............................................................................................................................. 1-7
1.5.1 Highway Types .............................................................................................................................................. 1-7
1.5.2 2-Lane Highways .......................................................................................................................................... 1-7
1.5.3 4-Lane Undivided Highways ......................................................................................................................... 1-8
1.5.4 Divided Highways ......................................................................................................................................... 1-8
1.5.5 Classification of Highways According to System........................................................................................... 1-9
1.5.6 Road Classification According to Primary Function .................................................................................... 1-11
2 DESIGN DATA ................................................................................................................................................. 2-1
2.1 FIELD SURVEY INFORMATION ..................................................................................................................................... 2-1
2.1.1 Highway Location ......................................................................................................................................... 2-1
2.2 FIELD INVESTIGATIONS ............................................................................................................................................ 2-11
2.2.1 Proposed Sites for Stream Crossings ........................................................................................................... 2-11
2.2.2 Road Alignment .......................................................................................................................................... 2-11
2.2.3 Existing Utility Services ............................................................................................................................... 2-12
2.3 SOIL INVESTIGATIONS ............................................................................................................................................. 2-12
2.3.1 Subsurface Investigation............................................................................................................................. 2-12
2.3.2 Subgrade Investigation ............................................................................................................................... 2-13
2.3.3 Widening of Existing Pavements ................................................................................................................ 2-13
2.3.4 Sampling and Testing ................................................................................................................................. 2-13
2.4 EXISTING PAVEMENT EVALUATION ............................................................................................................................ 2-14
2.4.1 Visual Inspection/Surface Defects .............................................................................................................. 2-14
2.4.2 Joints ........................................................................................................................................................... 2-19
2.4.3 Pavement Cracks ........................................................................................................................................ 2-22
2.4.4 Pavement Deformation .............................................................................................................................. 2-27
2.5 DRAINAGE RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................................................................... 2-33
2.5.1 Classification of Highway Drainage ............................................................................................................ 2-34
2.6 DESIGN CONTROLS ................................................................................................................................................. 2-36
2.6.1 Anticipated Traffic Volume ......................................................................................................................... 2-36
2.6.2 Character of Traffic ..................................................................................................................................... 2-37
2.6.3 Design Speed .............................................................................................................................................. 2-38
2.6.4 Design Traffic (Vehicles) ............................................................................................................................. 2-38
2.6.5 Highway Capacity ....................................................................................................................................... 2-38
2.6.6 Classification of Highway ............................................................................................................................ 2-39
2.6.7 Accident Information .................................................................................................................................. 2-39
2.7 REQUIREMENTS FOR SPEEDY PLAN PREPARATION......................................................................................................... 2-40
2.7.1 Plans ........................................................................................................................................................... 2-40
2.7.2 Profile.......................................................................................................................................................... 2-40
2.7.3 Detailed Cross Section ................................................................................................................................ 2-41
2.7.4 Detailed Drainage Cross Section ................................................................................................................. 2-41
2.7.5 Geotechnical Drawings ............................................................................................................................... 2-41
3 GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF ROAD LINKS .............................................................................................................. 3-1
3.1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................................................ 3-1
3.1.1 Departure from Standards ............................................................................................................................ 3-1
3.2 REQUIREMENTS FOR DESIGN ANALYSIS IN OPERATING ENVIRONMENT ............................................................................... 3-1
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Volumes
Volume 1 Introduction and Overview
Volume 2A GeoHazard Assessment
Volume 2B Engineering Surveys
Volume 2C Geological and Geotechnical Investigation
Volume 3 Water Engineering Projects
Volume 4 Highway Design
Volume 5 Bridge Design
Volume 6 Public Buildings and Other Related Structures
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Table 3-31 AASHTO Recommended Maximum Grades for Urban Arterials .......................................................... 3-41
Table 3-32 AASHTO Recommended Maximum Grades for Rural and Urban Expressways ................................. 3-41
Table 3-33 Critical Lengths of Grade ......................................................................................................................... 3-41
Table 3-34 Minimum K Value for Terrain Types ...................................................................................................... 3-42
Table 3-35 Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curves Based on Stopping Sight Distance .................................... 3-43
Table 3-36 Local Rural Road and Rural Collector Road Design Controls for Stopping Sight Distance and for
Crest and Sag Vertical Curves ................................................................................................................. 3-44
Table 3-37 Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curves Based on Passing Sight Distance ...................................... 3-44
Table 3-38 Design Controls for Sag Vertical Curves ................................................................................................ 3-45
Table 3-39 Optimal Passing Lane Lengths for Traffic Operational Efficiency ....................................................... 3-49
Table 3-40 Recommended Lengths of Turnouts Including Taper .......................................................................... 3-49
Table 3-41 Noise-Abatement Criteria for Various Land Uses ................................................................................. 3-56
Table 3-42 Stopping Sight Distance on Level Roadways ......................................................................................... 3-57
Table 3-43 Level of Service Definitions for Signalized Intersections ..................................................................... 3-60
Table 3-44 Rate of Cross Slope Range for Surface Types ........................................................................................ 3-62
Table 3-45 Road Safety Barrier System .................................................................................................................... 3-72
Table 3-46 Concrete Vs W-Beam Advantages/Disadvantages ................................................................................ 3-73
Table 3-47 Possible and Design Capacities of Highways Constructed to High Design Standard in Terms of
Passenger Cars per Hour......................................................................................................................... 3-93
Table 3-48 Deceleration Distances Required for Cars on a Level Grade ................................................................ 3-97
Table 3-49 Correction to Deceleration Distance as a Result of Grade .................................................................... 3-97
Table 3-50 Length of Acceleration Lanes for Cars on Level Grade ......................................................................... 3-98
Table 3-51 Correction of Acceleration Distances as a Result of Grade ................................................................... 3-98
Table 3-52 General Definitions of Levels of Service ................................................................................................ 3-99
Table 3-53 Guidelines for Selection of Design Levels of Service ............................................................................. 3-99
Table 3-54 Service Flow Rates Under Ideal Conditions of a Major Weaving Section (pc/h) .............................. 3-100
Table 4-1 Key Traffic Management Considerations in Selection of At-Grade Intersection Type ....................... 4-13
Table 4-2 Case A ‘No Traffic Control’ – Length of Sight Triangle Leg ................................................................... 4-16
Table 4-3 Adjustment Factors for Sight Distance Based on Approach Grade ...................................................... 4-17
Table 4-4 Case B1 ‘Left Turn from Stop’ – Design Intersection Sight Distance ................................................... 4-18
Table 4-5 Case B2 ‘Right Turn from Stop’ and Case B3 ‘Crossing Maneuver’ – Design Intersection Sight
Distance .................................................................................................................................................... 4-19
Table 4-6 Case C1 – Crossing Maneuvers from Yield-Controlled Approaches, Length of Minor Road Leg and
Travel Times ............................................................................................................................................ 4-20
Table 4-7 Case C1 ‘Crossing Maneuver at Yield-Controlled Intersections’ – Length of Sight Triangle Leg
along Major Road ..................................................................................................................................... 4-21
Table 4-8 Case C2 ‘Left or Right Turn at Yield-Controlled Intersections’ – Design Intersection Sight
Distance .................................................................................................................................................... 4-22
Table 4-9 Case F ‘Left Turn from the Major Road’ – Design Intersection Sight Distance ................................... 4-23
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Table 4-10 Edge of Traveled Way Designs for Turns at Intersection –Three Centered Curves ........................... 4-33
Table 4-11 Typical Designs for Turning Roadways ................................................................................................. 4-43
Table 4-12 Effective Maximum Relative Gradients (%) .......................................................................................... 4-45
Table 4-13 Stopping Sight Distance at Intersections for Turning Roadway .......................................................... 4-45
Table 4-14 Desirable Full Deceleration Lane Lengths ............................................................................................. 4-47
Table 4-15 Minimum Median Opening for P Design Vehicle ................................................................................... 4-49
Table 4-16 Minimum Median Opening for SU-9 Design Vehicle ............................................................................. 4-50
Table 4-17 Minimum Median Opening for SU-12, WB-12 and WB-19 Design Vehicles ........................................ 4-50
Table 4-18 Minimum Length of Median Opening for Left-Turn ............................................................................. 4-51
Table 4-19 Basic Geometric Elements of Roundabouts ........................................................................................... 4-56
Table 4-20 Design and Operational Elements for Basic Roundabout Categories .................................................. 4-56
Table 4-21 Basic Design Details for Non-Motorized Roundabout Users ................................................................ 4-60
Table 4-22 Appropriate Value for the Design Speed of the Road ........................................................................... 4-64
Table 4-23 Guide Values for Ramp Design Speed as Related to Highway Design Speed ...................................... 4-76
Table 4-24 Minimum Radius Using Limiting Values of e and f ............................................................................... 4-78
Table 4-25 Maximum Cross-Slope Difference at Crossover Crown ........................................................................ 4-79
Table 5-1 Key Components to Rainfall Analysis ...................................................................................................... 5-6
Table 5-2 Values of “C” for Use in Rational Formula ............................................................................................... 5-8
Table 5-3 Design Flood Frequency ........................................................................................................................... 5-8
Table 6-1 Recommended Thickness of Gravel Layers to be placed on the Subgrade of Gravel Road ................. 6-6
Table 6-2 Regional Factors ........................................................................................................................................ 6-9
Table 6-3 Structural Layer Coefficient .................................................................................................................... 6-10
Table 6-4 Effect of Untreated Subbase on K-values ............................................................................................... 6-21
Table 6-5 Design K-values for Cement-Treated Subbase ...................................................................................... 6-21
Table 6-6 Characteristics Pertinent to Road and Running Foundations .............................................................. 6-22
Table 6-7 Subgrade Soil Types and Range of Approximate k Values ................................................................... 6-25
Table 6-8 Loss of Subgrade Support ....................................................................................................................... 6-26
Table 6-9 Lane Distribution Factors ....................................................................................................................... 6-29
Table 6-10 An Example of Typical Reliability Levels ............................................................................................... 6-30
Table 6-11 Standard Normal Deviate (ZR) Values Corresponding to Selected Levels of Reliability................... 6-30
Table 6-12 Values of Overall Standard Deviation .................................................................................................... 6-30
Table 6-13 Recommended mi Values for Modifying Structural Layer Coefficients of Untreated Base and
Subbase Materials in Flexible Pavements .............................................................................................. 6-32
Table 6-14 Recommended Values of Drainage Coefficient, Cd, for Rigid Pavement Design .................................. 6-32
Table 6-15 Recommended Load Transfer Coefficient for Various Pavement Types and Design Conditions ...... 6-33
Table 6-16 Tie Bar Dimension and Spacings ............................................................................................................ 6-45
Table 6-17 Joint Sealant Materials ............................................................................................................................ 6-49
Table 6-18 Classification of Soil and Soil - Aggregate Mixtures (with Suggested Subgroups) ............................. 6-75
Table 6-19 Recommended Values for Subgrade and Sub-base Materials .............................................................. 6-78
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Table 6-20 Equivalency Factors for Overlay and Existing Pavement Types .......................................................... 6-83
Table 6-21 Summary of Visual (Cv) and Structural (Cx) Condition Values ............................................................. 6-91
Table 6-22 Values of C for Calculating Design CBR .................................................................................................. 6-96
Table 6-23 Types of Distress ................................................................................................................................... 6-104
Table 6-24 Load Transfer Co-efficient .................................................................................................................... 6-108
Table 6-25 Worksheet for Determination of Df for JPCP, JRCP and CRCP ............................................................ 6-115
Table 6-26 Calculation of Deff for Bonded PCC Overlay of JRCP, and CRCP ......................................................... 6-117
Table 6-27 Repair of Reflection Cracks ................................................................................................................... 6-122
Table 6-28 Worksheet for Determination of Df for Unbonded PCC Overlay ........................................................ 6-128
Table 6-29 Calculation of Deff for Unbonded FCC Overlay of JPCP, JRCP, CRCP, and AC/PCC ............................. 6-132
Table 6-30 Overlays and Repair Methods .............................................................................................................. 6-134
Table 6-31 Worksheet for Determination of Df for PCC Overlay of AC Pavement ............................................... 6-137
Table 7-1 Stability of Cut and Fill Slopes for Different Material Types .................................................................. 7-5
Table 7-2 Classification of Slope Failure Countermeasures .................................................................................. 7-24
Table 7-3 Typical Types of Slope Protection by Vegetation .................................................................................. 7-28
Table 7- 4 Types of Structural Protection ............................................................................................................... 7-28
Table 7-5 Height and Gradient Limits for Stone and Concrete Block Masonry Walls ......................................... 7-42
Table 8-1 AASHTO Suggested Clear Zone Distances in Meters from Edge of Through Travel Lane .................... 8-2
Table 8-2 Barrier Guidelines Recommended by AASHTO for Roadside Obstacles ............................................... 8-4
Table 8-3 Factors to be Considered in the Selection of Specific Types of Safety Barriers .................................... 8-5
Table 8-4 US Safety Barriers Test Levels .................................................................................................................. 8-5
Table 8-5 Design Safety Strategies for Channelized Islands and Medians in Urban Areas ................................... 8-6
Table 8-6 Design Safety Strategies for Curbs in Urban Areas ................................................................................. 8-7
Table 8-7 Design Safety Strategies for Gateways/Traffic Calming in Urban Areas ............................................... 8-7
Table 8-8 Design Safety Strategies for Bicycles ....................................................................................................... 8-9
Table 8-9 Design Safety Strategies for Pedestrians ................................................................................................. 8-9
Table 8-10 Design Safety Strategies for On-Street Parking ..................................................................................... 8-10
Table 8-11 Design Safety Strategies for Roadside Utility Poles, Light Poles and Street signs in Urban Areas .... 8-10
Table 9-1 Warranting Conditions for Continuous Expressway Lighting (CEL) ..................................................... 9-4
Table 9-2 Warranting Conditions for Complete Interchange Lighting (CIL) ......................................................... 9-4
Table 9-3 Warranting Conditions for Partial Interchange Lighting (PIL) .............................................................. 9-5
Table 9-4 Recommended Illuminous and Luminous Lighting Levels for Illuminated Signs .............................. 9-10
Figure 2-1 Typical Roadway Section for the 20.0 m RROW in Urbanized Areas Showing the Underground
Service Utilities .......................................................................................................................................... 2-3
Figure 2-2 Typical Roadway Section for the 20.0m RROW in Rural Areas Showing the Underground Service
Utilities ....................................................................................................................................................... 2-4
Figure 2-3 Typical Roadway Section for the 30.0m RROW in Urbanized and Rural Areas Showing the
Underground Service Utilities .................................................................................................................. 2-5
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Figure 2-4 Typical Roadway Section for the 30.0m RROW (Cut & Fill) for Rural Areas Showing the
Underground Service Utilities .................................................................................................................. 2-6
Figure 2-5 Typical Roadway Section for 40.0m RROW for Urbanized and Rural Areas Showing the
Underground Service Utilities .................................................................................................................. 2-7
Figure 2-6 Typical Roadway Section for 40.0m RROW (Cut and Fill) for Rural Areas Showing the
Underground Service Utilities .................................................................................................................. 2-8
Figure 2-7 Typical Roadway Section for 60.0m RROW for Urbanized and Rural Areas Showing the
Underground Service Utilities .................................................................................................................. 2-9
Figure 2-8 Typical Roadway Section for 40.0m RROW (Cut & Fill) for Rural Areas Showing the Underground
Service Utilities ........................................................................................................................................ 2-10
Figure 2-9 Example of Worn or Polished Surface ................................................................................................... 2-15
Figure 2-10 Example of Map Cracking ....................................................................................................................... 2-15
Figure 2-11 Example of Pop-outs Surface .................................................................................................................. 2-16
Figure 2-12 Example of Scaling ................................................................................................................................... 2-17
Figure 2-13 Example of Shallow Reinforcing ............................................................................................................. 2-18
Figure 2-14 Example of Spalling ................................................................................................................................. 2-19
Figure 2-15 Example of Longitudinal Joints .............................................................................................................. 2-20
Figure 2-16 Example of Transverse Joints ................................................................................................................. 2-21
Figure 2-17 Example of Transverse Slab Cracks ....................................................................................................... 2-23
Figure 2-18 Example of D-Cracks ............................................................................................................................... 2-24
Figure 2-19 Example of Corner Cracks ....................................................................................................................... 2-25
Figure 2-20 Example of Meander Cracks ................................................................................................................... 2-26
Figure 2-21 Example of Blowups ................................................................................................................................ 2-27
Figure 2-22 Example of Faulting ................................................................................................................................. 2-28
Figure 2-23 Example of Pavement Settling or Heave ................................................................................................ 2-29
Figure 2-24 Example of Utility Repairs, Patches and Potholes ................................................................................. 2-30
Figure 2-25 Example of Manhole and Inlet Cracks .................................................................................................... 2-31
Figure 2-26 Example of Curb or Shoulder Deformation ........................................................................................... 2-32
Figure 3-1 Superelevated Sections ............................................................................................................................. 3-4
Figure 3-2 Low Type Surfacing on Gravel Road ........................................................................................................ 3-5
Figure 3-3 Farm to Market Road ................................................................................................................................ 3-6
Figure 3-4 Intermediate Type Surfacing for Plant Mix Surface Course ................................................................... 3-7
Figure 3-5 High Type Surfacing Asphalt Pavement ................................................................................................... 3-8
Figure 3-6 High Type Surfacing Concrete Pavement ................................................................................................ 3-9
Figure 3-7 Example of the ‘Clear Zone’ concept for a 100 kph operating speed ................................................... 3-14
Figure 3-8 Example of Small Radius Curves in Mountainous Topography ........................................................... 3-19
Figure 3-9 Method of Attaining Superelevation for Travelled Way Revolved about Centerline ......................... 3-23
Figure 3-10 Methods of Attaining Superelvation for a Travelled Way Revolved about Outside or Inside Edge .. 3-24
Figure 3-11 Method of Attaining Superelevation for Straight Cross Slope .............................................................. 3-25
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Figure 3-12 Elements of Passing Sight distance for Two-Lane Highways ............................................................... 3-48
Figure 3-13 Effects of Depressing the Highway ......................................................................................................... 3-58
Figure 3-14 Effects of Elevating the Highway ............................................................................................................ 3-59
Figure 3-15 Example of Road with a Good Clear Zone .............................................................................................. 3-67
Figure 3-16 Drivable Culvert End ............................................................................................................................... 3-69
Figure 3-17 Example of a High Speed Road with Wide Median but Hazardous Planters within the Clear Zone . 3-77
Figure 3-18 Typical Two Lane Tunnel Cross Section ................................................................................................ 3-80
Figure 3-19 Bike Path - Class I & II ............................................................................................................................. 3-88
Figure 3-20 Bike Route Class I & II ............................................................................................................................. 3-89
Figure 4-1 General Types of At-Grade Intersections ................................................................................................. 4-3
Figure 4-2 Three-Leg Intersections ............................................................................................................................ 4-5
Figure 4-3 Four-Leg Intersections .............................................................................................................................. 4-6
Figure 4-4 Urban Splitter Island Details: Low Speed Approach ............................................................................... 4-8
Figure 4-5 Urban Splitter Island ................................................................................................................................. 4-9
Figure 4-6 Splitter Island for High Speed Approach ................................................................................................. 4-9
Figure 4-7 Roundabouts ........................................................................................................................................... 4-10
Figure 4-8 Typical Highway Curbs ........................................................................................................................... 4-26
Figure 4-9 Minimum Turning Path for Single-Unit (SU) Truck Design Vehicle .................................................... 4-29
Figure 4-10 Minimum Turning Path for Intermediate Semitrailer (WB-12 [WB-40]) Design Vehicle ................. 4-30
Figure 4-11 Minimum Turning Path for Interstate Semitrailer (WB-20, WB-65 and WB-67) Design Vehicle ..... 4-31
Figure 4-12 Symmetrical Three-Centered Compound Curve ................................................................................... 4-36
Figure 4-13 Geometric Elements of Roundabout ...................................................................................................... 4-55
Figure 4-14 Example of an Urban Roundabout ......................................................................................................... 4-58
Figure 4-15 A Rural Roundabout ................................................................................................................................ 4-59
Figure 4-16 Railroad-Highway Grade Crossings ....................................................................................................... 4-63
Figure 5-1 Culvert Location in Natural Channel ...................................................................................................... 5-12
Figure 5-2 Methods of Culvert Location in Natural Channel .................................................................................. 5-12
Figure 5-3 Possible Culvert Profiles ......................................................................................................................... 5-14
Figure 5-4 Dry Boulder (Riprap) Outlet ................................................................................................................... 5-18
Figure 5-5 Sizing of Dry Boulder Outlet Structures for Single Pipe or Box Culverts ............................................ 5-19
Figure 5-6 Sizing of Dry Boulder Outlet Structures for Multiple Pipe or Box Culverts ........................................ 5-19
Figure 5-7 Typical Rock Pad Outlet Configuration .................................................................................................. 5-20
Figure 5-8 Headwater Depth for Concrete Pipe Culverts with Entrance Control ................................................. 5-24
Figure 5-9 Headwater Depth for Concrete Box Culverts with Entrance Control .................................................. 5-25
Figure 5-10 Head for Concrete Pipe Culverts Flowing Full, n=0.012 ....................................................................... 5-26
Figure 5-11 Head for Concrete Box Culverts Flowing Full, n=0.012 ........................................................................ 5-27
Figure 5-12 Inlet Control ............................................................................................................................................. 5-29
Figure 5-13 Outlet Control .......................................................................................................................................... 5-29
Figure 5-14 Sample Summary Worksheet for Culvert Design .................................................................................. 5-32
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Figure 6-27 Effective Dynamic k-Value Determination from d0 and Area ............................................................. 6-109
Figure 6-28 PCC Elastic Modulus Determination from k-Value, Area and Slab Thickness................................... 6-110
Figure 6-29 Chart for Estimating Composite Modulus of Subgrade Reaction, k, Assuming a Semi-Infinite
Subgrade Depth. (for Practical Purposes, a Semi-Infinite Depth is Considered to be Greater than
10 Feet Below the Surface of the Subgrade) ....................................................................................... 6-113
Figure 6-30 Relationship Between Condition Factor and Remaining Life ............................................................ 6-118
Figure 6-31 Fjc Adjustment Factor ............................................................................................................................ 6-119
Figure 6-32 Effective Dynamic K-value Determination from d0 and Area............................................................. 6-125
Figure 6-33 Fjcu Factor for Unbonded JPCP, JRCP, and CRCP Overlays .................................................................. 6-129
Figure 6-34 Fjcu Adjustment Factor for Unbonded JRCP and CRCP Overlays ........................................................ 6-131
Figure 7-1 Covering for Fill Slopes ............................................................................................................................. 7-9
Figure 7-2 Example of Fill Using Sand with Poor Grading ...................................................................................... 7-10
Figure 7-3 Calculation for the Stability of Circular Sliding Surface ........................................................................ 7-12
Figure 7-4 Example of Results of Triaxial Un-drained Shear Test of Unsaturated Fine-Grained Soil and
Design Shear Strength Parameters, Cu and Φu ...................................................................................... 7-14
Figure 7-5 Assumption of Pore Water Pressure Due to Load of Fill ...................................................................... 7-15
Figure 7-6 Simplification of Fill Slope for Stability Calculations ............................................................................ 7-16
Figure 7-7 Example of Stability Calculations ........................................................................................................... 7-16
Figure 7-8 Example Slope Stability Sample Calculation ......................................................................................... 7-17
Figure 7-9 Groundwater Drainage Facilities and Drainage Layer for Fill on Inclined Ground ............................ 7-19
Figure 7-10 Schematic Diagram of Fill on Soft Ground ............................................................................................. 7-19
Figure 7-11 Compaction by Vibrating Roller and Bulldozer..................................................................................... 7-21
Figure 7-12 Compaction of Slope Made of Coarse-Grained Soils ............................................................................. 7-22
Figure 7-13 Disposal of Surface Water During Work ................................................................................................ 7-22
Figure 7-14 Example of Temporary Drainage in a Fill Made of Decomposed Granite ........................................... 7-23
Figure 7-15 Example of Central Drain Pipe System in a Fill Slope Made of Volcanic Ash Under Construction .... 7-23
Figure 7-16 Selection of Natural Slope Failure Countermeasures ........................................................................... 7-27
Figure 7-17 Gravity Walls of Brick, Stone Masonry or Plain Concrete .................................................................... 7-38
Figure 7-18 Semi-Gravity Retaining Wall................................................................................................................... 7-38
Figure 7-19 Crib Type Retaining Wall ........................................................................................................................ 7-39
Figure 7-20 Cantilevered Retaining Wall ................................................................................................................... 7-39
Figure 7-21 Counterfort Retaining Wall ..................................................................................................................... 7-40
Figure 7-22 Mechanically Stabilized Earth Retaining Wall ....................................................................................... 7-41
Figure 7-23 Retaining Wall on Bedrock ..................................................................................................................... 7-44
Figure 7-24 Retaining Wall on Earth Stratum ........................................................................................................... 7-44
Figure 7-25 Partially Replaced Stratum ..................................................................................................................... 7-45
Figure 7-26 Replaced Foundation in Poor Ground .................................................................................................... 7-45
Figure 7-27 Erosion Control: (left) the problem; and (right) the solution .............................................................. 7-46
Figure 8-1 Clear Zone Distance ................................................................................................................................... 8-1
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Abbreviations
Acronym Definition
AADT Annual Average Daily Traffic
AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
AC Asphalt Concrete
ACI American Concrete Institute
ASTM American Society for Testing & Materials
BOD Bureau of Design
CBR California Bearing Ratio
cm Centimeter
dBA Decibels
DDHV Directional Design Hourly Volume
DGCS Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards
DHV Design Hourly Volume
DID Department of Irrigation and Drainage, Malaysia
DPWH Department of Public Works and Highways
ESAL Equivalent Standard Axle Load
FHA / FHWA Federal Highway Administration, US Department of Transport
JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency
kph Kilometers per hour
kN Kilonewton
m Meter
2
m Square meter
mm Millimeter
MPa Mega Pascal
MUTCD Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices
PCA Portland Cement Association
PCC Portland Cement Concrete
SN Structural Number
TAMS Territory and Municipal Services, Australian Capitol Territory, Australia
USA United States of America
30 HV 30th Highest Hourly Volume
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Glossary
Acronym Definition
American Association of A system of soil classification based on grain size, liquid limit and plasticity of soils and is usually used for
State Highway and highway design and construction.
Transportation Officials
(AASHTO) Soil
Classification
Apron A floor or lining of concrete, timber, or other resistant material at the toe of a dam, bottom of a spillway,
chute, etc. to protect the foundation from erosion and falling water or turbulent flow.
Arterial Highway A general term denoting a highway primarily for thorough traffic, usually on continuous route.
As-Built Plan A scaled drawing that shows a project and infrastructure components after completion of construction
At-Grade Intersection The crossing or junction of two or more highways at a common level; includes the whole of the pavements
provided for the accommodation of through cross and turning movements.
Backwater The rise of water level that occurs immediately upstream from a structure (eg.dam) or obstructions in a
river to a considerable distance brought about by the presence of structure.
Berm A horizontal strip or shelf built into an embankment or cut, to break the continuity of an otherwise long
slope.
Bioengineering The use of mechanical elements in combination with biological elements (e.g.plants) particularly for
control of erosion and prevention of slope failures.
Borrow Materials Filling materials acquired from a Borrow Site.
Borrow Site An excavation source ouside the project area that is used to supply soils for earthwork construction (i.e.
gravel pit).
Bridge A structure carrying a road over a road, waterway or other feature, with a clear span over 3.0 meters along
the centreline between the inside faces of supports. A bridge may have an independent deck supported
on separate piers and abutments, or may have a deck constructed integral with supports.
California Bearing Ratio A laboratory test that is used to determine the suitability of a soil for use as a subbase in a pavement
section.
Catchment Area The area from which a lake, stream or waterway receives surface water which originates as precipitation.
(alias Catchment Basin,
Watershed, Drainage
Area, Drainage Basin,
River Basin)
Channelized Intersection An at-grade Intersection in which there is division or regulation of conflicting traffic movements into definite
paths of travel by the use of pavement markings, raised Islands or other suitable means to facilitate the
safe and orderly movement of vehicles and pedestrians.
Coarse-grained Soils Soils with more than 50% by weight of grains retained on the number 200 sieve (0.075 mm).
Cohesionless Soils Granular soils (sand and gravel type) with values of cohesion close to zero.
Cohesive Soils Clay type soils with angles of internal friction close to zero.
Cone Penetration Test A penetration test in which a cone that has a 60º point is pushed into the ground at a continuous rate.
(CPT) Resistance is measured by correlating the depth penetrated with the force applied.
Cross Section View generated by slicing an object at an angle perpendicular to its longer axis.
(alias Cross Section Plan)
Culvert A structure in the form of a pipe or box, below road level, for conveying storm water runoff .
Design Life Period assumed in the design for which the infrastructure is required to perform its function without
replacement or major structural repair.
Digital Terrain Model A topographic model of the bare earth –terrain relief - that can be manipulated by computer programs. The
data files contain the spatial elevation data of the terrain in a digital format which usually presented as a
rectangular grid.
Ditch An artificial open channel or waterway constructed through earth or rock, for the purpose of carrying
water.
Divided Highway A highway with separated roadways for traffic in opposite directions.
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Expressway A divided highway for through traffic with full or partial control of access and generally with grade
separations at intersections.
Factor of Safety The ratio of a limiting value of a quantity or quality to the design value of that quantity or quality.
Geohazard Geologic and natural hazards, particularly those that put infrastructure at risk.
Grade Separation A crossing of two roads at different levels, one carried over the other on a structure.
Gravity Walls Retaining walls which depend upon their selfweight to provide stability against overturning and sliding;
usually made of a high bulk structure
Grouted Riprap When the stones in the rip-rap are fastened together by grout of mortar.
Horizontal Alignment The position or the layout of the highway on the ground which includes straight and curved paths.
Interchange A system of interconnecting roadways in conjunction with one or more highway separations providing for
the movement of traffic between two or more intersecting highways.
Intersection A general term denoting the area where two or more roads join or cross.
Longitudinal Section View generated by slicing an object at an angle parallel to its longer axis
Manhole An opening through which a person may enter or leave a sewer, conduit, or other closed structure for
inspection cleaning, and other maintenance operations, closed by a removable cover.
Matchline A line on a design drawing that projects a location or distance from one portion of the drawing to another
portion of the drawing.
Median The portion of a divided highway separating travelled ways for traffic in opposite directions.
Median Lane A speed-change lane within the median to accommodate left-turning vehicles.
Median Opening The area between median ends, provided for use by crossing and turning traffic.
Minimum Turning Radius The radius of the path of the outer front wheel of a vehicle making its sharpest turn with ease and comfort.
Modulus of Subgrade The ratio between the bearing pressure of a foundation and the corresponding settlement at a given point.
Reaction The slope of the line in the loading range encountered by the soil in a plate bearing value test.
(alias Subgrade Modulus)
Open Channel Any conduit in which water flows with a free surface. Channel in which the stream is not completely
enclosed by solid boundaries and therefore has a free surface subjected only to atmospheric pressure.
Parkway An arterial highway for non-commercial traffic, with full or partial control of access, and usually located
within a park or a ribbon of park-line development.
Pavement or Surfacing The constructed all-weather surface of a highway, including parking and auxiliary lanes but excluding
shoulders. That part of roadway having a constructed surface for the facilitation of vehicular traffic.
Prime Coat A thin layer of light, penetrating bitumen, applied by a distributor on a base to be resurfaced with
bituminous pavement, to stop the water from rising by capillarity and to coat and bind particles, thus
promoting adhesion between the base and ne pavement.
Profile Series of elevation along a line.
Raveling Process by which water transports soil particles downward into cavities in the underlying strata.
Reinforced Concrete A composite material which utilizes the concrete in resisting compression forces and some other
materials, usually steel bars or wires, to resist the tension forces.
Reinforced-soil Soil constructed with artificial reinforcing, also known as mechanically stabilized earth or MSE
Retaining Wall A structure usually made of stone masonry, concrete or reinforced concrete that provides lateral support
for a mass of soil.
Roadbed The grades portion of a highway, usually considered as the area between the intersection of top and side
slopes, upon which the base course, surface course, shoulders and median are constructed.
Roadway–(General) The portion of a highway, including shoulders, for vehicular use.
Rotary Interchange A multi-leg interchange where the major highway is grade separated from a rotary on which all turning
movements and through movements of all other highways accommodated.
Rubble Concrete Concrete in which large stones are added to the freshly placed concrete while it is still soft and plastic.
Seal Coat A thin bituminous treatment of the blotter type to water-proof bituminous surfaces and for non-skid
surface.
Shoulder The portion of the roadway contiguous with the travelled way for accommodation of stopped vehicles, for
emergency use, and for lateral support of base and surface course.
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Subgrade The portion of the roadbed prepared as a foundation for the sub-base or surface course.
Superelevation The amount by which the outer edge of a curve or railroad is banked above the inner edge to help offset
the centripetal force developed as the vehicle goes around a curve.
Tack Coat A very thin layer of bitumen to insure a thorough bond between the new pavement and the old asphalt
surface.
Time of Concentration The period of time for the stormwater or rainwater to flow from the most distant point to the point under
consideration.
Topographic Plan A graphic representation of horizontal and vertical positions of an area which uses contour lines to show
mountains, valleys, and plains.
Topographic Survey Collection of data to represent horizontal and vertical positions of an area, including features such as
(alias Ground Survey) roads, bridges and bodies of water with contours, elevations and coordinates.
Traffic Island An area with a roadway or between roadways from which vehicular traffic is intended to be excluded.
Travelled Way The portion of the roadway for the movement of vehicle, exclusive of auxiliary lanes, shoulders, bicycle
lanes, parking lanes, and gutters.
Triangular Irregular A representation of a surface as a set of contiguous, non-overlapping triangles. Within each triangle the
Network surface is represented by a plane, where the triangles are made from a set of points called mass points.
Tributary A stream or other body of water, surface or underground, which contributes its water, either continuously
or intermittently, to another and larger stream or body of water.
Underpass A passage underneath something, specially a section of road that passes under another road or railroad.
Vertical Alignment The position or the layout of the highway on the ground which includes level and gradients.
Wearing Course The uppermost layer of asphalt placed on a finished concrete to protect the concrete and provide a
smooth riding surface.
Weep Hole An opening provided during construction in retaining walls, aprons, canal linings, foundation, etc., to
permit drainage of water collecting behind and beneath such structures to reduce hydrostatic head.
Wingwall A vertical wall located at both ends of the coping of the abutment or at both extreme wall of a reinforced
concrete box culvert.
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 – Highway Design
1 General Provisions
1.1 Scope and Application
These guidelines shall apply to the design of all types of highways in the
Philippines.
They have been compiled using the previous DPWH Design Guidelines and
DPWH Department Orders, with reference to current AASHTO design
publications.
1.2 Governing Laws, Local Ordinances, Rules & Regulations, Codes and Department
Orders
General Specifications for Roads and Bridges, 2013 / Latest DPWH
Manuals/Specifications 2013.
AASHTO, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 6th Edition
2011.
AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures, 4th Edition, 1993.
Road Note 29, Third Edition – A Guide to the Structural Design of Pavements
for New Roads.
Road Note 31 – A Guide to the Structural Design of Bitumen Surfaced Roads in
Tropical and Sub-Tropical Countries.
Executive Order No. 113, Establishing the Classification of Roads.
Hydraulic Charts for the Selection of Highway Culverts, Circular No. 5, U.S.
Bureau of Public Roads.
Design Charts for Open-Channel Flow, U.S. Bureau of Public Roads.
P.D. 187 as amended by P.D. 748 and Batas Pambansa Blg. 8, An act defining
the Metric System and its Units, providing for its implementation and for other
purposes; and MPWH Memorandum Circular No. 6, dated January 6, 1983, re
Metric System (SI) Tables.
DPWH Road Sign and Pavement Markings Manual 2012.
DPWH Road Safety Manual 2012.
Standing/Existing DPWH Department Orders.
DPWH, Standard Specifications for Highways Bridges and Airports Revised
2012 Edition.
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Vehicles
Four general classes of design vehicles are (1) passenger cars, (2) buses, (3)
trucks, and (4) recreational vehicles. In the design of any highway facility, the
designer should consider the largest design vehicle that is likely to use that
facility with considerable frequency or a design vehicle with special
characteristics appropriate to a particular location in determining the design of
such critical features as radii at intersections and radii of turning roadways (refer
to Table 1-1 and Table 1-2). As a general rule;
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A passenger car may be selected when the main traffic generator is a parking
lot.
A two-axle single unit truck may be used for intersection design of residential
streets and park roads.
A three-axle single-unit truck may be used for the design of collector streets
and other facilities where larger single-unit trucks are likely.
A bus may be used in the design of highway intersections that are designated
bus routes and that have relatively few large trucks using them.
Traffic Characteristics
The design of a highway and its features should explicitly cover traffic volumes
and traffic characteristics. Traffic volumes obtained from field studies (such as
hourly and daily traffic volumes, type and weight of vehicles and traffic trends)
can indicate the need for improvement and directly influence the selection of
geometric design features, such as number of lanes, widths, alignments and
grades. Relevant studies include average daily traffic (ADT), peak hour traffic,
directional distribution, composition of traffic, projection of future traffic
demands, speed and traffic flow relationships characterized by the volume flow
rate in vehicles per hour, the average speed in kilometers per hour, and the traffic
density in vehicles per kilometer.
Physical Elements
These elements include highway capacity, access control and management,
pedestrians, bicycle facilities, safety and environment.
Knowledge of highway capacity is essential to properly fit a planned highway to
traffic demands.
Access control to manage interference with through traffic is achieved through
the regulation of public access rights to and from properties abutting the
highway facilities, and can comprise full control, partial control, access
management or driveway/entrance regulations.
Pedestrian facilities including sidewalks, crosswalks, traffic control features, curb
cuts, ramps, bus stops, loading areas, stairs, escalators and elevators warrant due
attention in both rural and urban areas.
Existing streets and highways provide most of the network used by bicycle travel,
making bicycle traffic an important element for consideration in highway design.
Because the number of crashes increases with the number of decisions that need
to be made by the driver, it is in the interest of safety that roadways should be
designed to reduce the need for driver decisions and to reduce unexpected
situations.
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Economic Factors
Highway economics is concerned with the cost of a proposed improvement and
the benefits resulting from it.
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Dimensions (m)
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Design Vehicle Type Symbol Minimum Design Turning Radius (m) Centerlineb Turning Radius [CTR] (m) Minimum Inside Radius (m)
Passenger Car P 7.26 6.40 4.39
Single-Unit Truck SU-9 12.73 11.58 8.64
Single-Unit Truck (three-axle) SU-12 15.60 14.46 11.09
Intercity Bus (Motor Coaches) BUS-12 12.70 11.53 7.41
BUS-14 13.40 12.25 7.54
City Transit Bus CITY-BUS 12.80 11.52 7.45
Conventional School Bus (65 pass.) S-BUS 11 11.75 10.64 7.25
Large School Bus (84 pass.) S-BUS 12 11.92 10.79 7.71
Articulated Bus A-BUS 12.00 10.82 6.49
Intermediate Semitrailer WB-12 12.16 10.97 5.88
Interstate Semitrailer WB-19 * 13.66 12.50 2.25
Interstate Semitrailer WB-20 ** 13.66 12.50 0.59
‘Double-Bottom’ Semitrailer/Trailer WB-20D 13.67 12.47 5.83
Double-Semitrailer/Trailer WB-28D 24.98 23.77 16.94
Triple-Semitrailer/Trailer WB-30T 13.67 12.47 2.96
Turnpike Double-Semitrailer/Trailer WB-33D * 18.25 17.04 4.19
Motor Home MH 12.11 10.97 7.92
Car and Camper Trailer P/T 10.03 9.14 5.58
Car and Boat Trailer P/B 7.26 6.40 2.44
Motor Home and Boat Trailer MH/B 15.19 14.02 10.67
*Design vehicle with 14.63 m trailer **Design vehicle with 16.15 m trailer
a
School buses are manufactured from 42-passenger to 84-passenger sizes. This corresponds to wheelbase lengths of 3.35 to 6.10 m respectively. For these different sizes, the minimum design
turning radii vary from 8.58 to 11.92 m and the minimum inside radii vary from 5.38 to 7.1 m.
b
The turning radius assumed by a designer when investigating possible turning paths is set at the centerline of the front axle of a vehicle. If the minimum turning path is assumed, the CTR
approximately equals the minimum design turning radius minus one-half the front width of the vehicle.
Source: Table 2-2a in AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6th Edition. Used by Permission.
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The climbing lane should begin near the foot of the grade at a point determined
by the speed of the trucks at the approach to the grade. Where practicable, the
climbing lane should end at a point beyond the crest where the truck can attain a
speed of 50 kph.
Where it is anticipated that the Design Hourly Volume (DHV) within a period of
about 10 to 20 years will exceed the design capacity of a 2-lane highway, the
initial improvement should be patterned for ultimate development of a 4-lane
divided highway. The initial 2-lane width should form one of the ultimate one-
way traffic lanes.
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National Roads
Public roads, declared as national roads by the President of the Philippines upon
recommendation of the Secretary of Public Works and Highways satisfying the
conditions set forth under Executive Order No.113, Establishing the Classification
of Roads. National roads are classified as primary and secondary roads. The
former forms the part of the main highway trunk-line system which is continuous
in extent; the latter includes all access roads forming a secondary trunk-line
system.
Road Right of way……………………………………………….20.00 m minimum
Width of travelled way 2 lane ……………………...………..6.70 m minimum
Allowable grade …………………………………………………..…6.0% maximum
Provincial Roads
These are roads connecting one municipality to another, with the terminal to be
the public plaza; plus roads extending from one municipality or from a provincial
or national road to a public wharf or railway station. For purposes of allocating
national aid maintenance, a provincial road is designated and accepted as such by
the Secretary of the Department of Public Works and Highways, upon
recommendation of the Provincial Board (Sangguniang Panlalawigan).
Road Right of way 15.00 m minimum
Width of travelled way 6.10 m minimum
Allowable grade 6.0% maximum
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 – Highway Design
City Roads
Roads / streets within the urban area of a city not classified as provincial or
national roads.
Road Right of way 15.00 m minimum
Width of travelled way 6.10 m minimum
Allowable grade 6.0% maximum
Municipal Roads
Roads / streets within the poblacion area of a municipality not classified as
provincial or national roads.
Road Right of way 15.00 m minimum
Width of travelled way 6.10 m minimum
Allowable grade 6.0% maximum
Barangay Roads
Roads located outside the poblacion area of a municipality or urban area of a city
and those outside industrial, commercial or residential subdivision (access roads
to subdivisions are not barangay roads), and which act as a feeder from Farm-to-
market road, and are not otherwise classified as national, provincial, city or
municipal roads. Barangay roads must meet the following criteria:
Road Right of way 10.00 m minimum
Width of travelled way 4.00 m minimum
Allowable grade 10.0% maximum
Tourism Road
Tourism road is a road which marketed as particularly suited for tourist. Tourist
road may be formed when existing road are promoted with traffic sign and
advertising material. Some tourist road such as Ternate-Nasugbu road are built
for tourism purposes. Others maybe roadways enjoyed by local citizen in areas of
unique or exceptional natural beauty. It is often developed because it promises to
generate employment, enhance community infrastructure and assist in
revitalizing the flagging economies in rural areas.
Road Right of way 2.10 m minimum
Width of travelled way 6.10 m minimum
Allowable grade 6.0 % maximum
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Expressways
These are divided arterial highways for through traffic, with full or partial control
of access and generally with grade separations at major intersections.
Parkways
Parkways are arterial highways for non-commercial traffic with full or partial
control of access, usually located within a park or a ribbon of park-like
development.
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2 Design Data
2.1 Field Survey Information
Topography is a major factor in determining the physical location, alignment,
gradients, sight distance, cross sections and other design elements of a highway.
Hills, valleys, steep slopes, rivers and lakes often impose limitations upon
location and design. In the case of flat-land areas, topography in itself may
exercise little if at all control on location but it may cause difficulties in some
design elements such as drainage or grade separation.
Reconnaissance
Reconnaissance is carried out in order to plan the best possible horizontal and
vertical alignments. Rock cuts, agricultural farms, steep side slopes, slides and
other controls are identified. Bridge crossings, expensive buildings and
structures are also noted. Reconnaissance is substantiated by the study of
available maps, and stereoscopic examination of the site on foot, all of which aid
in the elimination of costly locations to limit the choice to one or two possible
routes.
Preliminary Survey
In the preliminary survey the topography of the strip or strips flagged is obtained
and from which a topographic map will be prepared to be utilized as the basic
framework for projection of the line in the office.
The required preliminary borings shall include review of available topographic
and geologic information, plus aerial photographs, in addition to site
examination.
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Utility service providers should be consulted and records obtained for all
services in a project area, including exact locations and depths. Obtaining Utility
service records benefits both highway agencies and the impacted utilities in the
following ways;
Unnecessary utility relocations are avoided
Unexpected conflicts with utilities are reduced
Safety is enhanced
For typical Roadway Section showing the location of service utilities, refer Figure
2-1 to Figure 2-8.
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 – Highway Design
Figure 2-1 Typical Roadway Section for the 20.0 m RROW in Urbanized Areas Showing the Underground Service Utilities
Source: DPWH Department Order No. 26 Series of 2011 Policy on Digging/Excavation by Private and Public Utilities on National Road.
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Figure 2-2 Typical Roadway Section for the 20.0m RROW in Rural Areas Showing the Underground Service Utilities
Source: DPWH Department Order No. 26 Series of 2011 Policy on Digging/Excavation by Private and Public Utilities on National Road.
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Figure 2-3 Typical Roadway Section for the 30.0m RROW in Urbanized and Rural Areas Showing the Underground Service Utilities
Source: DPWH Department Order No. 26 Series of 2011 Policy on Digging/Excavation by Private and Public Utilities on National Road.
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Figure 2-4 Typical Roadway Section for the 30.0m RROW (Cut & Fill) for Rural Areas Showing the Underground Service Utilities
Source: DPWH Department Order No. 26 Series of 2011 Policy on Digging/Excavation by Private and Public Utilities on National Road.
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Figure 2-5 Typical Roadway Section for 40.0m RROW for Urbanized and Rural Areas Showing the Underground Service Utilities
Source: DPWH Department Order No. 26 Series of 2011 Policy on Digging/Excavation by Private and Public Utilities on National Road.
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Figure 2-6 Typical Roadway Section for 40.0m RROW (Cut and Fill) for Rural Areas Showing the Underground Service Utilities
Source: DPWH Department Order No. 26 Series of 2011 Policy on Digging/Excavation by Private and Public Utilities on National Road.
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Figure 2-7 Typical Roadway Section for 60.0m RROW for Urbanized and Rural Areas Showing the Underground Service Utilities
Source: DPWH Department Order No. 26 Series of 2011 Policy on Digging/Excavation by Private and Public Utilities on National Road.
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Figure 2-8 Typical Roadway Section for 40.0m RROW (Cut & Fill) for Rural Areas Showing the Underground Service Utilities
Source: DPWH Department Order No. 26 Series of 2011 Policy on Digging/Excavation by Private and Public Utilities on National Road.
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Office Projection
In the office the proposed highway line is projected on the topographic map
which is fitted as close as possible into the terrain within the desired standards.
Many lines should be tried so as to obtain the most economical line without
increasing the cost of surveys. This is a trial and error process to obtaining the
best line, in consideration of constraints such as alignment, grades, sight
distances and compensation.
Horizontal Alignment
Horizontal alignment is a combination of circular curves, transition curves, and
tangents. Horizontal alignment must provide safe and continuous operation at a
uniform design speed for substantial lengths of highway. The major design
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Vertical Alignment
Vertical alignment consists of a series of gradients connected by vertical curves.
Applicable design controls include safety, topography, functional classification,
design speed, horizontal alignment, construction cost, cultural development,
drainage, vehicular characteristics, and aesthetics. The terms vertical alignment,
profile grade and grade line are interchangeable.
The topography of the land has an influence on alignment, with the three terrain
classifications commonly used internationally being:
Level or flat
Rolling
Mountainous
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In-Situ
All pits and boreholes should be properly logged in the form shown in the
standard sheet provided in Volume 2C. Details to be shown include the thickness
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of each layer, the color, the type and visual description of each layer (such as
asphalt, gravel, clay-loam, brown, yellow), depth below the surface, water levels
(if any).
Small samples should be taken at each auger hole of the subgrade for ‘in the field’
soils classification as per AASHTO T 88 or T 27. Small and large samples should
be taken in the test pit, plus an in-situ density test made as per AASHTO T 191.
Laboratory Tests
The following tests should be made on the subgrade samples obtained from test
pits and boreholes:
Mechanical Analysis – AASHTO T 88 or 27
Specific Gravity – AASHTO T 100 or 84 or 85
Atterberg Limits – AASHTO T 89 or 90
Moisture-Density Relationship – AASHTO T 180 or 99
CBR% – AASHTO T 193
Natural Moisture Content
Classification of soils would be made in accordance with AASHTO M 145, and all
dry samples should be prepared in accordance with AASHTO T 87.
Map Cracking
A pattern of fine cracks usually spaced within several inches is called map
cracking. It usually develops into square or other geometrical patterns. The
cracking can be caused by improper cure or overworking the surface during
finishing. If severe, cracks may spall or surface may scale. Repair is usually
limited to very severe conditions. An asphalt overlay or partial depth patching
may then be necessary. Refer Figure 2-10.
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Surface mortar worn away exposing larger aggregate. Close-up of a polished pavement
Accidents or friction testing may indicate a slippery surface surface.
in need of improved texture.
Hairline surface cracks, probably shallow in depth. May not cause any long term performance problems.
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Pop-outs
Individual pieces of large aggregate may pop out of the surface. This is often
caused by chert or other absorbent aggregates that deteriorate under freeze-
thaw conditions. Surface patching can be done temporarily with asphalt. For
severe areas, a more permanent partial depth concrete patch may be necessary.
Refer Figure 2-11.
Extensive pop-outs of large aggregate from surface. Pop- outs alone have not affected pavement
serviceability.
Scaling
Scaling is surface deterioration that causes loss of fine aggregate and mortar.
More extensive scaling can result in loss of large aggregate. Often caused by using
concrete which has not been air-entrained, the surface becomes susceptible to
freeze-thaw damage. Scaling is also aggravated by the use of deicing chemicals.
Refer Figure 2-12.
Scaling can occur as a general condition over a large area or be isolated to
locations where poor quality concrete or improper finishing techniques caused
loss of air entrainment. In severe cases, deterioration can extend deep into the
concrete. Traffic action may accelerate scaling in the wheel paths.
Grinding may remove poor quality surface concrete. Asphalt overlays or a
bonded concrete resurfacing can prolong the life of the pavement. Partial depth
patching of isolated areas may also be used.
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Moderate surface scaling. Loss of mortar and fines from the surface beginning to expose larger
aggregate.
Shallow reinforcing
If the steel reinforcing bar or mesh is placed too close to the concrete surface it
will lead to concrete spalling. Corrosion of the steel creates forces that break and
dislodge the concrete. Often you can see rust stains in the surface cracks before
spalling occurs. The spalling can be temporarily patched with asphalt. Permanent
repairs are difficult and usually involve replacing the steel and making a partial
depth or full depth concrete repair. Refer Figure 2-13.
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Spalling
Spalling is the loss of a piece of the concrete pavement from the surface or along
the edges of cracks and joints. Cracking or freeze-thaw action may break the
concrete loose, or spalling may be caused by poor quality materials. Spalling may
be limited to small pieces in isolated areas or be quite deep and extensive. Refer
Figure 2-14.
Repair will depend on the cause. Small spalled areas are often patched. Spalling
at joints may require full depth joint repair.
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Small surface spalls that have been patched. Spalling along longitudinal joints.
2.4.2 Joints
Longitudinal Joints
Longitudinal paving joints are constructed to be narrow in width and usually well
sealed. As pavements age and materials deteriorate, joints may open and further
deteriorate. Cracks parallel to the initial joint may develop and accelerate into
spalling or raveling of the longitudinal joint. Settlement, instability, or pumping of
the subgrade soil can cause longitudinal joints to fault. One common cause of
cracks parallel to the longitudinal joints is waiting too long after the pour to saw
the joint. Then, during initial cure the slab will crack roughly parallel (but not
exactly) to the sawn joint. Figure 2-15.
Maintaining a tight joint seal can prevent intrusion of water and reduce freeze-
thaw damage and pumping. Severe joint deterioration may require full depth
patching and replacement of the joint.
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Transverse Joints
Transverse joints are constructed in concrete pavements to permit move- ment
of the concrete slabs. Some joints are constructed with load transfer dowels. If
the pavement has poor subsurface drainage, traffic may eventually create voids
under the joints due to pumping and cause the slabs to settle or fault. Freeze-
thaw deterioration at the joint can cause spalling and create additional cracks
parallel to the joint. Load transfer bars may corrode, creating expansive forces
that further deteriorate the concrete at the joint. Refer Figure 2-16.
Occasionally, severe joint deterioration may develop from poor quality aggregate
and so-called D-cracking. Joint sealing will help, but complete replacement is
usually necessary.
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New, well-sealed transverse joint. Transverse joint has slight faulting and spalling.
Severe spalling of a transverse joint. Cracks parallel to joint. Dark color next to
transverse joint likely indicates D-cracking and
additional deterioration. Full depth required.
Severe spalling has required temporary patching. Complete joint replacement necessary.
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D-Cracks
Occasionally, severe deterioration may develop from poor quality aggregate. So
called D-cracking develops when the aggregate is able to absorb moisture. This
causes the aggregate to break apart under freeze-thaw action which leads to
deterioration. Usually, it starts at the bottom of the slab and moves upward. Refer
Figure 2-18.
Fine cracking and a dark discoloration adjacent to the joint often indicate a D-
cracking problem. Once this is visible on the surface the pavement material is
usually severely deteriorated and complete replacement is required.
Joint or crack sealing helps slow D-cracking deterioration. This is a serious defect
because it may indicate a material quality problem throughout the pavement.
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Surface discoloration near joints and cracks indicates D-cracking and severe slab deterioration
Corner Cracks
Diagonal cracks near the corner of a concrete slab may develop, forming a
triangle with a longitudinal and transverse joint. Usually these cracks are within
one foot of the corner of the slab. They are caused by insufficient soil support or
concentrated stress due to temperature related slab movement. The corner
breaks under traffic loading. They may begin as hairline cracks. Refer Figure 2-
19.
Some corner cracks extend the full depth of the slab while others start at the
surface and angle down toward the joint. With further deterioration, more
cracking develops; eventually the entire broken area may come loose. This may
be a localized failure or may point to widespread maintenance problems.
Partial or full depth concrete patching or full depth joint replacement may be
necessary when corner cracking is extensive.
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Meander Cracks
Some pavement cracks appear to wander randomly. They may cross a slab
diagonally or meander like a serpent. Meander cracks may be caused by
settlement due to unstable subsoil or drainage problems, or by utility trench
settlement. Frost heave and spring thaw can also cause them. They are often
local in nature and may not indicate general pavement problems. Figure 2-20.
Minor cracks may benefit from sealing to minimize water intrusion. Extensive or
severe meander cracking may require replacing the slab, stabilizing the
subsurface, or improving drainage.
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Blowups
Concrete slabs may push up or be crushed at a transverse joint. The cause is
expansion of the concrete where incompressible materials (such as sand) have
infiltrated into poorly sealed joints. As a result, there is no space to accommodate
expansion. It is more common in older pavements with long joint spacing.
Pressure relief joints can be installed and blowup areas must be patched or
reconstructed. Refer Figure 2-21.
Internal pressure has partially raised slab at the joint. Complete replacement is required.
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Faulting
Joints and cracks may fault or develop a step between adjacent slabs. Faulting is
caused by pumping of subgrade soils and creation of voids. Heavy truck or bus
traffic can rapidly accelerate faulting. Longitudinal joints may fault due to
settlement of an adjacent slab. Refer Figure 2-22.
Faulting creates a poor ride and may cause slab deterioration. Minor faulting can
be corrected by surface grinding. Voids can be subsealed, or slabs mud jacked
back to level position. Severe cases may need joint replacement.
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Extensive cracking and patching caused by settlement. Pavement was built on unstable subgrade soils.
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Two spalls at manhole in a new pavement. Partial depth patching would be beneficial.
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Extensive curb deterioration. Free-thaw damage to curb adjacent to inlet, and gutter is displaced.
New curb and gutter are needed.
Settled gutter and joint filled with debris. Joint maintenance is needed.
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Concrete Roads
Rough surface, poor joints and scaled surfaces would indicate poor or weak
concrete, while potholes, cracking and pumping may indicate localized areas of
poor concrete or inadequate subgrade compaction and drainage.
Asphalt Roads
A rough irregular surface with a considerable amount of patching and/or
potholes indicates generally inadequate pavement strength for the traffic, and,
because of its roughness, is unsuitable for evaluation by Benkelman Beam.
Longitudinal and transverse cracking and depressions generally indicate
subgrade or sub-base failure, necessitating complete replacement of the
pavement structure, possible caused by inadequate drainage, compaction or poor
materials.
Surface reveled and edge erosion of the asphalt generally indicates more of a
drainage problem than a pavement problem.
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Surface Drainage
Surface drainage means the drainage of surface water produced by rainfall on a
roadway and from areas other than the right-of-way.
For the purpose of satisfactory surface drainage a larger cross slope is required if
the road surface has irregularities or the wearing surface has a large
permeability. In normal cases however, it is 1.5% or 2.5% for cement concrete or
asphalt concrete pavement and 3% to 4% for gravel roads.
The longitudinal slope not only exerts a large influence on the time of
concentration of storm water, but it also affects the percentage of inflow into
inlets used for drainage of storm water from the road surface. Increase of the
longitudinal slope results in the reduction of the time of concentration so that it
inevitably calls for a larger design rainfall intensity and augmentation of the scale
of drainage structures. If increased to excess, storm water is prone to flow on the
road surface in the longitudinal direction so that care must be taken of the size
and layout of the side ditch and inlets. The recommended minimum longitudinal
slope is 0.50%.
The HCM defines the quality of traffic service provided by specific highway
facilities under specific traffic demands by means of a level of service. The level of
service characterizes the operating conditions on the facility in terms of traffic
performance measures related to speed and travel time, freedom to maneuver,
traffic interruptions, and comfort and convenience. The levels of service range
from level-of-service A (least congested) to level-of-service F (most congested).
Table 2-1 shows general definitions of these levels of service. The specific
definitions of level of service differ by facility type.
A Free Flow
B Reasonably Flow
C Stable Flow
D Approaching unstable flow
E Unstable flow
F Forced or breakdown flow
Source: AASHTO, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highway and Streets 2011, 6th Edition. Used by
Permission.
For urban areas the recommended minimum longitudinal slope is 0.35% for
curbed pavements. The maximum spacing for curb inlet and manhole is 20 m.
The following rule-based interval and offset are used when adding pavement
drainage features:
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Inlet - Placed only if the selected road uses a road style with a curb.
inlet are placed at low point along the road curb, spaced from
high point based on the maximum inlet spacing defined on the
Pavement Drainage Design Standard.
Manhole - Placed at inlet location at offset based on the horizontal and
longitudinal placement offset defined on the Pavement Drainage
Design Standard.
For longitudinal slope greater than 4%, the corresponding side ditch/canal and
shoulder should be paved on both sides so as to prevent the scouring effect of the
increased water velocity.
Subsurface Drainage
Subsurface drainage is intended to reduce the groundwater level and to intercept
and drain water infiltrating from the adjoining areas and road surface or rising
from the subgrade.
Drainage is a much more critical item in asphalt than in concrete roads. An
asphalt mixture which has been submerged under water, although compacted to
the required degree, can loose from 50 to 75% of its dry strength. Therefore, as
much as possible, roads which are subject to inundation should not be asphalted.
Whenever practicable the water table should be prevented from rising to within
0.60 m below the bottom of the sub-base. This may be done by subsoil drainage
or by raising the embankment.
It is important to provide efficient permanent drainage to remove water from the
subgrade and sub-base, both during and after construction. Water-proofing the
subgrade or sub-base during construction by sealing the entry of water may also
be desirable.
Where high grades are impractical, subgrade drains are used to lower ground
water tables. An effective subgrade drain must be placed so that the groundwater
level is lowered beyond the capillary range since capillary water cannot be
effectively drained.
Where wet spots are encountered in the subgrade due to seepage through
permeable strata underlain by an impervious material, intercepting drains are
used. The backfill placed around and above pipe under drains should be open-
graded enough to permit rapid flow, but pores should not be large enough to be
infiltrated by adjacent soils.
Slope Drainage
Slope drainage is constructed to protect slopes from erosion or stability decline
which is caused by surface water on the cuts, fills and natural slopes, or by
ground water oozing to the slope surface.
Where erodible velocities will occur along a highway embankment, particularly a
new one, the slope should be protected by either structural or non-structural
methods as appropriate – refer to Section 7.6. Particular care against scouring
should be given to slope protection where the highway embankment is along the
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outside bend of a stream, especially if the stream originally crossed the highway
location at that point.
DPWH D.O. No. 41 – Directing all Regional Directors, District and Project
Engineer to prioritize in the design consideration the usage of coconut bio-
engineering products/solution in all DPWH projects and activities, especially
those projects involving slope stabilization, soil conditioning, soil erosion
prevention and a hydro seeding.
Drainage of Structures
Drainage of structures is for the purpose of removing stored water from the
backfill of structures and surface runoff on bridges caused by rainfall.
For the design of the facilities for surface or slope drainage of structures such as
retaining walls, data on groundwater level, groundwater movement, spring water
condition, location of permeable layer and its permeability coefficient, and the
depth of impermeable layer should be obtained.
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The design hourly volume (DHV) should be representative of the future year
chosen for design. It should be predicated on current traffic (existing and
attracted) plus all traffic increases (normal traffic growth, generated traffic and
development traffic) that would occur during the period between the current and
the future year chosen for design. A period of 20 years is widely used as a basis
for design, for which the usual traffic increase on a highway improvement is in
the range of 50 to 150%. Where the highway is to be a expressway, traffic
increase is likely to be higher, in the range of 80 to 200%.
On minor, low volume roads, average daily traffic (ADT) normally is sufficient. On
most highways a DHV equal to the 30th highest hourly volume (abbreviated as ‘30
HV’) is usually used for design. On highways with unusual or highly seasonal
fluctuation in traffic flow, it may be necessary to use a design hourly volume
other than the 30 HV.
The design traffic data should include the following elements:
ADT – current average daily traffic, year specified.
ADT – future average daily traffic, year specified.
DHV – future design hourly volume, two-way unless otherwise specified
(DHV usually equals 30 HV).
K – Ratio of DHV to ADT; generally 12% to 18% for Rural and 8 to 12% for
Urban.
D – Directional distribution of DHV, one-way volume in predominant
direction of travel expressed as percentage of total. D normally varies from
about 50 to 80% of two-way DHV, with an average of 67%.
T – Trucks, exclusive of light delivery trucks, expressed as a percentage of
DHV. As an average on main rural highways, T is 7 to 9% of DHV and 13% of
ADT; where weekend peaks govern, the average may be 5% to 8% of DHV.
For important intersections, data should be obtained to show simultaneous
traffic movement during both the morning and evening peak hours.
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Knowing the predominant character of traffic to use the highway, the required
width of lane could be determined. The total width of a highway is the sum of the
widths of traffic lanes required, dividing islands, curbs and gutter, shoulders
and/or walkways, ditches or gutters, drains and other special features.
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2.7.1 Plans
The final horizontal alignment shall be plotted on a scale of 1:1000 m, and the
following items shall be shown on the plan:
Plans shall show the centerline of the project road, the width of the roadway
and shoulders and the right-of-way.
Azimuth, distance, elements of curve, coordinates, superelevation and
widening of every curve, and design speed shall be specified.
Each sheet shall have a north arrow indicator and lines representing the
coordinates.
Contours shall be plotted at 1.00 m intervals, however if contour lines are too
close together an interval of 5.00 m may be used. The minimum extent of
contour line should be within the Road Right-of-Way.
Elevation of bench marks with accurate descriptions, reference points and
controlling points with azimuth and distance shall be shown.
Information and data shall be provided regarding existing roads,
intersections and railways, existing rivers and waterways, existing houses
and structures, public utilities, land classifications and others.
All existing and proposed structures, such as bridges, box culverts, pipes and
other drainage, slope protection structures, traffic signs, road markings,
safety barrier and lighting columns shall be indicated – which may involve a
number of plans for clarity.
Include typical roadway section.
Existing Road Right of Way limit.
2.7.2 Profile
Longitudinal profile of existing ground and finished grade lines shall be plotted
on a scale of 1:1000 m horizontal and 1:100 m vertical. For mountainous areas a
scale of 1:200 for vertical may be used. The following items shall be shown on the
longitudinal profiles:
Elements of every vertical parabolic curve.
The percent grades indicated by a plus (+) for ascending and minus (-) for
descending.
The finished grade and existing ground elevations for every full station.
The station number in kilometer including invert elevations and a description
of all existing and proposed structures, such as bridges, box culverts and
pipes.
The maximum flood elevation in flooded areas and ordinary and highest
water elevations of river, creek and canals.
Side ditch profile indicating the gradient, invert elevations and outfall.
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Table 3-1 Minimum Design Standards for Philippine Highways – excluding Tourism Roads
FMR BARANGAY SECONDARY PRIMARY EXPRESSWAY
400 – 1000 1000 – 2000 More Than 2000
Average Daily Traffic (ADT) Under 200 200-400
Minimum Desirable Minimum Desirable Minimum Desirable
DESIGN SPEED (kph)
Flat Topography 60 70 70 90 80 95 90 100
Rolling Topography 40 50 60 80 60 80 70 90
Mountainous Topography 30 40 40 50 50 60 60 70
RADIUS (meters)
Flat Topography 120 160 160 280 220 320 260 350
Rolling Topography 55 85 120 220 120 220 160 280
Mountainous Topography 30 50 50 80 80 120 100 160
GRADE (percent)
Flat Topography 6.0 6.0 5.0 3.0 4.0 3.0 4.0 3.0
Rolling Topography 8.0 7.0 6.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 4.0
Mountainous Topography 10.0 9.0 8.0 6.0 7.0 6.0 7.0 5.0
Pavement Width (meters) 4.0 5.5 – 6.0 6.10 6.70 6.70 7.30
Shoulder Width (meters) 0.5 1.0 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.00
Right of Way Width (meters) 20 30 30 30 30 60
Superelevation (meters/meter) 0.08 (max.) 0.08 (max.) 0.08 (max.) 0.08 (max.)
NON PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE (meters)
Flat Topography 70 90 90 135 115 150 135 160
Rolling Topography 40 60 70 115 70 115 90 135
Mountainous Topography 40 40 40 60 60 70 70 90
PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE (meters)
Flat Topography 420 490 490 615 560 645 615 675
Rolling Topography 270 350 420 560 420 560 490 615
Mountainous Topography 190 270 270 350 360 420 420 490
Type of Surfacing Gravel, crushed gravel or crushed Bituminous dense or open graded Bituminous concrete surface course Bituminous concrete surface course,
stone, bitumen preservative plant mix surface course, bituminous Portland cement concrete pavement
treatment, single or double concrete surface course
bituminous surface treatment,
Source: Table 3.2 in Ministry of Public Works and Highways, 1984, Design Guidelines Criteria and Standards Volume II, Bureau of Design, Manila.
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Source: Department of Public Works and Highways, Department Order No. 11 series of 2014, Department Order No. 46 dated 25 June 2012, Manila.
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Figure 3-4 Intermediate Type Surfacing for Plant Mix Surface Course
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Table 3-3 AASHTO Recommended Minimum Width of Traveled Way and Shoulders for
Local Rural Roads
Design Speed Minimum Width of Traveled Way (m) for Specified Design Volume (vehicles per day)
(kph)
Under 400 400 to 1500 1500 to 2000 Over 2000
a
20 5.4 6.0 6.0 6.6
a
30 5.4 6.0 6.6 7.2 b
40 5.4 6.0 a 6.6 7.2 b
50 5.4 6.0 a 6.6 7.2 b
60 5.4 6.0 a 6.6 7.2 b
70 6.0 6.6 6.6 7.2 b
80 6.0 6.6 6.6 7.2 b
90 6.6 6.6 7.2 b 7.2 b
100 6.6 6.6 7.2 b 7.2 b
All speeds Width of graded shoulder on each side of the road (m)
0.6 1.5 a,c 1.8 2.4
a
For roads in mountainous terrain with design volume of 400 to 600 vehicles per day, use 5.4 m traveled
way width and 0.6 m shoulder width.
b
Where the width of the traveled way is shown as 7.2 m, the width may remain at 6.6 m on reconstructed
highways where there is no crash pattern suggesting the need for widening.
c
May be adjusted to achieve a minimum roadway width of 9 m for design speeds greater than 60 kph.
Source: Table 5-5 in AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6th Edition.
Used by Permission.
Table 3-4 AASHTO Recommended Minimum Width of Traveled Way and Shoulders for
Rural Collector Roads
Design Speed Minimum Width of Traveled Way (m) for Specified Design Volume (vehicles per daya)
(kph)
Under 400 400 to 1500 1500 to 2000 Over 2000
30 6.0 b 6.0 6.6 7.2
b
40 6.0 6.0 6.6 7.2
b
50 6.0 6.0 6.6 7.2
b
60 6.0 6.6 6.6 7.2
70 6.0 6.6 6.6 7.2
80 6.0 6.6 6.6 7.2
90 6.6 6.6 7.2 7.2
100 6.6 6.6 7.2 7.2
All speeds Width of graded shoulder on each side of the road (m)
0.6 1.5 c 1.8 2.4
a
On roadways to be reconstructed, a 6.6 m traveled way may be retained where the alignment is
satisfactory and there is no crash pattern suggesting the need for widening.
b
A 4.5 m minimum width may be used for roadways with design volumes under 250 vehicles per day.
c
Shoulder width may be reduced for design speeds greater than 50 kph provided that a minimum roadway
width of 9 m is maintained.
Source: Table 6-5 in AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6th Edition.
Used by Permission.
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Table 3-5 AASHTO Recommended Minimum Width of Traveled Way and Shoulders for
Rural Arterial Roads
Design Minimum Width of Traveled Way (m)a for Specified Design Volume (vehicles per day)
Speed (kph)
Under 400 400 to 1500 1500 to 2000 Over 2000
60 6.6 6.6 6.6 7.2
70 6.6 6.6 6.6 7.2
80 6.6 6.6 7.2 7.2
90 6.6 6.6 7.2 7.2
100 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2
110 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2
120 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2
130 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2
All speeds Width of usable shoulder (m)b
1.2 1.8 1.8 2.4
a
On roadways to be reconstructed, an existing 6.6 m traveled way may be retained where the alignment is
satisfactory and there is no crash pattern suggesting the need for widening.
b
Preferably, usable shoulder on arterials should be paved; however, where volumes are low or a narrow
section is needed to reduce construction impacts, the paved shoulder width may be a minimum of 0.6 m
provided that bicycle use is not intended to be accommodated on the shoulder.
Source: Table 7-3 in AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6 th Edition.
Used by Permission.
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Table 3-6 Minimum Recommended Design Speeds for Local Rural Roads
Type of Terrain Design Speed (kph) for Specified Design Volume (vehicles per day)
Under 50 50 to 250 250 to 400 400 to 1500 to 2000 and
1500 2000 over
Level 50 50 60 80 80 80
Rolling 30 50 50 60 60 60
Mountainous 30 30 30 50 50 50
Source: Table 5-1 in AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6 th Edition.
Used by Permission.
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Table 3-7 Minimum Recommended Design Speeds for Rural Collector Roads
Type of Terrain Design Speed (kph) for Specified Design Volume (vehicles per day)
0 to400 400 to 2000 Over 2000
Level 60 80 100
Rolling 50 60 80
Mountainous 30 50 60
Note: Where practical, design speeds higher than those shown should be considered.
Source: Table 6-1 in AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6 th Edition.
Used by Permission.
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The term ‘clear zone’ is used to designate the unobstructed, traversable area
provided beyond the edge of the travelled way for the recovery of errant vehicles.
The clear zone includes shoulders, bicycle lanes, and auxiliary lanes unless they
function as a through lane. It has fundamental implications for the overall design,
in that it encourages minimizing the extent of embankment sections to improve
safety, and therefore needs to be kept in mind during basic design. Refer Figure
3-7. Further specific information on clear zones can be found in Section 3.7.4 and
Section 8.1.
Figure 3-7 Example of the ‘Clear Zone’ concept for a 100 kph operating speed
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The calculated minimum stopping sight distance for various assumed speeds is
developed in Table 3-8, while Table 3-9 provides minimum stopping sight
distances on grades.
For purpose of design, wet conditions govern in determining stopping sight
distances due to the lower coefficients of friction on wet pavements compared to
dry pavements.
Note: Break reaction distance predicated on a time of 2.5 s; deceleration rate of 3.4 m/s 2 used to determine
calculated sight distance.
Source: Table 3-1 in AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6 th Edition.
Used by Permission.
Source: Table 3-2 in AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6 th Edition.
Used by Permission.
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Distance travelled while the passing vehicle occupies the left lane.
Distance between the passing vehicle at the end of its maneuver and the
opposing vehicle.
Distance traversed by an opposing vehicle for two-thirds of the time the
passing vehicle occupies the left lane, or 2/3 of the distance travelled while
the passing vehicle occupies the left lane.
Appreciable grades increase the sight distance required for safe passing. The
sight distance required to permit a vehicle travelling upgrade to pass with safety
is greater than that required on a level road. This is due to reduced acceleration
of the passing vehicle, which increases the time of passing, and due to the
likelihood of opposing traffic speeding up increasing the distance travelled by it.
For passing to be performed safely on upgrades, the passing sight distance
should be greater than the minimum. The designer should recognize the
desirability of increasing the minimum shown in Table 3-11, which is sufficient
for a single or isolated pass only.
Source: Table 3-4 in AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6th Edition.
Used by Permission.
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to a large extent. All these factors must be balanced to produce an alignment that
is safest, most economical and adequate for the design classification of the
highway. Horizontal alignment should aim to avoid curve radii where the
available passing sight distance is marginal, and must afford at least the
minimum stopping distance for the design speed at all points on the highway.
Radius of Curve
The combination of design speed and maximum superelevation controls the
maximum degree of curvature. Flatter curves must be provided where possible.
In general the alignment and curvature should fit the country, conforming to the
natural swing or directional bend of the ground, and the best alignment possible
within reasonable cost should be obtained rather than to follow blindly the
minimum curvature allowable.
Curves should be flat enough to provide minimum passing sight distance on
undivided highways, for the design speed established for that particular highway.
To facilitate the laying of curves by deflection angles, even-degree curves or
curves which are even multiples of ten minutes should be used whenever
possible.
On long or fairly steep grades, drivers tend to travel faster in the downgrade than
in the upgrade direction. Some adjustment in superelevation rates should be
considered for grades steeper than 5%.
Table 3-12 gives the maximum radius for four cases of maximum superelevation
rates.
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Source: Table 3-7 in AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6th Edition.
Used by Permission.
Length of Curve
The recommended minimum length of tangent between reversed curves should
be 50 m. In no cases shall the tangent length be less than 30 m. The tangent is
necessary to effect the transition from superelevation in one direction to
superelevation in the opposite direction.
Superelevation
When a vehicle moves in a circular path it is forced radially outward by
centrifugal force which is counter-balanced by the vehicle weight component due
to the roadway tires and surfacing. For a given radius and speed, a set force must
be applied to maintain the vehicle in a circular path and in road design this force
is provided by the side friction developed between tire and pavement and by
superelevation.
The basic formula for vehicle operation on a curve is:
we +wf = wV2/gR
where:
w = weight of vehicle
e = pavement superelevation (tangent of the angle)
This is taken as positive if the pavement falls toward the center of the
curve.
f = coefficient of side frictional force developed between vehicle tires and road
pavement.
This is taken as positive if the frictional force on the vehicle acts toward the
center of the curve.
V = speed of the vehicle
R = radius of curve
In the basic formula ‘wV2/gR’ is the centrifugal force; ‘we’ is the force due to
tilting; and ‘wf’ is the friction force. At maximum safe speed and provided that the
vehicle does not skid, the forces are in equilibrium.
Superelevation values are now generally computed on the assumption that all
centrifugal force resulting from a speed equal to three-fourths of the design
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Figure 3-9 Method of Attaining Superelevation for Travelled Way Revolved about Centerline
Source: AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6th Edition. Used by Permission.
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Figure 3-10 Methods of Attaining Superelvation for a Travelled Way Revolved about Outside
or Inside Edge
Crowned
Traveled way Revolved About Inside Edge with Curve to the Right
-A-
Crowned
Traveled way Revolved About Outside Edge with Curve to the Right
-B-
Source: AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6th Edition. Used by
Permission.
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Traveled Way Revolved About Outside Edge with Curve to the Right
Source: Table 3-8 in AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6th Edition. Used by Permission.
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Table 3-13 Minimum Radii (meters) for Design Superelevation Rates, Design Speeds and emax
= 4%
Source: Table 3-8 in AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6th Edition. Used by Permission.
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Table 3-14 Minimum Radii (meters) for Design Superelevation Rates, Design Speeds and emax
= 6%
Design
Speed (kph) 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
NC 194 421 738 1050 1440 1910 2360 2880 3510 4060 4770 5240
RC 138 299 525 750 1030 1380 1710 2090 2560 2970 3510 3880
2.2 122 265 465 668 919 1230 1530 1880 2300 2670 3160 3500
2.4 109 236 415 599 825 1110 1380 1700 2080 2420 2870 3190
2.6 97 212 372 540 746 1000 1260 1540 1890 2210 2630 2930
2.8 87 190 334 488 676 910 1150 1410 1730 2020 2420 2700
3.0 78 170 300 443 615 831 1050 1290 1590 1870 2240 2510
3.2 70 152 269 402 561 761 959 1190 1470 1730 2080 2330
3.4 61 133 239 364 511 697 882 1100 1360 1600 1940 2180
3.6 51 113 206 329 465 640 813 1020 1260 1490 1810 2050
3.8 42 96 177 294 422 586 749 939 1170 1390 1700 1930
e (%)
4.0 36 82 155 261 380 535 690 870 1090 1300 1590 1820
4.2 31 72 136 234 343 488 635 806 1010 1220 1500 1720
4.4 27 63 121 210 311 446 584 746 938 1140 1410 1630
4.6 24 56 108 190 283 408 538 692 873 1070 1330 1540
4.8 21 50 97 172 258 374 496 641 812 997 1260 1470
5.0 19 45 88 156 235 343 457 594 755 933 1190 1400
5.2 17 40 79 142 214 315 421 549 701 871 1120 1330
5.4 15 36 71 128 195 287 386 506 648 810 1060 1260
5.6 13 32 63 115 176 260 351 463 594 747 980 1190
5.8 11 28 56 102 156 232 315 416 537 679 900 1110
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Table 3-15 Minimum Radii (meters) for Design Superelevation Rates, Design Speeds and emax
= 8%
Design
Speed (kph) 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
NC 184 443 784 1090 1490 1970 2440 2970 3630 4180 4900 5360
RC 133 322 571 791 1090 1450 1790 2190 2680 3090 3640 4000
2.2 119 288 512 711 976 1300 1620 1980 2420 2790 3290 3620
2.4 107 261 463 644 885 1190 1470 1800 2200 2550 3010 3310
2.6 97 237 421 587 808 1080 1350 1650 2020 2340 2760 3050
2.8 88 216 385 539 742 992 1240 1520 1860 2160 2550 2830
3.0 81 199 354 496 684 916 1150 1410 1730 2000 2370 2630
3.2 74 183 326 458 633 849 1060 1310 1610 1870 2220 2460
3.4 68 169 302 425 588 790 988 1220 1500 1740 2080 2310
3.6 62 156 279 395 548 738 924 1140 1410 1640 1950 2180
3.8 57 144 259 368 512 690 866 1070 1320 1540 1840 2060
4.0 52 134 241 344 479 648 813 1010 1240 1450 1740 1950
4.2 48 124 224 321 449 608 766 948 1180 1380 1650 1850
4.4 43 115 208 301 421 573 722 895 1110 1300 1570 1760
4.6 38 106 192 281 395 540 682 847 1050 1240 1490 1680
4.8 33 96 178 263 371 508 645 803 996 1180 1420 1610
e (%)
5.0 30 87 163 246 349 480 611 762 947 1120 1360 1540
5.2 27 78 148 229 328 454 579 724 901 1070 1300 1480
5.4 24 71 136 213 307 429 549 689 859 1020 1250 1420
5.6 22 65 125 198 288 405 521 656 819 975 1200 1360
5.8 20 59 115 185 270 382 494 625 781 933 1150 1310
6.0 19 55 106 172 253 360 469 595 746 894 1100 1260
6.2 17 50 98 161 238 340 445 567 713 857 1060 1220
6.4 16 46 91 151 224 322 422 540 681 823 1020 1180
6.6 15 43 85 141 210 304 400 514 651 789 982 1140
6.8 14 40 79 132 198 287 379 489 620 757 948 1100
7.0 13 37 73 123 185 270 358 464 591 724 914 1070
7.2 12 34 68 115 174 254 338 440 561 691 879 1040
7.4 11 31 62 107 162 237 318 415 531 657 842 998
7.6 10 29 57 99 150 221 296 389 499 621 803 962
7.8 9 26 52 90 137 202 273 359 462 579 757 919
8.0 7 20 41 73 113 168 229 304 394 501 667 832
Source: Table 3-10a in AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6th Edition. Used by Permission.
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 - Highway Design
Table 3-16 Minimum Radii (meters) for Design Superelevation Rates, Design Speeds and emax
= 10%
Design
Speed (kph) 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
NC 197 454 790 1110 1520 2000 2480 3010 3690 4250 4960 5410
RC 145 333 580 815 1120 1480 1840 2230 2740 3160 3700 4050
2.2 130 300 522 735 1020 1340 1660 2020 2480 2860 3360 3680
2.4 118 272 474 669 920 1220 1520 1840 2260 2620 3070 3370
2.6 108 249 434 612 844 1120 1390 1700 2080 2410 2830 3110
2.8 99 229 399 564 778 1030 1290 1570 1920 2230 2620 2880
3.0 91 211 368 522 720 952 1190 1460 1790 2070 2440 2690
3.2 85 196 342 485 670 887 1110 1360 1670 1940 2280 2520
3.4 79 182 318 453 626 829 1040 1270 1560 1820 2140 2370
3.6 73 170 297 424 586 777 974 1200 1470 1710 2020 2230
3.8 68 159 278 398 551 731 917 1130 1390 1610 1910 2120
4.0 64 149 261 374 519 690 866 1060 1310 1530 1810 2010
4.2 60 140 245 353 490 652 820 1010 1240 1450 1720 1910
4.4 56 132 231 333 464 617 777 953 1180 1380 1640 1820
4.6 53 124 218 315 439 586 738 907 1120 1310 1560 1740
4.8 50 117 206 299 417 557 703 864 1070 1250 1490 1670
5.0 47 111 194 283 396 530 670 824 1020 1200 1430 1600
5.2 44 104 184 269 377 505 640 788 975 1150 1370 1540
5.4 41 98 174 256 359 482 611 754 934 1100 1320 1480
5.6 39 93 164 243 343 461 585 723 896 1060 1270 1420
e (%)
5.8 36 88 155 232 327 441 561 693 860 1020 1220 1370
6.0 33 82 146 221 312 422 538 666 827 976 1180 1330
6.2 31 77 138 210 298 404 516 640 795 941 1140 1280
6.4 28 72 130 200 285 387 496 616 766 907 1100 1240
6.6 26 67 121 191 273 372 476 593 738 876 1060 1200
6.8 24 62 114 181 261 357 458 571 712 846 1030 1170
7.0 22 58 107 172 249 342 441 551 688 819 993 1130
7.2 21 55 101 164 238 329 425 532 664 792 963 1100
7.4 20 51 95 156 228 315 409 513 642 767 934 1070
7.6 18 48 90 148 218 303 394 496 621 743 907 1040
7.8 17 45 85 141 208 291 380 479 601 721 882 1010
8.0 16 43 80 135 199 279 366 463 582 699 857 981
8.2 15 40 76 128 190 268 353 448 564 679 834 956
8.4 14 38 72 122 182 257 339 432 546 660 812 932
8.6 14 36 68 116 174 246 326 417 528 641 790 910
8.8 13 34 64 110 166 236 313 402 509 621 770 888
9.0 12 32 61 105 158 225 300 386 491 602 751 867
9.2 11 30 57 99 150 215 287 371 472 582 731 847
9.4 11 28 54 94 142 204 274 354 453 560 709 828
9.6 10 26 50 88 133 192 259 337 432 537 685 809
9.8 9 24 46 81 124 179 242 316 407 509 656 786
10.0 7 19 38 68 105 154 210 277 358 454 597 739
Source: Table 3-11a in AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6th Edition. Used by Permission.
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 - Highway Design
Table 3-17 Minimum Lengths of Circular Arcs for Different Compound Curve Radii
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 - Highway Design
Design Speed (kph) Maximum Relative Gradient (%) Equivalent Maximum Relative Slope
20 0.80 1:125
30 0.75 1:133
40 0.70 1:143
50 0.65 1:154
60 0.60 1:167
70 0.55 1:182
80 0.50 1:200
90 0.47 1:213
100 0.44 1:227
110 0.41 1:244
120 0.38 1:263
130 0.35 1:286
Source: Table 3-15 in AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6 th Edition.
Used by Permission.
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 - Highway Design
2.0 9 10 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 18 19 21
2.2 10 11 11 12 13 14 16 17 18 19 21 23
2.4 11 12 12 13 14 16 17 18 20 21 23 25
2.6 12 12 13 14 16 17 19 20 21 23 25 27
2.8 13 13 14 16 17 18 20 21 23 25 27 29
3.0 14 14 15 17 18 20 22 23 25 26 28 31
3.2 14 15 16 18 19 21 23 25 26 28 30 33
3.4 15 16 17 19 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 35
3.6 16 17 19 20 22 24 26 28 29 32 34 37
3.8 17 18 20 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 36 39
4.0 18 19 21 22 24 26 29 31 33 35 38 41
4.2 19 20 22 23 25 27 30 32 34 37 40 43
4.4 20 21 23 24 26 29 32 34 36 39 42 45
4.6 21 22 24 25 28 30 33 35 38 40 44 47
4.8 22 23 25 27 29 31 35 37 39 42 45 49
5.0 23 24 26 28 30 33 36 38 41 44 47 51
5.2 23 25 27 29 31 34 37 40 43 46 49 53
5.4 24 26 28 30 32 35 39 41 44 47 51 56
5.6 25 27 29 31 34 37 40 43 46 49 53 58
5.8 26 28 30 32 35 38 42 44 47 51 55 60
6.0 27 29 31 33 36 39 43 46 49 53 57 62
6.2 28 30 32 34 37 41 45 47 51 54 59 64
6.4 29 31 33 35 38 42 46 49 52 56 61 66
6.6 30 32 34 37 40 43 48 51 54 58 63 68
6.8 31 33 35 38 41 45 49 52 56 60 64 70
7.0 31 34 36 39 42 46 50 54 57 61 66 72
7.2 32 35 37 40 43 47 52 55 59 63 68 74
7.4 33 36 38 41 44 48 53 57 61 65 70 76
7.6 34 36 39 42 46 50 55 58 62 67 72 78
7.8 35 37 40 43 47 51 56 60 64 68 74 80
8.0 36 38 41 44 48 52 58 61 65 70 76 82
8.2 37 39 42 45 49 54 59 63 67 72 78 84
8.4 38 40 43 47 50 55 60 64 69 74 80 86
8.6 39 41 44 48 52 56 62 66 70 76 81 88
8.8 40 42 45 49 53 58 63 67 72 77 83 91
9.0 40 43 46 50 54 59 65 69 74 79 85 93
9.2 41 44 47 51 55 60 66 70 75 81 87 95
9.4 42 45 48 52 56 62 68 72 77 83 89 97
9.6 43 46 49 53 58 63 69 74 79 84 91 99
9.8 44 47 50 54 59 64 71 75 80 86 93 101
10.0 45 48 51 55 60 65 72 77 82 88 95 103
Source: Table 3-17a in AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6th Edition.
Used by Permission.
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 - Highway Design
Table 3-21 Runoff Locations that Minimize the Vehicle’s Lateral Motion
Source: Table 3-18 in AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6 th Edition.
Used by Permission.
Widening
Due to the fact that on curves the rear wheels of motor vehicles do not ordinarily
travel in the same radius as the front wheels, it is desirable to widen the roadbed
especially along sharp curves. On simple curves, widening should be applied on
the inside edge of pavement only. On curves designed with spirals, widening may
be placed on the inside or divided equally between the inside and outside of the
curve. The amount of widening required for curves of various radii is shown in
Table 3-22.
The minimum widening recommended on curves is 0.60 m and depends on the
degree of curvature, design speed and design vehicle. Adjustments for design
vehicles other than WB-19 are presented in Table 3-23.
Widening is transitioned within the length of the superelevated runoff applied at
the inside edge or on both edges and should be attained linearly.
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 - Highway Design
Table 3-22 Calculated and Design Values for Travelled Way Widening on Open Highway Curves (Two-Lane Highways, One-Way or Two-Way)
Radius Roadway Width = 7.2 m Roadway Width = 6.6 m Roadway Width = 6.0 m
of Curve
(m) Design Speed (kph) Design Speed (kph) Design Speed (kph)
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 - Highway Design
Table 3-23 Adjustments for Travelled Way Widening Values on Open Highway Curves (Two-
Lane Highways, One-Way or Two-Way)
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 - Highway Design
3. A spiral transition curve also facilitate the transition in width where the
travelled way is widened on a circular curve use of spiral transitions provides
flexibility in accomplishing the widening of sharp curves.
Maximum radius recommended for use of a spiral are presented in Table 3-24
and Table 3-25 presents the desirable length of spiral curve transitions. Tangent
super elevation run-out lengths are presented in Table 3-26; however the lengths
in this table may be longer than desirable for combinations of low superelevation
rate and high speed where there is insufficient profile grade for adequate surface
drainage. Runoff is affected over the whole of the transition curve.
Source: Table 3-21 in AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6 th Edition.
Used by Permission.
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 - Highway Design
Table 3-26 Tangent Run-out Length (m) for Spiral Curve Transition Design
20 11 - - - -
30 17 8 - - -
40 22 11 7 - -
50 28 14 9 - -
60 33 17 11 8 -
70 39 19 13 10 -
80 44 22 15 11 -
90 50 25 17 13 10
100 56 28 19 14 11
110 61 31 20 15 12
120 67 33 22 17 13
130 72 36 24 18 14
Source: Table 3-23 in AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6 th Edition.
Used by Permission.
General Controls
Alignment should be as directional as possible, consistent with topography. A
flowing line that conforms generally to the natural contours is preferable to
one with tangents that slash through the terrain.
Generally, use flat curves and avoid curves of maximum degree except for
critical conditions.
Alignment should be consistent. Sharp curves at ends of long tangents and
sudden changes from easy to sharply curving alignment should be avoided.
For small deflection angles, curves should be sufficiently long to avoid the
appearance of a kink.
Tangents or flat curvature should be used on high long fills.
Caution should be exercised in the use of compound circular curves. Where
compounding is necessary the radius of the flatter circular arc should be not
more than 50% greater than the radius of the sharper circular arc. Where this
is not feasible, an intermediate curve or spiral should be used to provide the
necessary transition.
Abrupt reversal in alignment should be avoided by the use of sufficient length
of tangent or spiral between the two curves.
Avoid broken back curvature, that is, two curves in the same direction
separated by a short tangent length. The term ‘broken back’ is not applied
when the connecting tangent is of considerable length, say 250 m or more.
Use of spiral transitions, compound curves or a single longer curve is
preferable for such conditions.
Horizontal alignment should be coordinated with the profile.
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 - Highway Design
Gradient
For economy of vehicle operation, particularly truck operation, grades should be
as flat as possible. However, flat grades in rolling or hilly country require very
costly earthwork, or much greater distance, or both. For Philippine national
roads, the maximum grade is reduced or ‘compensated’ on sharp curves
according to the following rule: ‘For every degree of curvature over 6 degrees,
the ruling grade shall be reduced by 0.1%’. On tangents or curves of less than 1
degree, 7% grades are permitted for distances not exceeding one kilometer.
Grades exceeding the above limits shall not be used in any national road without
permission from the Secretary of the Department of Public Works & Highways
and the Director of the Bureau of Design (BOD), DPWH.
The rolling of grades to avoid heavy earthwork is permissible if proper sight
distances are preserved. Secondary dips in the profile in which a vehicle may be
hidden from view should be avoided. On a long climb it is well to avoid ‘adverse
grades’, i.e. grades which cause a loss of elevation, although there are times when
such grades are justified to secure better alignment and reduce excavation when
crossing a small gully. If possible place grades so that excavation balances the
embankment. In areas subject to inundation grades should be established 0.50 m
above maximum water level. Grades should at least be above pipe culverts by
0.60 m. Grades of bridges should allow 1.50 m free board above the maximum
flood water elevations to the bottom of girders for streams carrying debris and
1.00 m for others.
Maximum Grades
Maximum grades of 5% are considered appropriate for a design speed of 110
kph. For a design speed of 50 kph maximum grades are generally in the range of
7 to 12%, depending on topography. In the Philippines the maximum grade
widely used is 6%.
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 - Highway Design
AASHTO maximum recommended grades for local rural roads, rural collector
roads, urban collector roads, rural and urban arterials, and rural and urban
expressways of varying design speed are provided in Table 3-27 to Table 3-32.
Grades for local residential streets should be as level as practical, consistent with
the surrounding terrain, with a minimum grade for streets with outer curbs of
0.30%. Streets in commercial and industrial areas should have grades less than
8%.
Minimum Grades
On through cut sections grades should be at least 0.50% to provide longitudinal
drainage. On curved pavements a minimum of 0.30% may be used on high type
pavements and accurately crowned to facilitate drainage. Flat or level grades may
be used on uncurbed highways which have adequate crown for lateral drainage
on high fills.
Table 3-27 AASHTO Recommended Maximum Grades for Local Rural Roads
Type of Terrain Maximum Grade (%) for Specific Design Speed (kph)
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Level 9 8 7 7 7 7 6 6 5
Rolling 12 11 11 10 10 9 8 7 6
Mountainous 17 16 15 14 13 12 10 10 -
Source: Table 5-2 in AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6 th Edition.
Used by Permission.
Table 3-28 AASHTO Recommended Maximum Grades for Rural Collector Roads
Type of Terrain Maximum Grade (%) for Specific Design Speed (kph)
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Level 7 7 7 7 7 6 6 5
Rolling 10 10 9 8 8 7 7 6
Mountainous 12 11 10 10 10 9 9 8
Note: Short lengths of grade in rural areas, such as grades less than 150 m in length, one-way down-
grades, and grades on low-volume rural collectors may be up to 2% steeper than the grades shown above.
Source: Table 6-2 in AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6 th Edition.
Used by Permission.
Table 3-29 AASHTO Recommended Maximum Grades for Urban Collector Roads
Type of Terrain Maximum Grade (%) for Specific Design Speed (kph)
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Level 9 9 9 9 8 7 7 6
Rolling 12 12 11 10 9 8 8 7
Mountainous 14 13 12 12 11 10 10 9
Note: Short lengths of grade in urban areas, such as grades less than 150 m in length, one-way down-
grades, and grades on low-volume rural collectors may be up to 2% steeper than the grades shown above.
Source: Table 6-8 in AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6 th Edition.
Used by Permission.
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 - Highway Design
Table 3-30 AASHTO Recommended Maximum Grades for Rural Arterial Roads
Type of Terrain Maximum Grade (%) for Specific Design Speed (kph)
60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Level 5 5 4 4 3 3 3 3
Rolling 6 6 5 5 4 4 4 4
Mountainous 8 7 7 6 6 5 5 5
Source: Table 7-2 in AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6th Edition.
Used by Permission.
Type of Terrain Maximum Grade (%) for Specific Design Speed (kph)
50 60 70 80 90 100
Level 8 7 6 6 5 5
Rolling 9 8 7 7 6 6
Mountainous 11 10 9 9 8 8
Source: Table 7-4 in AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6 th Edition.
Used by Permission.
Table 3-32 AASHTO Recommended Maximum Grades for Rural and Urban Expressways
Type of Terrain Maximum Grade (%) for Specific Design Speed (kph)
80 90 100 110 120 130
Level 4 4 3 3 3 3
Rolling 5 5 4 4 4 4
Mountainous 6 6 6 5 - -
Source: Table 8-1 in AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6th Edition.
Used by Permission.
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 - Highway Design
Vertical Curves
All intersections of grade tangents shall be connected by parabolic vertical curve.
These parabolic vertical curves may either be symmetrical or unsymmetrical
curves, although the latter should be avoided whenever possible. Vertical
parabolic curves should provide adequate sight distance, safety, comfort, good
drainage and pleasing appearance.
The required length of vertical curve to satisfy the requirements of minimum
stopping sight distance, comfort and appearance, should not be shorter than
L = KA,
where:
L = length of vertical curve in meters
A = algebraic difference of grades in percent
K = corresponding constant for varying design speed, refer Table 3-34
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 - Highway Design
When the height of eye and the height of object are 1.08 m and 0.60 m
respectively, as used for stopping sight distance, the above equations become:
When S is less than L, When S is greater than L,
L = A S2 / 658 L = 2 S – (658 / A)
Table 3-35 shows the computed K values for lengths of vertical curves
corresponding to various stopping sight distances for each design speed.
Rounded values of K are shown in the right column for use in design.
Table 3-35 Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curves Based on Stopping Sight Distance
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 - Highway Design
Table 3-36 Local Rural Road and Rural Collector Road Design Controls for Stopping Sight
Distance and for Crest and Sag Vertical Curves
Table 3-37 shows the computed K values for passing sight distance control.
Generally it is impractical to design crest vertical curves that provide sight
distance because of the difficulty of fitting the resulting long vertical curves to the
terrain and high cost where crest cuts are involved.
Table 3-37 Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curves Based on Passing Sight Distance
Design Speed (kph) Passing Sight Distance (m) Rate of Vertical Curvature, K, Design
30 120 17
40 140 23
50 160 30
60 180 38
70 210 51
80 245 69
90 280 91
100 320 119
110 355 146
120 395 181
130 440 224
Rate of vertical curvature K is the length of curve per percent algebraic difference in intersecting grades (A),
K = L / A.
Source: Table 3-35 in AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6 th Edition.
Used by Permission.
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 - Highway Design
When a vehicle traverses a sag vertical curve at night, the portion of highway
lighted ahead is dependent on the position of the headlights and the direction of
the light beam. A headlight height of 0.60 m and a 1-degree upward divergence of
the light beam from the longitudinal axis of the vehicle are commonly assumed.
The following equations show the relationships between S, L and A:
When S is less than L, When S is greater than L,
L = A S2 / (120 + 3.5S) L = 2 S – ((120 + 3.5S) / A)
where:
L = length of sag of vertical curve, m
A = algebraic difference in grades, %
S = light beam distance, m
For drivers to see the roadway ahead, a sag vertical curve should be long enough
that the light beam distance is approximately the same as the stopping sight
distance. Table 3-38 shows the range of computed values and the rounded values
of K selected as design controls. These lengths are minimum values based on the
design speed; longer curves are desirable wherever practical, but special
attention to drainage should be exercised where values of K in excess of 51 m per
percent change in grade are used.
Source: Table 3-36 in AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6 th Edition.
Used by Permission.
Climbing Lane
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 - Highway Design
that could impede following traffic. In such cases the addition of climbing lanes
improves operations on upgrades and reduces crash potential.
The following three criteria, reflecting economic considerations, should be
satisfied to justify a climbing lane:
1. Upgrade traffic flow rate in excess of 200 vehicles per hour,
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 - Highway Design
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 - Highway Design
Table 3-39 Optimal Passing Lane Lengths for Traffic Operational Efficiency
One-Way Flow Rate (vehicles per hour) Passing Lane Length (km)
100 to 200 0.8
201 to 400 0.8 to 1.2
401 to 700 1.2 to 1.6
701 to 1200 1.6 to 3.2
Source: Table 3-31 in AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6 th Edition.
Used by Permission.
Turnouts
A turnout is a widened, unobstructed shoulder area that allows slow-moving
vehicles to pull out of the through lane to give passing opportunities to following
vehicles. Turnouts are most frequently used on lower volume roads and in
difficult terrain with steep grades where more than 10% of the vehicle volumes
are large trucks and recreational vehicles, and construction of an additional lane
may not be cost-effective.
The recommended length of turnouts including taper is shown in Table 3-40. The
recommended lengths are based on the assumption that slow-moving vehicles
enter the turnout at 8 kph slower than the mean speed of the through traffic,
allowing the entering vehicle to coast to the mid-point without braking, and then
brake if necessary or merge back into the through lane.
The minimum width of a turnout is 3.6 m, with 5.0 m desirable. The available
sight distance should be at least 300 m on the approach to the turnout. Proper
signing and pavement marking are also needed to maximize turnout usage and
reduce crashes.
‘* Maximum length should be 185 m to avoid use of the turnout as a passing lane.
Source: Table 3-32 in AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6 th Edition.
Used by Permission.
Shoulder Driving
Where permitted by law and adequate paved shoulders exist, shoulders may
function as continuous turnouts to allow slow-moving vehicles to temporarily
move out of the path of another vehicle approaching from the rear.
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 - Highway Design
General Controls
In addition to specific controls for vertical alignment, there are several general
controls to be considered in the design:
A smooth grade line with gradual changes, consistent with the type or class of
highway, road or street, and the character of terrain is preferred to a line with
numerous breaks and short lengths of grade. Specific design criteria are the
maximum grade and critical length of grade, but the manner in which they
are applied and fitted to the terrain on a continuous line determines the
suitability and appearance of the end result.
The ‘roller coaster’ or ‘hidden dip’ type of profile should be avoided by using
gradual grades made possible by heavier cuts and fills, or by introducing
some horizontal curvature on relatively straight sections.
Undulating grade lines, involving substantial lengths of momentum grades,
should be appraised for their effect upon traffic operation since they may
result in undesirably high downgrade speeds of trucks.
A broken-back grade line (two vertical curves in the same direction separated
by a short section of tangent grade) generally should be avoided, particularly
on sags.
On long grades, it is preferable to place the steepest grades at the bottom and
to flatten the grades near the ascent, or to break a sustained grade by short
intervals of flatter grade instead of providing a uniform sustained grade that
is only slightly below the recommended maximum. This is particularly
applicable to low design speed highways.
Where at-grade intersections occur on highway sections with moderate to
steep grades, it is desirable to reduce the gradient through the intersection.
Sag vertical curves should be avoided in cuts unless adequate drainage can be
provided.
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sometimes be made to increase the buffer zone between the highway and
adjacent properties.
The alignment should be designed to enhance attractive scenic views of the
natural and manmade environment, such as rivers, rock formations, parks
and notable structures.
Coordination of horizontal alignment and profile should begin with the
preliminary design. The designer should use working drawings of a size, scale
and arrangement that will allow the study of long, continuous stretches of
highway in both plan and profile, to aid visualization of the whole in three
dimensions.
After study of the horizontal alignment and profile in preliminary form,
adjustments can be made to obtain the desired alignment coordination. For the
selected design speed, the values for controlling curvature, gradient, sight
distance and superelevation should be obtained and checked. Design speed may
require adjustment during this process. All aspects of terrain, traffic operation
and appearance should be considered and the horizontal and vertical lines
should be adjusted and coordinated before the costly and time-consuming
calculations and preparation of construction plans to large scale are commenced.
For highways with gutters, the effects of superelevation transitions on gutter-line
profiles should be examined, particularly where flat grades are involved.
Crossroad or street intersections and locations of driveways are dominant
controls, but they should not override the above broader desirable features.
Drainage
Modern highway drainage design should incorporate safety, good appearance,
control of pollutants and economy in maintenance through the use of flat side-
slopes, broad drainage channels, and liberal warping and rounding of the cross-
section.
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 - Highway Design
Lighting
The design procedure for road lighting shall be in accordance with Roadway
Lighting Guidelines published by Department of Energy December 2008.
In urban and suburban areas, where there are concentrations of pedestrians and
roadside intersections, fixed source lighting tends to reduce accidents.
On expressways where there are no pedestrians, roadside entrances, or other
intersections at grade, and where rights-of-way are relatively wide, the
justification for lighting differs from that of non-controlled streets and highways.
Lighting of rural highways seldom is justified except on certain critical portions,
such as intersections and long bridges, depending on layout and traffic volumes,
and on interchanges and areas where roadside interference is a factor, including
railroad-highway grade crossings. Tunnels, toll plazas and movable bridges are
nearly always lighted.
Where limited section of a highway are provided with fixed source lighting, it is
desirable that the intensity of light diminish gradually as the distance from the
lighted area increases. This gives the eyes of the drivers leaving the intersection,
built-up area, etc., time to adjust themselves to the darkness beyond and may
eliminate the blind interval experienced upon leaving a comparatively brightly
lighted area. Since eye accommodation for change in lighting requires long
distances which may be impractical it may be desirable to use low light
intensities for short sections of highway.
To minimize the effect of glare, luminaires normally are mounted at heights 8 to
10 m. Lighting poles should be placed clear of shoulders, normally not closer than
3 m from the edge of through traffic lane, or not closer than 2 m where a barrier
curb is at the pavement edge. Lighting poles should not be located on the median,
unless it is at least 6 m and preferably 10 m wide. Lighting columns within the
Clear Zone must be passively safe, otherwise they will need to be shielded by
safety barrier.
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Utilities
Utilities in the nature of power lines and water, gas and sewage mains, which
occupy or cross the highway right-of-way, should be considered in location and
design of the highway. Normally on new construction, no utility should be
situated under any part of the pavement, except where it must cross the highway.
Preferably underground utilities should be located outside the roadway to avoid
any disturbance to traffic during utility maintenance operations. Where an
underground utility crosses the highway, generally, it should be placed within a
conduit or pipe of sufficient size so that repairs of the utility can be made without
disturbing the travelled way.
Poles of overhead utilities should be located clear of shoulders, preferably 4.50 m
or more from the edge of pavement. Normally, no poles should be located on the
median. In general overhead utility line paralleling the highway should be
situated as far as practicable from the roadway, recognizing that accessibility for
maintenance may be a factor in their location depending on terrain and character
of highway grading.
To the extent practical, utilities along expressways should be constructed so they
can be serviced from outside the controlled access lines. On new installations or
adjustments to existing utility lines, provision should be made for known or
planned expansion, particularly those located underground. All utility
installations on, over, or under highway or street right-of-way and attached
structures should be of durable materials designed for long service-life
expectancy, relatively free from routine servicing and maintenance, and meet or
exceed the applicable industry codes or specifications.
D.O. No. 26 Series of 2011 Policy on Digging/Excavation by Private and Public
Utilities on National Road show the typical cross section and location of various
utilities in Urban and Rural areas with 20.0 m to 60.0 m RROW. (see Figure 2-1 to
2-8).
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Noise Barriers
The designer should aim to minimize the radiation of noise into noise-sensitive
areas along the highway.
Noise is measured on a logarithmic scale, so a noise of 70 decibels (dBA) sound
only one-half as loud as 80 dBA. If a single vehicle produces a noise level of 60
dBA and a certain distance from the receiver, two of these vehicles at a common
point of origin with produce 63 dBA, four vehicles will produce 66 dBA, eight
vehicles will produce 69 dBA, and so forth.
Noise decreases with distance at a rate of approximately 3 to 4.5 dBA for each
doubling of distance. The higher the pitch or more pronounced the intermittency,
the greater the degree of annoyance.
Public annoyance at traffic noise also depends on the environment in which the
noise is heard; high traffic noise levels are usually more tolerable in industrial
than in residential areas; and the reaction is usually less if the noise source is
hidden from view.
Noise impacts are particularly important to noise-sensitive areas such as
residential areas, schools, churches, hospitals, libraries, nursing homes, parks,
hotels and motels.
Table 3-41 provides USA FHWA noise-abatement criteria for various land uses.
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The existing noise level generated by the traffic is then determine by one of the
noise prediction methods, that presently available. Pertinent factors are traffic
characteristic (speed, volume and composition), topography (vegetation, barriers
and distance) and roadway characteristics (configuration, pavement type, grades
and type of facility. The prediction is normally based on the highway traffic that
will yield the worst hourly traffic noise on a regular basis for the design year.
Design Noise
Activity Category Description Levels (dBA)a
Category
Leq(h)b L10(h)
A Tracts of land in which serenity and quiet are of extraordinary 57 60
significance and serve an important public needs and where the (Exterior)
preservation of those qualities is essential if the area is to continue to
serve its intended purpose. Such areas could include amphitheatres,
particular parks or portions of parks, open spaces, or historic districts
which are dedicated or recognized by appropriate local officials for
activities requiring special qualities of serenity and quiet.
B Picnic areas, recreation areas, playgrounds, active sports areas, and 67 70
parks not included in Category A and residences, motels, hotels, (Exterior)
public meeting rooms, schools, churches, libraries, and hospitals.
C Developed lands, properties, or activities not included in categories A 72 75c
or B above. (Exterior)
D Undeveloped lands which do not contain improvements or activities - -
devoted to frequent human habitation or use and for which such
improvements or activities are unplanned and not programmed.
E Residencies, motels, hotels, public meeting rooms, schools, 52 55d
churches, libraries, hospitals, and auditoriums. (interior)
a
Source: Federal Aid Highway Program Manual, Vol. 7, Ch. 7, Sec. 3 Transmittal 348, August 9, 1982.
b
Either L10(h) or Leq(h) (but not both) may be used for a specific project.
c
Noise-abated criteria have not been established for these lands. They may be treated as developed lands
if the probability for development is high. Provisions for noise abatement would be based on the need,
expected benefits, and costs of such measures.
d
Interior noise abatement criteria in this category apply to (1) indoor activities where no extreme noise-
sensitive land use or activity is identified, and (2) exterior activities that are either remote from the highway
or shielded so that they will not be significantly affected by the noise, but the interior activities will.
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Design Brake Breaking Stopping Sight Design Brake Braking Stopping Sight
Speed Reaction Distance Distance Speed Reaction Distance on Distance
(km/h) Distance on Level (mph) Distance Level (ft)
Calculate Design Calculated Design
(m) (m) (ft)
d (m) (m) (ft) (ft)
Note: Brake reaction distance predicated on a time of 2.5 s; deceleration rate of 3.4 m/s2 (11.2 ft/s2) used to determine calculated sight
distance.
Source: Table 3-1 in AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6th Edition. Used by Permission.
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Source: AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6th Edition. Used by
Permission.
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Source: AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6th Edition. Used by
Permission.
Signals
Intersections are commonly designed for the safe movement of automobiles,
trucks, pedestrians, bicyclists, and buses, which all have different characteristics.
Traffic signals are traffic control devices to avoid conflict in the movement of
traffic, particularly at intersections but also at pedestrian crossings. Their use
often delays users traveling along roads, potentially resulting in driver
discomfort, frustration, additional fuel consumption, and increased travel time.
The capacity of signalized intersections along a roadway can determine the
capacity of that roadway.
Available green time at signalized intersections is substantially less than the total
time available for free flow. For these reasons, capacity and level of service
analysis is of major importance in designing signals. Intersection levels of service
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A Very short delay and most vehicles do not stop as a result of favorable progression,
arrival of most vehicles during green phase, and short cycle length.
B Short delay and many vehicles do not stop or stop for a short time as a result of short
cycle lengths and good progression.
C Moderate delay, many vehicles have to stop, and occasional individual cycle failures
as a result of longer cycle lengths and fair progression.
D Longer delays; many vehicles have to stop; and a noticeable number of individual
cycle failures as a result of some combination of long cycle lengths, high volume to
capacity ratios, and unfavorable progression.
E Long delays and frequent individual cycle failures result from one or both of the
following: long cycle lengths or high volume to capacity ratios, which, in turn, result in
poor progression.
F Delays considered unacceptable to most drivers occur when the vehicle arrival rate is
greater than the capacity of the intersection for extended periods of time.
Source: Table 9-1 in AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6 th Edition.
Used by Permission.
Intersection At-Grade Design – Left & Right Turn Lanes, Channelization, Median, Island,
Roundabout, Railway Crossing & Traffic Control
At grade intersections are among the most complicated elements of a street or
highway. Intersections usually have less capacity than other parts of the roadway
and are where most traffic conflicts occur. Design criteria should be selected that
will result in balanced and cost-effective design that provides efficient operations
and low crash frequencies, and considers the needs of all user groups. Design
criteria should also meet mobility, environmental, scenic, aesthetic, cultural,
natural resource, and community needs.
Physical design elements include alignment and profile, sight distance, medians
and median openings, provision for right and left-turn lanes, islands, and other
physical elements. The functional area of an intersection extends both upstream
and downstream from the physical intersection area, and includes any auxiliary
lanes and their associated channelization.
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3.7.1 Pavement
For the purpose of defining the width of pavement, the pavement is regarded as
the running surface, excluding shoulders, regardless of the width of the pavement
courses which support the running surface.
Pavements may be classified as single lane, two-lane or multilane. A traffic lane is
a portion of the pavement allotted for the use of a single line of vehicles.
Surface Type
The selection of surface type is determined based on the traffic volume and
composition, soil characteristics, climate, performance of pavements in the area,
availability of materials, energy conservation, initial cost, and the overall annual
maintenance and service-life cost. Important pavement characteristics that are
related to geometric design are the effect on driver behavior and the ability of a
surface to retain its shape and dimensions, to drain, and to retain adequate skid
resistance.
For national roads, all surfaces or pavements shall have a minimum width of 6.1
m sufficient crown slope for drainage shall be provided. Straight slopes of
pavement are favored instead of the use of parabolic crowns. Also the slope of the
subgrade section immediately beneath any surfacing and shoulder shall be
appropriate for lateral drainage.
Types of surfaces broadly are referred to as high, intermediate and low in
consideration of the effect on geometric design. A low design speed should not be
assumed solely because of an initial low type surface.
High type pavements are justified for high volume traffic, which requires that the
road surface be smooth, possess non-skid qualities, and could adequately support
the expected volume and weights of vehicles without fatigue. Intermediate type
surfaces are slightly less in cost and somewhat less in strength than customary
high type pavements. Low type surfaces range from surface treated earth, such as
earth, shell and gravel. The important characteristics of surface type in relation to
geometric design are the ability of a surface to retain its shape, the ability to
drain, and the effect on driver behavior. Smooth surfaces encourage higher
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Cross Slope
Cross slope or crossfall is the slope of the surface of a pavement measured at
right angles to the horizontal alignment. Two-lane and wider undivided
pavements on tangents or on flat curves usually have a crown or high point in the
middle and slope downward toward both edges. With plane cross slopes, there is
a cross slope break at the crown line and a uniform slope on each side. The
purpose of the cross slope is to drain the pavement on tangents and on curves
and to provide superelevation on horizontal curves.
Pavement cross slopes on tangents should be as flat as drainage needs permit
and these in turn are conditioned by the type of pavement and nature of surface.
For a given slope the smoother the surface the more efficient it is in shedding
water, but hazardous conditions likely to result from a thin film of water on the
surface should not be overlooked. On sections other than those with
superelevation, surface cross slopes normally conform to the ranges provided in
Table 3-44.
Where two or more lanes are inclined in the same direction on multilane
pavements, each successive lane outward from the crown line preferably should
have an increased slope. The lane adjacent to the crown line should be pitched at
the normal minimum slope, and on each successive lane outward the rate should
be increased by about 0.5% (0.005 meters per meter). Cross slopes greater than
2% (0.02 meters per meter) should be avoided on high type surfaces. Multilane
divided roadways with unidirectional cross slopes tend to provide more comfort
to drivers when they change lanes and may either drain away from or toward the
median. Where curbed medians are present, this has the disadvantage of
concentrating drainage next to or on higher speed lanes.
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On intermediate type surfaces, the running speeds may not be less than those on
high type pavements because of the generally lower volumes and fewer freight
vehicles. A somewhat greater slope rate for intermediate type surfaces is used
because of the likelihood of less accuracy in construction procedures and greater
proneness to settlement and warping of the cross-section. On these surfaces the
longitudinal grade will assist drainage in the event of ‘rutting’ type of settlement;
otherwise a greater rate than normal cross slope should be used. Also the
intermediate type surfaces frequently are of coarser texture, which tends to
retard the runoff of water.
Low type surfaces, e.g. loose earth, broken stones or gravel, require a greater
cross slope on tangents to prevent the absorption of water into the surface, and
due to greater surface irregularities. On highways with these surfaces, vehicle
speeds generally are not as high as on better type surfaces so that, in an
operational sense, no sacrifice is made.
Small cross slopes are needed on uncurbed pavements to assist drainage in the
event of uneven settlement. Curbed pavements require greater slopes to reduce
water seeping on the traffic lane adjacent to the curb.
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Where unequal-width lanes are used, locating the wider lane on the outside
(right) provides more space for large vehicles that usually occupy that lane,
provides more space for bicycles, and allows drivers to keep their vehicles at a
greater distance from the right edge. Where a curb is adjacent to only one edge,
the wider lane should be placed adjacent to that curb.
Auxiliary lanes at intersections and interchanges should be as wide as the
through-traffic lanes, but not less than 3.0 m. Where continuous two-way left-
turn lanes are provided, the optimum lane width design is 3.0 to 4.8 m.
Shoulders 1.22 m wide or wider do not influence the position of a vehicle
travelling on the adjacent pavement and accordingly do not affect the lane width.
Obstructions within the width, such as retaining walls, bridge trusses or
headwalls reduce the effective width of travelled way in a capacity sense and
wider lane widths may be required to compensate for this.
In residential areas a parallel parking lane at least 2.1 m wide may be provided
on one or both sides of the street, as appropriate to the conditions of lot size and
intensity of development. In commercial and industrial areas, parking lane
widths should be at least 2.4 m wide, usually on both sides of the street.
3.7.3 Shoulders
The term ‘shoulder’ is variously used with modifying adjectives to describe
certain functional or physical characteristics. The ‘graded’ width of shoulder is
measured from the edge of the through traffic lane to the intersection of shoulder
slope and the side slope planes. The ‘surfaced’ width of shoulder is that part
constructed to provide a better all-weather load support than afforded by the
native soils. The ‘usable’ width of shoulder is the actual width that can be used
when a driver makes an emergency or parking stop.
Shoulder width commonly varies from 0.6 m on minor rural roads to 3.6 m on
major roads. Shoulder width is measured from the edge of the pavement to edge
of usable formation and excludes any berm, rounding or extra widths required to
accommodate guide posts, guard fencing, etc. Shoulders must be sufficiently
stable to support occasional vehicle loads in all kinds of weather. Desirably,
shoulder surface should contrast in color and texture with that of through traffic
lanes.
Adequate shoulders should be continuous along the full length of the highway,
but where this is not economically feasible, consideration should be given to the
use of intermittent sections of wide shoulder that can be placed at favorable
locations along the highway with little additional cost.
Well designed and properly maintained shoulders are needed on highways with
an appreciable volume of traffic, on expressways, and on some urban highways to
provide the advantages of:
Structural support to the pavement.
Space for pedestrian and bicycle use, for bus stops, for mail delivery vehicles,
and for the detouring of traffic during construction.
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Space away from the travelled way for vehicles to stop because of mechanical
difficulties, flat tires, or other emergencies.
Space for motorists to stop occasionally to consult road maps or for other
reasons.
Space for evasive maneuvers to avoid potential crashes or reduce their
severity.
Improved sight distance in cut sections, thereby improving safety.
Improved highway capacity because uniform speed is encouraged.
Lateral clearance for signs and guardrails.
Stormwater discharge further from the travelled way.
Space for temporary maintenance operations such as repair work and
storage.
The sense of openness created by shoulders of adequate width contributing
to driving ease and reduced stress.
Some types of shoulders enhance highway aesthetics.
All shoulders should have a minimum width of 1.0 m, but preferably should be
wider. If the shoulders are to be used by animal-drawn vehicles, pack animals or
pedestrians, even greater widths should be considered.
Paving of shoulders with a minimum width of 1.5 m shall be considered when
AADT is greater than 1,250 vehicles, when closely spaced driveways and/or
frequent turning movements affect maintenance, on high embankment sections,
on curved alignment with more than 7% superelevation, where pedestrians are
normally concentrated, and in areas with steep (>6%) and long (>100 m)
gradients. Surfacing of shoulder shall be either 230 mm thick concrete or 75 mm
thick asphalt for arterial national roads; 150 mm thick or 50 mm thick asphalt for
secondary national roads; both with edge line pavement markings. Shoulders
should be so constructed that superelevated pavements will not be soiled with
loose material during heavy rains. Shoulders should also be sufficiently porous to
permit lateral drainage of the subgrade.
There must be no difference in level between the surface of the shoulder and the
surface of the adjoining travel lane – i.e. no edge drop. Also note that pedestrians
and cyclists are unlikely to use a shoulder that has a rougher surface than the
adjacent travel lane.
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3.7.5 Curbs
A curb, by definition, incorporates some raised or vertical element.
Configurations include both vertical and sloping curbs, designed as a separate
unit or integral with the pavement. Vertical and sloping curb designs may include
a gutter, forming a combination curb and gutter section.
Curbs serve any or all of the following purposes: drainage control, roadway edge
delineation, right-of-way reduction, aesthetics, delineation of pedestrian
walkways, reduction of maintenance operations, and assistance in orderly
roadside development.
Curbs are used extensively on all types of low-speed urban highways. Although
they are not considered fixed objects in the context of a clear zone, they may have
an effect on the trajectory of an impacting vehicle and a driver’s ability to control
a vehicle that strikes or overrides one. Sloping curbs with heights up to 100 mm
located at the outside edge of shoulder may be considered for use on high-speed
facilities when necessary for drainage considerations, restricted right-of-way, or
where there is a need for access control. Sloping curbs with 150 mm heights may
be considered for use on urban/suburban facilities with frequent access points
and intersecting streets. Vertical curbs should not be used along expressways or
other high-speed roadways because an out-of-control vehicle may overturn or
become airborne as a result of impact.
The visibility of channelizing islands with curbs and of continuous curbs along
the edges of the traveled way may be improved through the use of reflectorized
markers that are attached to the top of the curb.
When using curbs in conjunction with traffic barriers, such as on bridges,
consideration should be given to the type and height of barrier. Curbs placed in
front of traffic barriers can result in unpredictable impact trajectories, and curbs
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placed closer than 3m in front of traffic barriers may cause an impacting vehicle
to vault over the barrier.
3.7.6 Sidewalks
Justification for the construction of sidewalks depends on the potential for
vehicle-pedestrian conflicts. In general, wherever roadside and land development
conditions affect regular pedestrian movement along a highway, a sidewalk or
path suitable to the conditions should be provided. Ordinarily, little or no
provision is made for pedestrian use of highways. Justification of sidewalks in
rural areas depends upon the volume of pedestrian and vehicular traffic. Likely
sidewalk locations are at points of community development, such as schools,
local businesses and industrial plants.
When two urban communities are in proximity to one another, consideration
should be given to connecting the two communities with sidewalks, even though
pedestrian traffic may be light, to avoid driver-pedestrian conflicts along the
roadway between these communities.
Sidewalk widths in lower speed residential areas may vary from 1.2 to 2.4 m.
Additional width should be considered for higher volume sidewalks. A good
minimum width for a sidewalk that allows two people to pass is 1.8m. Sidewalks
less than 1.5 m wide require the addition of a passing section every 60 m for
accessibility. If provided, the width of a planted strip between the sidewalk and
traveled-way curb should be at least 0.6 m to allow for maintenance activity.
Where sidewalks are placed adjacent to the curb, the widths should be 0.6m
wider than the minimum required width to provide space for roadside hardware
and maintenance, and to allow for the proximity of moving traffic, the opening of
parked car doors, and bumper overhang on angled parking.
Sidewalks used for pedestrian access to schools, parks, shopping areas, and
transit stops, and sidewalks in commercial areas should be provided along both
sides of the street.
For higher speed roadways, a barrier-type rail of adequate height may be used to
separate the walkway from the traveled way.
Sidewalks should have all weather surfaces to serve their intended use and
discourage pedestrians from walking on the traveled way. Cross slope should not
exceed 2%, and they must be designed to accommodate persons with disabilities.
Consideration should be given to the relative locations of inlets and sidewalks or
crosswalks to ensure that neither grates nor ponded water are encountered by
pedestrians.
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Roads and streets should also be designed with a similar clear roadside, however
because of generally lower speeds and narrower side clearances along streets,
the clear roadside area concept may only be partially used.
Desirably, clear zone slope combinations should be selected so that unrestrained
vehicle occupants could be expected to sustain only minor or no injury, and the
vehicle would not incur major damage. Where right-of-way or cost constraints
make recovery distance impractical, the need for roadside barrier should be
considered.
Drainage Channels
Drainage channels perform the important function of collecting and conveying
surface water from the highway right-of-way. Therefore, drainage channels
should have adequate capacity for the design runoff, provide for unusual
stormwater with minimum damage to the highway, and be located and shaped to
provide a smooth transition from the roadway to the back-slope. Channels should
be protected from erosion with the least expensive protective lining that will
withstand the expected flow velocities.
The most economical method of constructing a roadside channel usually entails
the formation of open-channel ditches by cutting into the natural roadside
terrain. A channel with steep sides is the most hydraulically efficient
arrangement, but slope stability usually needs flatter slopes. Construction and
maintenance factors are also relevant, as is the offset available within the right-
of-way. Potential trajectories of vehicles that run off the road are also an
important consideration in designing the roadside.
Where possible, the use of flat fore-slopes of 1V:5H provide recovery distance for
an errant vehicle and permit greater flexibility in the selection of back-slopes that
permit safe travel. The depth of channel should be sufficient to remove surface
water without saturation of the subgrade, which in turn depends on the subgrade
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Side Slopes
Side slopes should be designed to enhance roadway stability and to provide a
reasonable opportunity for recovery for an out-of-control vehicle.
Three regions of the roadside are important to reducing the potential for loss of
control for vehicles that run off the road: the top of the slope (hinge point), the
fore-slope, and the toe of the slope (intersection of the fore-slope with level
ground or with a back-slope forming a ditch).
The hinge point contributes to loss of steering control because vehicles tend to
become airborne in crossing this point. The fore-slope region is important in the
design of high slopes where a driver could attempt a recovery maneuver or
reduce speed before impacting the ditch area. The toe of the slope is often within
the roadside clear zone and therefore, the probability that an out-of-control
vehicle will reach the ditch is high. In this case, a smooth transition between fore-
and back-slopes should be provided.
Rounding at the hinge point can increase the general safety of the roadside. Fore-
slopes steeper than 1V:5H are not desirable because they are non-recoverable
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and their use severely limits the choice of back-slopes; when steeper slopes are
used consideration should be given to the addition of a roadside barrier.
Earth cut and fill slopes should be flattened and rounded to fit with the
topography, consistent with the type of highway. Effective erosion control, low-
cost maintenance, and adequate drainage of the subgrade are largely dependent
upon proper shaping of the side slopes and slope stability. Overall economy
depends not only on the initial construction cost but also on the cost of
maintenance.
Normally, back-slopes should be 1V:3H or flatter. When space is limited back-
slopes steeper than 1V:3H should be evaluated for stability and crash severity.
Retaining walls set back as far as possible from the travelled way should be
considered where slopes are steeper than 1V:2H or are necessary for stability.
Cut slopes used for design should be flat enough to be stable. The slope ratio will
depend upon the nature of the material in the cut and the height of cut or fill.
Generally earth cuts will require slopes of at least 1V:1H, and 1V:2H is better if
vegetation is to be established. Rock slopes may vary from6V:1H to 1V:1H,
depending upon the nature of the rock, direction of stratification and jointing.
Desirably, the toe of the rock-cut slope should be located beyond the minimum
lateral distance from the edge of the traveled way needed by the driver of an
errant vehicle to either regain control or to slow down the vehicle. Wide shelves
at the bottom of rock cuts also have advantages in providing space for falling
boulders.
Embankment slopes outside of clear zones, likewise, will depend upon the
embankment materials. Earth slopes shall be 2V:3H or flatter. Slopes composed
of large fragments of coarse, hard rock may stand as steep as 1V:1H. Slopes
steeper than 1V:1H shall be of hand-placed materials. The use of cribbing or
retaining walls should be avoided wherever possible, as these are expensive to
build and maintain.
Earth slopes in cut or fill which are one meter high or less shall, in general, have
1V:5H slopes to provide clear zone capability.
The intersection of the back slope line with the adjacent original ground surface
shall be rounded to provide a pleasing transition from man-made to natural
conditions, to promote the growth of vegetation and to avoid slides. The original
design should provide for covering raw slopes with protective mulch of rice
straw, grass cuttings, or similar materials to protect them until voluntary
vegetation covers can establish themselves.
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with a traffic barrier, (5) delineate the obstacle if the above alternatives are not
appropriate, or (6) take no action.
Longitudinal roadside barriers are located along the roadside and in medians,
and are generally denoted as one of three types: flexible, semi-rigid or rigid. The
main difference between each type is the amount of barrier deflection that takes
place when the barrier is struck. The function and description of each roadside
barrier is provided in Table 3-45.
Flexible barrier systems undergo considerable dynamic deflection upon impact
and generally impose lower impact forces on the vehicle than semi-rigid and
rigid systems. They are designed primarily to contain rather than redirect the
vehicle and need more lateral clearance from fixed objects due to the deflection
during impact.
Semi-rigid systems achieve resistance through combined flexure and tensile
strength of the rail, with posts near the point of impact being designed to break
away. Posts outside the impact zone provide sufficient resistance to control the
deflection of the longitudinal rail to an acceptable limit and redirect the errant
vehicle along the path of traffic flow.
A rigid system (a concrete or block barrier) does not deflect substantially upon
impact, and energy is dissipated by raising and lowering of the vehicle and
deformation of the vehicle body. As the angle of impact increases barrier
deflection forces increase because of the absence of barrier deflection.
Installation of a rigid system is most appropriate where shallow impact angles
are expected such as along narrow medians or shoulders, where deflection
cannot be tolerated such as at a work zone, and where heavy traffic volumes
hamper replacement of damaged rail. Rigid systems are generally able to provide
higher containment than flexible or semi-rigid systems, and so are more
appropriate where containment is critical – such as on expressway medians and
bridges. Also they often do not need to be repaired after an impact.
Flexible Barrier System Four wire ropes Wire Rope safety system work through high tension cables. An
errant vehicle deflects the wire ropes, the supporting posts bend
and the vehicle is re-directed back toward the direction travel.
Semi-Rigid System W-Beam Steel Barrier Steel W-beam barriers are perhaps the most common barrier,
Beam Steel Barrier and are used extensively in urban and rural areas. The
Hollow Box Steel Barrier effectiveness of W-beam is dependent on its length and offset
from the travelled way.
Rigid System Stone Masonry-Parkway Concrete barrier system maybe considered on high volume
T-Shape Concrete Barrer roads as it return full functionality after impact, provide excellent
Concrete Single Slope Barrier whole of life time cost and minimize the risk to workers on
Vertical Face Concrete Barrier roadwork sites. F-shape concrete block barrier system are
High Containment Conc. Barrier adequately and physically connected back to each other to form
a continuous system of units.
Road Work System F-Shape Concrete Barrier Concrete barrier are best suited to situation where there is
Plastic Water filled Barrier limited space between the barrier and the hazard. Typically, this
Truck Mounted Alternator occur in narrow median or in areas of restricted road cross
section
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Median Barrier
A median barrier is a longitudinal system used to minimize the possibility of an
errant vehicle crossing into the path of traffic travelling in the opposite direction.
Although cross-median collisions may be reduced by median barriers, total crash
frequency will generally increase because the space available for return-to-the-
road maneuvers is decreased.
For all divided highways regardless of median width and traffic volume, the
median roadside should be examined for obstacles and lateral drop-offs that may
indicate the use of a barrier is appropriate.
As for longitudinal barriers, proper treatment of the exposed end of median
barriers is important.
An evaluation of the number of median openings, crash history, alignment, sight
distance, design speed, traffic volume and median width should be conducted
prior to installing median barriers on non-expressway facilities. Median barriers
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are always provided on expressways unless the median is so wide that an errant
vehicle is unlikely to cross it.
Types of median barrier include double-faced blocked-out steel W-beam installed
on strong posts, box-beam barrier installed on weak posts, concrete barrier, and
cable barrier installed on light steel posts.
The dynamic lateral deflection characteristics of a median barrier should be
matched to the site. The median barrier should be designed to redirect the
colliding vehicle in the same direction as the traffic flow. Maximum deflection
should be less than one-half the median width to prevent penetration into the
opposing lanes of traffic.
A concrete barrier with a sloping face has advantages on heavily traveled
facilities, in particular on highways with narrow medians, because of its high
containment capability and its rigidity and lack of deflection. Precast concrete
median barrier can be used for temporary protection of work areas and for
guiding traffic during construction, and it can be incorporated permanently as
part of the completed facility.
Crash Cushions
The primary function of crash cushions is to decelerate errant vehicles to a safe
stop. A common application of a crash cushion is to shield roadside and median
barrier terminals, especially at expressway gores.
Crash cushions should also be considered as an alternative to a roadside barrier
to shield rigid objects such as bridge piers, overhead sign supports, abutments,
and retaining wall ends.
Crash cushions should be located on a level area free from curbs or other
physical obstacles.
3.7.9 Medians
A median is the portion of a highway separating opposing directions of the
traveled way, and are highly desirable on arterials carrying four or more lanes.
Median width is the dimension between the edges of the traveled way for the
roadways in the opposing directions of travel, including the width of the left
shoulders, if any. In addition to separating opposing traffic, they provide a
recovery area for out-of-control vehicles, a stopping area in cases of emergencies,
allow space for speed changes and for storage of left-turning and U-turning
vehicles, diminish headlight glare, and provide width for future lanes. They may
also offer an open green space, provide a refuge area for pedestrians, and may
control the location of intersection traffic conflicts.
Medians should be highly visible day and night, in contrast with the through
traffic lanes, and as wide as feasible but in balance with other components of the
highway cross section. The width of the median should be great enough to
prevent most of the vehicles from reaching the opposing traffic lanes. The general
range of median widths is from a minimum of 1.5 m to a desirable dimension of
24 m for a large tractor-trailer trucks without encroaching on the through lanes
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of a major road. They may be depressed, raised, or flush with the traveled way
surface.
A depressed median is generally preferred on expressways for efficient drainage.
Median side-slopes should preferably be no steeper than 5H:IV. Drainage inlets in
the median should be designed either with the top of the inlet flush with the
ground or with culvert ends provided with traversable safety grates.
Raised medians are commonly used on arterial streets where it is desirable to
regulate left-turn movements.
Flush medians are normally used on urban arterials, but when used on
expressways a median barrier is included. They are also used on urban streets
where two-way left-turn lanes are required.
Un-signalized intersections on rural divided highways are high risk, and no
longer used in some countries in preference to roundabouts or signals. Where
un-signalized intersections are used on rural divided highways, the median
should generally be as wide as practical that will allow all selected design
vehicles to safely execute left, right and U-turn maneuvers. Wide medians also
facilitate storage area for vehicles crossing the highway at un-signalized
intersections, and at median opening serving commercial and private driveways.
However, wide medians are not suitable for signalized intersections.
Narrower medians operate better at un-signalized intersections in urban and
suburban areas, except where wider medians are needed to accommodate
turning and crossing maneuvers by larger vehicles.
Medians about 4.5 m or more in width usually are constructed without curbs.
Medians of lesser width may be curbed to provide a more positive separation.
Curbs on the median may be either mountable or barrier types. Barrier curbs are
sometimes fitting on narrow medians in built-up areas where it is necessary to
prevent drivers from turning left or making U-turns across the median. Where
barrier curbs are used, an offset is desirable.
Sometimes mountable curbs are used on narrow medians where there is little or
no reason for drivers to make left turns or U-turns, and on medians of
intermediate width. A paved flush median is also used for median widths of 2 to
4.5 m, sometimes in conjunction with median guardrail.
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Figure 3-17 Example of a High Speed Road with Wide Median but Hazardous Planters within
the Clear Zone
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3.7.13 Tunnels
Tunnels may be constructed to carry highways under or through natural
obstacles or to minimize the impact of a highway on the community. General
conditions under which tunnels may be constructed include:
Long, narrow terrain ridges where a cut section may be either costly or have
environmental consequences.
Narrow rights-of-way where all of the surface area is needed for street
purposes.
Large intersection areas or a series of intersections on an irregular or
diagonal pattern.
Railroad yards, airport runways, or similar facilities.
Existing or planned parks or similar land uses.
Locations where right-of-way acquisition costs exceed the cost of tunnel
construction and operation.
Tunnel construction can be carried out by either cut-and-cover or mining
methods. A typical two lane tunnel cross section is provided in Figure 3-18.
Cut-and-cover tunnels are constructed from the surface as either trench or cut-
and-cover methods. In the trench method, prefabricated tunnel sections are
constructed, floated to site, sunk into a dredged trench, joined together
underwater, and then the trench is backfilled. The cut-and-cover method is the
most common type of tunnel construction for shallow tunnels, often in urban
areas. This method consists of excavating an open cut, building the tunnel within
the cut, and backfilling over the completed structure. Surface disruption and
management of utilities add to expense and difficulty for this method.
Mining methods involve constructing tunnels, without removing overlying rock
or soil, through either hard rock or soft ground. A tunnel constructed through
solid, intact, and homogeneous rock normally involves the least structural
demands and lowest construction costs. However a tunnel located below water in
material that needs immediate and heavy support may involve expensive soft-
ground tunneling techniques such as shield and compressed air methods.
The shape of the structural cross section of a tunnel varies with the type and
magnitude of loadings. In those cases where the structure will be subjected to
roof loads with little or no side pressures, a horseshoe-shaped cross section is
used. As side pressures increase, curvature is introduced into the sidewalls and
invert struts added. When loadings approach a distribution similar to hydrostatic
pressures, a full circular section is usually more efficient and economical. All
cross sections are dimensioned to provide adequate space for ventilation ducts.
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Source: AASHTO, 2010, Technical Manual for Design & Construction of Road Tunnels – Civil Elements,
September. Used by Permission.
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Minimum vertical clearance is 5.0 m for all roads, to provide allowance for
future paving of the roadway. Any vertical clearance below 5.0 m shall be
subject to the approval of the Director of Bureau of Design.
Normally, pedestrians are not permitted in expressway tunnels, however space is
required for emergency walking and for access by maintenance personnel.
Raised sidewalks 0.7 m wide beyond the shoulder areas are desirable to both
provide a safety walk and prevent the overhang of vehicles from damaging the
tunnel wall finish or tunnel fixtures.
Directional traffic should be separated, to reduce the potential for crashes and
overcome the adverse effects of two-way traffic in a confined space, by providing
twin openings, multilevel sections, or terraced structures.
Road tunnels require drainage to deal with surface water as well as water
leakage. A drainage system can comprise of pipes, channels, sump/pumps, oil
water separators and control systems for the safe and effective collection,
storage, separation and disposal of liquids from tunnels. The drainage system
should accommodate water intrusion and firefighting requirements.
Combustable materials such as PVC and fibreglass pipe should not be used to
prevent fire from spreading through the drainage system.
The ventilation system in a tunnel maintain acceptable air quality levels for short
term exposure within the tunnel. Ventilation requirements consider two primary
criteria: handling of emissions from vehicles using the tunnel and handling of
smoke during a fire. The two main ventilation systems used in tunnels are
longitudinal ventilation and transverse ventilation.
For more information on Tunnel Design, refer to Volume 5.
Detailed information on design and construction of road tunnels, tunnel drainage
requirements and tunnel ventilation requirements may be obtained from the
AASHTO Technical Manual for Design & Construction of Road Tunnels – Civil
Elements, September 2010.
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Pedestrian Refuge
A median or crossing island is a raised area separating two main directions of
traffic movement. Medians tend to be long and continuous, while crossing islands
are shorter.
The primary advantage of a median or crossing island is that it separates conflicts
in time and place. The pedestrian faced with two or more lanes of traffic in each
direction must determine a safe gap for two, four, or even six lanes at a time. A
refuge allows pedestrians to cross one direction of traffic at a time. Ideally a
pedestrian should not have to cross more than two lanes at a time unless the
crossing is signal-controlled.
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immediate response to induce pedestrians to walk out of their way to use the
crossing.
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Source: Highway Engineering 5th Edition, Paul H. Wright and Ragner J. Paquette
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Source: Highway Engineering 5th Edition, Paul H. Wright and Ragner J. Paquette
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Table 3-47 Possible and Design Capacities of Highways Constructed to High Design
Standard in Terms of Passenger Cars per Hour
* Running speed for the faster vehicles will exceed the average running speed shown by an amount varying
from about 8 kph (in the case of 55-65 kph average) to about 11 kph (in the case of the 70-80 kph average).
Measures of Congestion
Three key considerations in geometric design are the roadway design, the traffic
using the roadway, and the congestion on the roadway. The first two items can be
measured in exact units, but the third is more difficult.
For uninterrupted traffic flow (i.e. flow not influenced by signalized
intersections), traffic operational conditions are defined by using three primary
measures: speed, volume (or rate of flow), and density. Density describes the
proximity of vehicles to one another and reflects the freedom to maneuver within
the traffic stream. As density increases from zero, the rate of flow also increases
because of more vehicles on the roadway. However, as density continues to
increase, a point is reached at which speed declines due to vehicle interactions.
The maximum flow rate is reached at which the high density of traffic results in
markedly decreased speeds and a reduced flow rate. This maximum rate of flow
for any given facility is defined as its capacity. As capacity is approached, flow
becomes more unstable because available gaps in the traffic stream become
fewer and fewer. At capacity, there are no usable gaps in the traffic stream, and
any conflict from vehicles entering or leaving the facility, or from internal lane
changing maneuvers, creates a disturbance that cannot be effectively damped or
dissipated. Thus, operation at or near capacity is difficult to maintain for long
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Expressways
Expressway capacity needs are determined from directional design hourly
volumes (DDHV) for the appropriate design period. In large metropolitan areas,
the selection of appropriate design traffic volumes and design periods may be
influenced by system planning. Segments of expressways may be constructed or
reconstructed to be commensurate with either intermediate traffic demands or
with traffic based on the completed system. Actual in-service capacity may be
affected by the design of weaving sections and ramp terminals.
3.8.3 Factors Other Than Traffic Volume That Affect Operating Conditions
Highway Factors
Most modern expressways have adequate cross-sectional dimensions, but many
are not ideal with respect to design speed, weaving section design, and ramp
terminal design.
On other classes of multilane highways, intersections often interfere with the
free-flow operation of traffic. Development adjacent to the highway with
attendant driveways and interference from traffic entering and leaving the
through-traffic lanes cause an increase in congestion and may increase crash
frequency even at relatively low volumes. Sharp curves and steep grades cannot
always be avoided, and it is sometimes appropriate to compromise on cross-
sectional dimensions. All of these conditions combine to cause congestion to be
perceived at lower traffic volumes than would be the case for highways designed
with ideal features and protected by full access control.
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For urban streets with signalized intersections at relatively close intervals, the
traffic volumes that could otherwise be served are reduced because a portion of
each signal cycle is assigned exclusively to the crossing highway.
For a highway that is deficient in some of its characteristics and where the traffic
stream is composed of a mixture of vehicle classes, compensatory adjustment
factors need to be applied to the traffic flow rates used as design values for ideal
highway conditions. These adjustments are needed to determine the volume of
mixed traffic that can be served under minimum acceptable operating conditions
on the highway under consideration.
Alignment
For traveling at any given speed, the better the roadway alignment, the more
traffic it can carry. It follows that congestion will generally be perceived at lower
volumes if the design speed is low. The highway should be subdivided into
sections of consistent geometric design characteristics for analysis. A single
limiting curve or steep grade in an otherwise gentle alignment will thus be
identified as the critical feature limiting roadway capacity.
Weaving Sections
Weaving sections are highway segments where the pattern of traffic entering and
leaving at contiguous points of access results in vehicle paths crossing each other.
Where the distance in which the crossing is accomplished is relatively short in
relation to the volume of weaving traffic, operations within the highway section
will be congested. A reduction in operating speed of about 10 kph below that for
which the highway as a whole operates can be considered a tolerable degree of
congestion for weaving sections.
Ramp Terminals
Ramps and ramp terminals are features that can adversely influence operating
conditions on expressways if the demand for their use is excessive or if their
design is deficient. When congestion develops at expressway ramp junctions,
some through vehicles avoid the outside lane of the expressway, thereby adding
to the congestion in the remaining lanes. Thus, if there are only two lanes in one
direction, the efficiency per lane is not as high on the average as that for three or
more lanes in one direction.
Apart from the effect on through traffic, traffic that uses the ramp is exposed to a
different form of congestion related to the total volume of traffic in the outside
lane of the expressway in the vicinity of the ramp junction.
Traffic Factors
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traffic that will result in acceptable degrees of congestion, and also upon the
period of time over which the flow should extend.
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U-Turn Slots
The provision of U-turn slots requires careful consideration as maneuvers in
urban or heavily developed residential or commercial sectors may create
inefficient traffic operations. Vehicles that slow down or stop in a lane primarily
used by through traffic may cause a decrease in the capacity for through traffic
and an increase in the potential for rear-end collisions. Also U-turns where
medians are present may have limited sight distance, which may also increase
the accident potential.
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Level of Service General Operating Min. Speed Service Flow Max. VIC (4
Conditions (kph) Rate LANE)
A Free flow 97 700 0.318
B Reasonably free flow 97 1120 0.509
C Stable flow 97 1844 0.247
D Approaching unstable flow 92 2015 0.918
E Unstable flow 85-80 2200-2300 1.00
F Forced or breakdown flow Variable VAR VAR
Source: Table 2-4 (Modified) AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highway and Streets 6th
Edition. Used by Permission.
The relationship between highway type and location and the level of service
appropriate for design is summarized in Table 3-53.
Appropriate Level of Service for Specified Combinations of Area & Terrain Type
Functional
Class Rural – Level Rural – Rolling Rural – Urban and
Mountainous Suburban
Expressway B B C C or D
Arterial B B C C or D
Collector C C D D
Local D D D D
Source: Table 2-5, AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highway and Streets 6th Edition. Used
by Permission.
A highway design should aim to provide the highest level of service practical to
balance the operating conditions that the majority of motorists will accept as
satisfactory, the most extensive highway improvement that the DPWH considers
practical, and the demands of the motorist and the general public with the
finances available to meet these demands.
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Weaving Sections
Weaving sections occur where one-way traffic streams cross by merging and
diverging maneuvers. The design level of service of a weaving section is
dependent on its length, number of lanes, acceptable degree of congestion, and
relative volumes of individual movements. Weaving sections are designed,
checked, and adjusted so that the level of service is consistent with the remaining
highway. Large-volume weaving movements usually result in considerable
friction and reduction in speed of all traffic. Further, there is a definite limit to the
amount of traffic that can be handled on a given weaving section without undue
congestion. This limiting volume is a function of the distribution of traffic
between the weaving movements, the length of weaving section, and the number
of lanes.
Weaving sections may be simple or multiple. A simple weaving section comprises
a single entrance followed by a single exit. A multiple weaving section consists of
two or more overlapping weaving sections. Multiple weaving sections occur
frequently in urban areas where there is need for collection and distribution of
high concentrations of traffic.
The weaving section should have a length and number of lanes based on the
appropriate level of service. Refer Table 3-54.
Table 3-54 Service Flow Rates Under Ideal Conditions of a Major Weaving Section (pc/h)
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Intersections
Design capacities of intersections are affected by a very large number of
variables. To the extent that these variables can be predicted for the design year,
design capacities can be estimated by procedures for signalized and un-
signalized intersections given in Section 4.
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4 Intersection Design
An intersection is the general area where two or more highways join or cross,
within which are included the roadway and roadside facilities for traffic
movements in that area. It is an important part of a highway since much of the
efficiency, safety, speed, cost of operation, and capacity are dependent upon its
design.
There are three types of intersections, namely, at-grade intersections and grade
separated intersections without ramps, and interchanges.
4.1.1 Introduction
Except for expressways, all highways have intersections at-grade, so that the
intersection area is a part of every connecting road or street. In this area must
occur all crossing and turning movements.
Un-channelized intersections are the cheapest and least elaborate.
An at-grade intersection in which traffic is directed into definite paths by islands
for the efficient operation of all traffic, through cross and turning, is termed a
channelized intersection. Extensive intersection areas where drivers may have
considerable latitude in movement should be avoided. Likewise, intersections
which are ‘over channelized’ may be undesirable in that drivers may be confused
as to proper paths to follow between several islands. The design and location of
the islands must be given careful study and several alternate plans should be
considered. In designing, the position and shape of the islands are best
determined graphically on a scale drawing of the intersection after the desired
paths of all movements have been delineated thereon, with due recognition of the
volumes and types of traffic making each turn. (Refer Figure 4-1 for General
Types of AT-Grade Intersections). The guidelines in designing at-grade
intersections are:
Provide sight distance at least equal to the stopping distance for the design
speed of the road, and preferably more. In line with this suggestion, avoid if
possible intersections in cuts or near the crest of vertical curves. Where
necessary to protect the intersection from future obstruction by billboards or
houses, purchase additional right-of-way at the time the road is built.
If possible, avoid placing the intersection where the major road is on a sharp
horizontal curve.
Intersections where either road is on a steep grade are difficult to design, so
avoid them if possible. Where they cannot be avoided try to preserve the
grade of the major road with as little change as possible and warp the minor
road into it.
Where an intersection occurs in fill with the major road considerably higher
that the minor road, make certain that the ramps of the minor road begin
some distance from the edge of the major road. This will provide an easy and
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safe place for the minor road traffic to pause. If this is not done there is a
temptation for the minor road traffic to ‘make a run for it’.
Make the intersection as nearly right angled as possible. Right angle
intersections are safer and cheaper to construct. For every acute intersection
it is usually better to stagger the minor road, or resort to some simple form of
channelization.
Human Factors
Human factors include:
Driving habits
Ability of drivers to make decisions
Driver expectancy
Decision and reaction times
Conformance to natural paths of movement
Pedestrian use and habits
Bicycle traffic use and habits
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Physical Elements
Physical elements include:
Character and use of abutting property
Vertical alignments at the intersection
Sight distance
Angle of the intersection
Conflict area
Speed-change lanes
Geometric design features
Traffic control devices such a sign, signal, marking or other service
Lighting equipment
Roadside design features
Environmental factors
Cross walks
Driveways
Access management treatments
Economic Factors
Economic factors include:
Cost of improvements
Effect of controlling or limiting rights-of-way on abutting residential or
commercial properties where channelization restricts vehicular movements
Energy consumption
Three-Leg Intersections
The most common type of three-leg intersection maintains the normal pavement
width of both highways except for the paved corner radii or where widening is
needed to accommodate the selected design vehicle.
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Four-Leg Intersections
The overall design principles, island arrangements, use of auxiliary lanes, and
many other aspects of the previous discussion of three-leg intersection design
also apply to four-leg intersections.
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Multi-Leg Intersections
Multi-leg intersections, with five or more intersection legs, should be avoided
wherever practical. At locations where multi-leg intersections are used, it may be
satisfactory to have all intersection legs intersect at a common paved area if
volumes are light and stop control is used. At other than minor intersections,
traffic operational efficiency can often be improved by reconfigurations that
remove some conflicting movements from the major intersection. Such
reconfigurations are accomplished by realigning one or more of the intersecting
legs and combining some of the traffic movements at adjacent subsidiary
intersections. Other options include redesigning the intersection to a roundabout
or converting one or more legs to one-way operation away from the intersection.
Roundabouts
The properly designed roundabout is the safest form of at-grade intersection,
with the least number of conflict points and ability to control speeds to a safe
level.
A roundabout is an intersection with a central island around which traffic must
travel counter-clockwise and in which entering traffic must yield to circulating
traffic. Other common traffic control features of roundabouts include:
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Channelized approaches.
Appropriate curvature designed into the intersection geometry so that travel
speeds on the circulatory roadway are typically less than 50 kph.
Splitter islands on each leg of the roundabout that have multiple roles to (a)
separate entering and exiting traffic, (b) deflect and slow entering traffic, and
(c) provide a pedestrian refuge. Refer Figure 4-4 and Figure 4-5.
On high speed roads, the splitter island should generally extend across the
full width of the approach lanes as seen by the approaching driver. The length
should provide for adequate deflection and deceleration. Refer Figure 4-6.
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Roundabouts can be classified into three basic categories according to size and
number of lanes:
Mini-roundabouts
Single-lane roundabouts
Multilane roundabouts
Any of these categories may be appropriate for application in suburban, or urban
areas. Single-lane and multilane roundabouts may be used in rural areas, but
mini-roundabouts are not suitable for high-speed rural roads. Roundabouts in
urban areas may need smaller circle diameters due to smaller design vehicles,
constraints of existing right-of-way, and more extensive pedestrian and bicycle
features. Roundabouts in rural areas typically have higher approach speeds, and
this may need special attention to visibility, approach alignment, and cross-
sectional details. Suburban roundabouts may combine features of both urban and
rural roundabouts. Further details and discussion of roundabout could be found
in DPWH Road Safety Design Manual May 2012.
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be avoided as much as possible. Normally, the grade line of the major road should
be carried through the intersection and that of the minor road should be adjusted
to it. This involves transition in the crown of the minor road to an inclined cross
section at its junction with the major road. Reference point of radius is at the
edge of carriageway. For simple un-channelized intersections involving low
design speeds and stop or signal control, it may be desirable to warp the crowns
of both roads into a plane at the intersection. Changes from one cross slope to
another should be gradual. Intersections at which a minor road crosses a
multilane divided highway with a narrow median on a superelevated curve
should be avoided whenever practical.
Local Urban Streets (within a municipality or city, providing access to property, usually low-
speed and low-volume)
The intersection and approach areas where vehicles are stored while waiting to
enter the intersection should be designed with a relatively flat grade; the
maximum grade on the approach leg should not exceed 2% where practical and
at least 30 m in length.
At street intersections, there are two distinct radii that need to be considered –
the effective turning radius of the turning vehicle and the radius of the curb
corner radius (or return). The effective turning radius is the minimum radius
appropriate for turning from the right-hand travel lane on the approach street to
the appropriate lane of the receiving street. This radius is determined by the
selection of a design vehicle appropriate for the streets being designed and the
lane on the receiving street into which that design vehicle will turn. For local
urban streets this radius should be at least 7.5 m.
The radius of the curb corner radius (or return) should be no greater than that
needed to accommodate the design turning radius. However, the curb return
radius should be at least 1.5 m to enable effective use of street-sweeping
equipment.
In industrial areas with no on-street parking, the radius of the curb return should
not be less than 10 m.
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Intersection
Key Traffic Management Selection Considerations
Type
Unsignalized Basic
Used at urban locations where low-volumes and low-speeds occur and at rural sites with low cross and turning volumes
Design to be compact and low cost, and can be used with any road surface
Offers no protection to turning traffic and causes through traffic to slow when such movements occur
Skewed T-intersection layouts may have safety problems
Capacity
Unsignalized intersections rely on gap selection for the entry of minor road traffic into or across the major road and
for left-turn movements from the major road
Higher conflicting volumes result in increased delays and higher risk of crashed
Auxiliary lanes
Auxiliary lanes may be added to the basic intersection to improve safety
Typically used in rural areas where high-speed, low-volume traffic occurs and the volume and slow maneuvering of
turning traffic is sufficient to create conflict with following traffic
Generally intended to provide separation for the maneuvering of a single vehicle
Right passing lane allows traffic to bypass a vehicle waiting to turn left and is not intended for locations with regular
queing
Left-turning lane allows traffic to decelerate and turn without affecting through vehicles
Lanes should be installed on a needs basis and may not be required on all approaches
Channelized
Used where there is a need to define vehicle paths where there would otherwise be a large area of pavement; also used
where conflicting vehicle travel paths need to be separated and where approaches are at odd angles or multi-leg
Applicable where turning traffic movements are heavy with frequent queuing
Necessary where refuges for pedestrians are required or where street furniture requires protection
Used to cater for unusual maneuvers or where unwanted movements are to be eliminated
Staggered T-intersection
Generally used to treat left-angle crashes at existing low-volume rural cross intersections
Left-right configuration on two-lane, two-way roads may develop safety problems at high traffic volumes
Roundabout Generally much safer than traffic signals in terms of crash severity
Usually less delay than traffic signals during the off-peak periods, leading to less overall delay to traffic throughout the day
Readily caters for heavy left-turns
Can be used in local streets
Controls vehicle speeds as a traffic calming measure (e.g. at the extremities of high pedestrian activity area)
May not be suitable where strong coordination of movement required along a route
May not be able to provide sufficient capacity for high-volume sites
Dominant flows on one approach may lead to excessive delay on the subsequent approach
Does not allow positive regulation of particular movements (e.g. access to local street from a busy road)
Are less safe than signals for on-road cyclists, particularly at multi-lane roundabouts
Need to consider pedestrians of all types (young, aged and impaired) and cyclist movement and numbers
Need to consider bus and long-vehicle requirements (e.g. movement and numbers)
Signalized Provides the most suitable treatment for very high-volume sites
Enables efficient coordination along traffic routes
Can readily accommodate priority measures for public transport
May provide controlled crossings for pedestrians and cyclists
Safer for cyclists than multi-lane roundabouts
Preferred for sites with high pedestrian activity
Generally preferred to roundabouts for intersections along freight routes
Are not desirable from a safety perspective in high-speed environments
The following guidelines indicate those circumstances where signals are of significant benefit. The terms ‘major’
and ‘minor’ are used respectively to indicate the roads carrying the larger and smaller traffic volume:
1. Traffic volume: Where the volume of traffic is the principal reason for providing a control device, traffic signals may be
considered when the major road carries at least 600 vehicles/hour (two-way) and the minor road concurrently carries at
least 200 vehicles/hour (highest approach volume) on one approach over any four hours of an average day.
2. Continuous traffic: Where traffic on the major road is sufficient to cause undue delay or hazard for traffic on a minor road, traffic
signals may be considered when the major road carries at least 900 vehicles/hour (two-way) and the minor road concurrently
carries at least 100 vehicles/hour (highest approach volume) on one approach over any four hours of an average day.
3. Pedestrian safety: To help pedestrians cross a road in safety, signals may be considered when over any four
hours of an average day, the major road carries 600 vehicles/hour (two-way); or where there is a central
pedestrian refuge at least 1.2m wide, the major road flow exceeds 1000 vehicles/hour; and 150
pedestrians/hour or more cross the major road.
4. Crashes: Where the intersection has an average of three or more reported casualty crashes per year over a
three-year period where the accidents could have been prevented by traffic signals, and traffic flows are at least
80% of the volume warrants in (1) and (2) above.
5. Combined factors: In exceptional cases, where no single guideline is satisfied but where two or more of the
warrants given in (1), (2) and (3) above are satisfied to the extent of 80% or more of the stated criteria.
Source: AustRoads Guide to Traffic Management, Part6 Intersections, Interchanges and Crossings, Table 2.4
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Urban Collector Roads (within municipalities or cities, linking local streets to important centers)
The pattern of traffic movements at intersections and the volume of traffic on
each approach during one or more peak periods of the day, including pedestrian
and bicycle traffic, are relevant for the design of traffic control devices, lane
width, and where applicable, the type and extent of channelization needed. The
arrangement of islands and the shape and length of auxiliary lanes may differ
depending on whether or not signal control is used. The composition and
character of traffic is a design control, with movement of large trucks needing
larger intersection areas and flatter approach grades.
The number and location of approach roadways and their angles of intersection
are major controls for intersection geometric design, the location of islands, and
the types of control devices. Intersections at grade should preferably be limited
to no more than four approach legs. When two crossroads intersect the collector
highway in close proximity, they should be combined into a single intersection.
Sight Distance
Intersections have the potential for several different types of vehicular conflicts.
The likelihood of these conflicts actually occurring can be greatly reduced
through the provision of adequate intersection sight distances and appropriate
traffic controls.
Sight distance is provided at intersections to allow drivers to perceive the
presence of potentially conflicting vehicles in sufficient time to stop or adjust
their speed as appropriate. The driver of a vehicle approaching an intersection
should have an unobstructed view of the entire intersection, including any traffic-
control devices, and sufficient lengths along the intersecting highway. The sight
distance needed under various assumptions of physical conditions and driver
behavior is directly related to vehicle speeds and to the resultant distances
traversed during perception-reaction time and braking.
Sight distance is also provided at intersections to allow the drivers of stopped
vehicles a sufficient view of the intersecting highway to decide when to enter the
intersecting highway or to cross it. In some cases, a major-road vehicle may need
to stop or slow to accommodate a maneuver by a minor-road vehicle. In such a
case, to enhance traffic operations, intersection sight distances that exceed
stopping sight distances are desirable along the major road.
Specified areas along intersection approach legs and across their included
corners should be clear of obstructions that might block a driver’s view of
potentially conflicting vehicles. These specified areas are known as clear sight
triangles. The dimensions of the legs of the sight triangles depend on the design
speeds of the intersecting roadways and the type of traffic control used at the
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Intersection Control
The recommended dimensions of the sight triangles vary with the type of traffic
control used at an intersection because different types of control impose
different legal constraints on drivers. Procedures to determine sight distances at
intersections are presented below according to different types of traffic control,
as listed below.
Table 4-2 Case A ‘No Traffic Control’ – Length of Sight Triangle Leg
20 20
30 25
40 35
50 45
60 55
70 65
80 75
90 90
100 105
110 120
120 135
130 150
Source: Table 9-3 in AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6 th Edition.
Used by Permission.
Where the grade along an intersection approach exceeds 3%, the leg of the clear
sight triangle along that approach should be adjusted by multiplying the
appropriate sight distance from Table 4-2 by the appropriate adjustment factor
from Table 4-3.
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Table 4-3 Adjustment Factors for Sight Distance Based on Approach Grade
Note: Based on ratio of stopping sight distance on specified approach grade to stopping sight distance on
level terrain.
Source: Table 9-4 in AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6 th Edition.
Used by Permission.
If the sight distance given in Table 4-2, as adjusted for grades, cannot be
provided, consideration should be given to installing regulatory speed signing to
reduce speeds or installing stop signs on one or more approaches.
No departure sight triangle is needed at an uncontrolled intersection because
such intersections typically have very low traffic volumes.
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If the sight distance along the major road, including any appropriate adjustments,
cannot be provided, consideration should be given to installing regulatory speed
signing on the major-road approaches.
Table 4-4 Case B1 ‘Left Turn from Stop’ – Design Intersection Sight Distance
20 20 41.7 45
30 35 62.6 65
40 50 83.4 85
50 65 104.3 105
60 85 125.1 130
70 105 146.0 150
80 130 166.8 170
90 160 187.7 190
100 185 208.5 210
110 220 229.4 230
120 250 250.2 255
130 285 271.1 275
Note: Intersection sight distance shown is for a stopped passenger car to turn left onto a two-lane highway
with no median and grades 3% or less. For other conditions, the time gap should be adjusted and the sight
distance recalculated.
Source: Table 9-6 in AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6 th Edition.
Used by Permission.
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Table 4-5 Case B2 ‘Right Turn from Stop’ and Case B3 ‘Crossing Maneuver’ – Design
Intersection Sight Distance
Note: Intersection sight distance shown is for a stopped passenger car to turn left onto a two-lane highway
with no median and grades 3% or less. For other conditions, the time gap should be adjusted and the sight
distance recalculated.
Source: Table 9-8 in AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6 th Edition.
Used by Permission.
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for Case A except that minor-road vehicles that do not stop are assumed to
decelerate to 60% of the minor-road design speed rather than 50%. Distances
and times should be adjusted as necessary for other design vehicles, the grade of
the minor-road approach, and the width of median on the major-road.
The length of the sight triangle leg of the approach along the major road is given in
Table 4-7.
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Major Road Stopping Design Values (m) for Minor-Road Design Speed (kph)
Design Sight
Speed (kph) Distance (m) 20 30-80 90 100 110 120 130
20 20 40 40 40 40 45 45 45
30 35 60 55 60 60 65 65 70
40 50 80 75 80 80 85 90 90
50 65 100 95 95 100 105 110 115
60 85 120 110 115 120 125 130 135
70 105 140 130 135 140 145 150 160
80 130 160 145 155 160 165 175 180
90 160 180 165 175 180 190 195 205
100 185 200 185 190 200 210 215 225
110 220 220 200 210 220 230 240 245
120 250 240 220 230 240 250 260 270
130 285 260 235 250 260 270 280 290
Note: Values in the table are for passenger cars and are based on the unadjusted distances and times in
Table 4-6, which may be adjusted using the factors in Table 4-3.
Source: Table 9-10 in AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6 th Edition.
Used by Permission.
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Note: Intersection sight distance is shown for a passenger car making a right or left turn without stopping,
onto a two-lane road.
Source: Table 9-12 in AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6 th Edition.
Used by Permission.
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Table 4-9 Case F ‘Left Turn from the Major Road’ – Design Intersection Sight Distance
Note: Intersection sight distance is shown for a passenger car making a left turn from an undivided highway.
For other conditions and design vehicles, the time gap should be adjusted and the sight distance
recalculated.
Source: Table 9-14 in AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6 th Edition.
Used by Permission.
Effect of Skew
Intersecting streets and roads should intersect at right angles, wherever
practical, and should not intersect at an angle less than 60 degrees.
When two highways intersect at an angle less than 60 degrees, some of the
factors for determination of intersection sight distance may need adjustment. For
example, the length of the travel paths for some turning and crossing maneuvers
will be increased. In addition, in the acute-angle quadrant, drivers often need to
turn their heads considerably to see across the entire clear sight triangle. For
these reasons, it is recommended that the sight distance criteria for Case A
should not be applied to oblique-angle intersections and that sight distances at
least equal to those for Case B should be provided.
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The roadway width at all railroad crossings should be the same as the width of
the approach roadway.
Crossings that are located on bicycle routes that are not perpendicular to the
railroad may need additional paved shoulder for bicycles to maneuver over the
crossing.’
Sidewalks should be provided at railroad grade crossings to connect existing or
future walkways that approach these crossings. Provisions for future sidewalks
should be incorporated into design, if they are be anticipated.
Curbs
General Considerations
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pavement the joint between the pavement and the curb may require
maintenance.
Basic Requirements
Curbs must meet several basic requirements if they are to serve their intended
purposes and have long service life. Curbs must have the required mass, stability
and strength to withstand the impacts of traffic and the effects of their
environments and to maintain their positions even when crossed by traffic or
struck by snowplows. They must have the strength to bridge small areas where
subgrade support is inadequate.
The standard sections shown here have been proven to have the necessary mass
for strength and stability. Separate curb and gutter sections should be at least
two feet wide with greater widths having more stability for a relatively small
amount of construction costs.
Another important requirement is visibility. Because of their light and reflective
surfaces, concrete curbs can be easily seen, even at night when pavements are
wet. The washings of rain and the removal of debris by street sweeping are
sufficient to meet this requirement.
Design Requirements
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Source: AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highway and Streets 6th Edition. Used by
Permission.
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Combinations of curves with radii other than the minimums discussed above may
also provide satisfactory operations. The choice of design for a specific
intersection or turning movement where pedestrians are present is a particular
concern, and it is desirable to keep the intersection area to a minimum. The
selection of any specific design depends on:
Type and size of vehicles that will be turning and the extent to which they
should be accommodated.
Number and frequency of larger vehicles involved in turning movements, and
their effect on other traffic.
Type, character, and location of the intersecting roads.
Vehicular and pedestrian traffic volumes.
From the analysis of these maneuvers and corresponding paths, the appropriate
type of minimum design can be selected. Minimum designs are appropriate for
locations with low turning speeds, low turning volumes, or high property values.
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Figure 4-9 Minimum Turning Path for Single-Unit (SU) Truck Design Vehicle
Source: AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highway and Streets 6th Edition. Used by
Permission.
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Figure 4-10 Minimum Turning Path for Intermediate Semitrailer (WB-12 [WB-40]) Design
Vehicle
Source: AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highway and Streets 6th Edition. Used by
Permission.
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Figure 4-11 Minimum Turning Path for Interstate Semitrailer (WB-20, WB-65 and WB-67)
Design Vehicle
Source: AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highway and Streets 6th Edition. Used by
Permission.
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Table 4-10 Edge of Traveled Way Designs for Turns at Intersection –Three Centered Curves
Metric
30 P - - - -
SU-9 - - - -
SU-12 - - - -
WB-12 - - - -
WB-19 - - - -
45 P - - - -
SU-9 - - - -
SU-12 - - - -
WB-12 - - - -
60 P - - - -
SU-9 - - - -
SU-12 - - - -
WB-12 - - - -
75 P 30-8-30 0.6 - -
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Metric
90 P 30-6-30 0.8 - -
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Metric
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Note: R1 ≤ 1.5 R2
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Channelization
Channelization is the separation or regulation of conflicting traffic movements
into definite paths of travel by traffic islands or pavement marking to facilitate
the orderly movements of both vehicles and pedestrians. Proper channelization
increases capacity, provides positive guidance to motorists, increases operational
efficiency and reduces crash frequencies; improper channelization has the
opposite effect and may be worse than none at all. Separation of left-turn
movements from through movements is a common use of channelization.
Channelization of intersections is generally considered for one or more of the
following factors:
Paths of vehicles are confined by channelization so that not more than two
paths cross at any one point.
Angle and location at which vehicles merge, diverge, or cross are controlled.
Amount of paved area is reduced and thereby decreases the potential for
vehicles to wander and narrows the area of conflict between vehicles.
Clearer indications are provided for the proper path in which movements are
to be made.
Predominant movements are given priority.
Areas are provided for pedestrian refuge.
Separate storage lanes permit turning vehicles to wait clear of through-traffic
lanes.
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Space is provided for traffic control devices so that they can be more readily
perceived.
Prohibited turns are controlled.
Speeds of vehicles are restricted to some extent.
Design controls for a channelized intersection include: the type of design vehicle,
the cross sections on the crossroads, the projected traffic volumes in relation to
capacity, the number of pedestrians, the speed of vehicles, the location of any
needed bus stops, and the type and location of traffic control devices. Physical
controls such as right-of-way and terrain have an effect on the extent of
channelization that is economically practical.
Principles to be followed in the design of a channelized intersection are:
Motorists should not be confronted with more than one decision at a time.
Unnatural paths that involve turns greater than 90 degrees or sudden and
sharp reverse curves should be avoided.
Channelization should keep vehicles within well-defined paths that minimize
conflict. However, merging and weaving areas should be as long as conditions
permit.
Where the distance to the downstream driveway or intersection is less than
the desirable distance for merging or weaving and where pedestrians are
present, turning roadways should be controlled with a yield, stop, or signal
control and the angle of intersection should be greater than 60 degrees.
Traffic streams that intersect without merging and weaving should intersect
at angles as close to 90 degrees as practical, and certainly within a range of 60
to 120 degrees.
Angle of intersection between merging streams of traffic should be
appropriate to provide adequate sight distance.
Points of crossing or conflict should be studied carefully to determine if such
conditions would be better separated or consolidated to simplify design with
appropriate control devices added to provide efficient operation.
Refuge areas for turning vehicles should be provided separate from through
traffic.
Islands used for channelization should not interfere with or obstruct bicycle
lanes at intersections.
Prohibited turns should be blocked by channelizing islands, wherever
practical.
Location of essential control devices should be established as a part of the
design of a channelized intersection.
Channelization may be desirable to separate the various traffic movements
where multiple phase signals are used. Intersection design including
channelization can be used to discourage wrong-way entry of expressway-ramps,
one-way streets, and turning roadways.
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The storage length should be sufficient long to store the number of vehicles likely
to accumulate during the average daily peak period:
At unsignalized intersection, length to be based on the number of vehicles
likely to arrive in an average 2 minute period within the peak hour.
At signalized intersection, the required length depends on the signal cycle
length, the signal phasing arrangement and the rate of arrivals and departure
of left turning vehicles.
Islands
General Characteristics
An island is a defined area between traffic lanes used for control of traffic
movements. Islands also provide an area for pedestrian refuge and traffic control
devices. Within an intersection, a median or an outer separation is also
considered an island. It may range from an area delineated by a raised curb to a
pavement area marked out by paint or thermoplastic markings. Where traffic
entering an intersection is directed into definite paths by islands, the design
feature is termed a channelized intersection.
Channelizing islands are usually included in intersection design for one or more
of the following purposes:
Separation of conflicts
Control of angle of conflict
Reduction in excessive pavement areas
Regulation of traffic and indication of proper use of intersection
Arrangements to favor a predominant turning movement
Protection of pedestrians
Protection and storage of turning and crossing vehicles
Location of traffic control devices
Islands generally are either elongated or triangular in shape and are normally
situated in areas unused for vehicle paths. Islands should be located and
designed to offer little obstruction to vehicles, be relatively inexpensive to build
and maintain, occupy a minimum of roadway space, and be commanding enough
that motorists will not drive over them. It is desirable to provide a common
geometric design for all intersections along a route.
When designing an island, attention should be given to the fact that the driver’s
eye view is different from the plan view. Also the use of a few large islands is
usually less confusing than a number of smaller islands. Temporary layouts of
movable stanchions or sandbags can be used to observe traffic flow with several
variations of size and shape of islands before finalizing a design and constructing
permanent islands.
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Curbed islands can sometimes be difficult to see at night because of glare, and
therefore should ideally have fixed-source lighting or appropriate delineation
such as curb-top reflectors.
Painted, flush medians and islands or traversable type medians are not well
respected by drivers but may be preferable to raised curb type islands in the
following circumstances;
Lightly developed areas that will not be considered for access management.
Intersections where approach speeds are relatively high.
Areas where there is little pedestrian traffic.
Areas where fixed-source lighting is not provided.
Median or corner islands where signals, signs, or luminaire supports are not
needed.
Areas where extensive development exists along a street and may demand
left-turn lanes into many entrances.
Painted islands may be used at the traveled way edge. At some intersections,
both curbed and painted islands may be desirable. All pavement markings should
be reflectorized. The use of thermoplastic striping, raised dots, spaced and raised
retro-reflective markers, and other forms of long-life markings is also desirable.
Channelizing Islands
Channelization for minor intersections on two-lane highways in rural areas is
often not necessary. Curbed islands generally should not be used in rural areas
and at isolated locations unless the intersection is lighted and curbs are
delineated.
The use of curbed islands generally should be reserved for multilane highways or
streets and for the more important intersections on two-lane highways.
Channelization can work well in or near urban areas where speeds are low and
drivers are accustomed to confined facilities.
Divisional Islands
Divisional islands are often used on undivided highways at intersections. They
alert drivers to the crossroads ahead and regulate traffic through the
intersection. The islands are particularly advantageous in controlling left turns at
skewed intersections and at locations where separate roadways are provided for
right-turning traffic.
Widening a roadway to include a divisional island should be done in such a
manner that the proper paths to follow are unmistakably evident to drivers.
Often the highway is on a tangent, and introducing a dividing island involves the
use of a reverse curve. In rural areas where speeds are generally high, reversals
in curvature should preferably be with radius of at least 1,165 m tapers can also
be used, provided they are consistent with lane shifts at the design speed.
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Refuge Islands
In both rural and urban areas, many of the islands designed for the function of
channelization also serve as refuge for pedestrians. The general principles for
island design also apply to providing refuge islands.
A refuge island for pedestrians is one at or near a crosswalk or bicycle path that
aids and protects pedestrians and bicyclists who cross the roadway. Raised-curb
corner islands and center channelizing or divisional islands can be used as refuge
areas. Refuge islands for pedestrians and bicyclists crossing a wide street are
used primarily in urban areas.
The location and width of crosswalks, the location and size of bus loading zones,
and the provision of wheelchair ramps influence the size and location of refuge
islands. Pedestrians and bicyclists should have a clear path through the island
and should not be obstructed by poles, sign posts, utility boxes, etc. Refuge
islands should be a minimum of 1.8 m wide when they will be used by bicyclists.
Island Size
The smallest curbed corner island normally should have an area of
approximately 5 m2 for urban and 7 m2 for rural intersections, however at least 9
m2 is preferable for both. Elongated or divisional islands should not be less than
1.2 m wide and 6 to 8 m long, although in special cases a minimum width of 0.5 m
may be used for elongated islands. Curbed divisional islands at isolated
intersections on high-speed highways should be highly visible and a minimum of
30 m in length. The approach end should be extended when situated in the
vicinity of a high point in the roadway profile, or at the beginning of a horizontal
curve.
In many cases, the central area of large channelizing islands has a turf or
vegetative cover. Low plant material may also be included, but it should not
obstruct sight distance. Where pavement cross slopes are outward, large islands
should be depressed to avoid draining water across the pavement. For small
curbed islands, and in areas where growing conditions are not favorable, some
type of paved surface is used on the island.
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Source: Table 9-18 in AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6th Edition.
Used by Permission.
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Superelevation Runoff
The principles of superelevation runoff discussed in Section 3.6.2.3 generally
apply to free-flow turning roadways at intersections.
Usually, the profile of one edge of the traveled way is established first, and the
profile on the other edge is developed by stepping up or down from the first edge
by the amount of desired superelevation at that location. This step is done by
plotting a few control points on the second edge by using the maximum relative
gradients in Table 4-12 and then plotting a smooth profile for the second edge of
traveled way. Drainage may be an additional control, particularly for curbed
roadways.
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Source: Table 9-19 in AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6 th Edition.
Used by Permission.
These sight distances should be available at all points along a turning roadway.
Wherever practical, longer sight distances should be provided. They apply as
controls in design of both vertical and horizontal alignment.
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high-volume roads even with stop control where openings between vehicles in
the peak-hour traffic streams are infrequent and short.
Source: Table 9-22 AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highway and Streets 6th Edition. Used
by Permission.
Storage Length
The auxiliary lane should be sufficiently long to store the number of vehicles, or
queue, likely to accumulate during a critical period.
At un-signalized intersections, the storage length should be determined by an
intersection traffic analysis based on the number of turning vehicles likely to
arrive in an average two-minute period within the peak hour. Space for at least
two passenger cards should be provided; with over 10% turning truck traffic,
provision should be made for at least one car and one truck. The two-minute
interval may need adjustment, depending on opportunities for completing the
left-turn maneuver through opposing traffic. Where the volume of turning traffic
is high, a traffic signal will be needed.
At signalized intersections, the storage length needed should be determined by
an intersection traffic analysis which considers (1) the signal cycle length, (2) the
signal phasing arrangement, and (3) the rate of arrivals and departures of left-
turning vehicles.
On high-speed highways, it is common practice to use a taper rate that is between
8:1 and 15:1 (longitudinal: transverse). Long tapers approximate the path drivers
follow when entering an auxiliary lane from a high-speed through lane, but they
can allow through drivers to drift into the deceleration lane.
For urban areas, short tapers give more positive identification to an added
auxiliary lane, and are preferred for the slow speeds during peak periods. The
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total length of taper and deceleration length should be the same as if a long taper
was used.
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traffic travels through on the divided highway and the volume is well below
capacity, a simple low cost median opening may be sufficient to permit cross and
turning movements. Where a traffic pattern shows appreciable cross and turning
movements or through traffic of high speed and high volume, the shape and
width of the median opening should provide for turning movements to be made
without encroachment on adjacent lanes and with little or no interference
between traffic movements.
The design of a median opening and median ends should be based on traffic
volumes, urban/rural area characteristics, and the type of turning vehicles.
Design should be based on the volume and composition of all movements
occurring simultaneously during the design hours. The design of a median
opening becomes a consideration of what traffic is to be accommodated, choosing
the design vehicle to use for layout controls for each cross section and turning
movement, investigating whether larger vehicles can turn without undue
encroachment on adjacent lanes, and checking the intersection capacity. If the
capacity is exceeded by the traffic demand, the design should be expanded.
Intersections with narrow medians in urban/suburban areas generally operate
with lower crash frequencies; un-signalized intersections with wider medians in
rural areas also operate with lower crash frequencies; and traffic signals at
intersections with wide medians can be inefficient. Traffic control devices such as
yield signs, stop signs, or traffic signals may be needed to regulate the various
movements effectively and improve the effectiveness of operations.
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Table 4-17 Minimum Median Opening for SU-12, WB-12 and WB-19 Design Vehicles
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One option for access to adjacent properties is to use the interconnecting street
patterns. This involves making a series of right-turns around the block to a
median opening that services the secondary crossroads, and then turning left.
This approach needs careful examination of existing turning radii to
accommodate single-unit truck design vehicles and estimation of the number of
WB vehicles that might use this method of indirect left-turns or indirect U-turns.
Another alternative is to construct jug-handle-type ramps or at-grade
intersection loops.
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The left turns potentially stop two times: once at the midblock signal on
approach and once at the main intersection on departure. Careful signal
coordination can minimize the number of stops, particularly at the main
intersection.
Intersections with high through and left-turn volumes may be appropriate for
displaced left-turn intersections. U-turns are prohibited with this design, and
right-of-way adjacent to the intersection is needed for the left-turn roadways.
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Source: AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highway and Street 6th Edition. Used by
Permission.
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Element Geometry
Central Island The central island is the raised area in the center of a roundabout
around which traffic circulates. The central island does not necessarily
need to be circular in shape, but circular islands make driver steering
easier. It must be clearly visible to approaching drivers – a landscaped
dome shape is recommended.
Entry and Exit Curves The exit curve radius is normally a little larger than the entry curve
radius, on the principle of sharp turn entries and easy exits. Entry curve
radius should not be greater than the center island radius.
Splitter Island A splitter island is a raised or painted area on an approach used to
separate entering from exiting traffic, deflect and slow entering traffic,
and allow pedestrians to cross the roadway in two stages.
Circulatory Roadway The circulatory roadway is the curved path used by vehicles to travel in
a counter-clockwise fashion around the central island. It is generally a
little wider than the entry width.
Truck/Bus Apron If needed on smaller roundabouts to accommodate the wheel tracking
of large vehicles, an apron is the mountable portion of the central island
adjacent to the circulatory roadway. It is commonly 30mm high and 1 to
2 m wide.
Yield line at Entrance to The yield line marks the point of entry into the circulatory roadway.
Circulating Roadway Entering vehicles must yield the right of way to any circulating vehicles
coming from the left before crossing this line into the circulatory
roadway.
Accessible Pedestrian Accessible pedestrian crossings should be provided at all roundabouts.
Crossings The crossing location is set back from the entrance line, and the splitter
island is cut to allow pedestrians, wheelchairs, strollers, and bicycles to
pass through.
Landscape Strip Landscape strips are provided at most roundabouts to separate
vehicular and pedestrian traffic and to lead pedestrians to the
designated crossing locations. Landscape strips can also significantly
improve the aesthetics of the intersection.
The key indicator of the required space for a roundabout intersection is the
inscribed circle diameter. Fundamental design and operational elements for each
of the three basic roundabout categories are summarized in Table 4-20.
Table 4-20 Design and Operational Elements for Basic Roundabout Categories
Source :Table 9-2 in AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highway and Street 6th Edition. Used
by Permission.
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*In cases where the volume of heavy vehicles is low, or at existing intersections
where space is restricted, it may be appropriate to provide encroachment areas
(paved areas behind mountable curbs) which allow a smaller width of circulating
carriageway to be used via encroachment onto the central island area and/or the
approach splitter islands. Encroachment areas should:
Be constructed of appropriate load bearing pavement.
Have semi-mountable or fully mountable curbs.
Not have drainage pits within them, or have suitably reinforced pits to carry
heavy vehicle loads.
Not accommodate road furniture.
The number of entering and circulating lanes affects the capacity of the
roundabout and the size of the roundabout footprint. The capacity of a
roundabout is dependent upon directional distribution of traffic and ratio of
minor-street to total entering traffic. The designer may select a volume-to-
capacity ratio between 0.85 and 1.00. A single circulating lane will normally
accommodate 1,400 vehicles per hour and may accommodate up to 2,400
vehicles per hour. A two-lane circulating roadway will normally accommodate at
least 2,200 vehicles per hour and may accommodate up to 4,000 vehicles per
hour.
A single-lane entry is likely to be sufficient when the sum of the entering and
conflicting volumes is less than 1,300 vehicles per hour. A two-lane entry (and
circulation roadway) is likely to be sufficient when the sum of the entering and
conflicting volumes is less than 1,800 vehicles per hour. A detailed capacity
evaluation should be conducted to verify lane numbers and arrangements.
Multilane roundabout may contain a minimum of one entry with two or more
lanes and may requires under circulatory roadways to accommodate more than
one vehicle travelling side by side. The roundabout may have a different number
of lanes or transition on one or more legs. The number of lanes should be the
minimum needed for the anticipated traffic demand to effect smooth flow of the
traffic on the roundabout. The design speed at the entry, on the circulatory
roadway and at the exit may be slightly higher than those for single-lane
roundabout. Multi-lane roundabout include raised splitter island, truck aprons a
non-traversable central island and appropriate entry path deflection.
The size of multilane roundabout is typically determined by balancing two
critical design objectives, the need to achieve deflection, and providing sufficient
natural vehicle path alignment. To achieve both of these objectives requires a
larger diameter than those for single-lane roundabout. Generally, the inscribed
circle diameter of a multilane roundabout ranges from 46 to 68 m (two lanes)
and 61 to 90 m (three lane) to achieve adequate speed control and alignment.
Truck apron are recommended to accommodate larger design vehicles and keep
the inscribed circle diameter reasonable.
For a multilane roundabout circulatory roadway, the width is dependent on the
types of vehicles that the roundabout, where traffic is mainly passenger cars (P)
and single-unit truck (SU), the appropriate width maybe either two passenger
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Fundamental Principles
The goal of any roundabout design should be to achieve:
Slow entry speed and consistent circulation speed through the roundabout by
using deflection.
Appropriate number of lanes and lane assignment to achieve adequate
capacity, lane volume, and lane continuity.
Smooth channelization that is intuitive to drivers and results in vehicles
naturally using the intended lanes.
Adequate accommodation of the design vehicles.
A design to meet the needs of pedestrians and cyclists.
Appropriate sight distance and visibility.
Advance direction signs of the map-type are always necessary.
Source: AASHTO,2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highway and Streets 6th Edition. Used by
Permission.
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Source: AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highway and Streets 6th Edition. Used by
Permission.
Non-Motorized Users
These users are vulnerable and span a wide range of ages and abilities that can
have a significant effect on the design of a facility. Roundabouts to accommodate
non-motorized users must be designed to control speeds to less than 50 kph, and
to encourage motorists to give way on entry. Basic design dimensions that need
to be considered are listed below in Table 4-21.
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Source: Table 9.31 AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highway and Streets 6th Edition. Used
by Permission.
Pedestrian crossings are typically provided approximately one car length behind
the yield line. Provision of a landscape buffer strip between the pedestrian path
and the circulating roadway can direct pedestrians to the pedestrian crossings on
each leg of the roundabout and discourage pedestrians from crossing to the
central island.
Bicycle lanes should not be provided through the roundabout as serious conflicts
occur where exiting traffic crosses the lane. Cyclists should negotiate
roundabouts as if they were in cars.
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It facilitates U-turns between the main lanes and two-way frontage roads.
It alleviates the potential of wrong-way entry onto through lanes of the
predominant highway.
The design year traffic volumes, turning movements, signal phasing, and storage
needs should determine the ultimate outer separation distance.
Except for the width of outer separation, the design elements for intersections
involving frontage roads are much the same as those for conventional
intersections.
Bicycles
When on-street bicycle lanes or off-street bicycle paths or both enter an
intersection, the design of the intersection should be modified accordingly.
Modifications may include special sight distance considerations, wider roadways
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Pedestrians
Pedestrian facilities include sidewalks, crosswalks, traffic control features, and
curb ramps for persons with wheeled accessories and persons with mobility
impairments. When designing a project that involves curbs and adjacent
sidewalks to accommodate pedestrian traffic, proper attention should be given to
location and design of ramps and traffic control devices to accommodate the
needs of persons whose mobility depends on wheelchairs and other devices, and
persons with sight impairment who depend on texture and sound for mobility.
Lighting
Lighting can reduce crashes at highway and street intersections, as well as
increase the efficiency of traffic operations, particularly in urban and suburban
areas. Whether or not rural intersections should be lighted depends on the
planned geometrics and the turning volumes involved. Intersections that are not
channelized are seldom lighted.
Intersections with channelization, including roundabouts, should include
lighting. Large channelized intersections especially need illumination. Each gore
area should be illuminated to help drivers make decisions at diverge locations
and to be able to see the location for diverge movements in advance of headlight
range.
Driveways
Access to driveways introduces conflicts and friction into the traffic stream as
vehicles enter and leave the roadway. The function of driveways is similar to that
of public intersections, consistent with their intended use. Ideally, driveways
should not be located within the functional area of an intersection.
The regulation and design of driveways are intimately linked with the type of
road and zoning of the roadside. On new highways, right-of-way can be obtained
to provide the desired degree of driveway regulation and control. In some cases,
additional right-of-way can be acquired with the reconstruction of an existing
highway or agreements can be made to improve existing undesirable access
conditions. The main objectives of driveway regulation are to provide desirable
spacing of driveways and to provide a proper internal layout. Achieving these
objectives depends on the type and extent of legislative authority granted the
highway agency.
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only be used in an urban setting where operating speeds are relatively low and
where there are no more than two through lanes in each direction.
Source: AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highway and Streets 6th Edition. Used by Permission.
Horizontal Alignment
Vertical Alignment
The intersection of highway and railroad should be as level as practical. Where
used, vertical curves should be of sufficient length to provide an adequate view of
the crossing.
The crossing surface should be at the same plane as the top of the rails for a
distance of 0.6 m outside the rails. Rails that are superelevated, or a roadway
approach section that is not level, need a site-specific analysis for rail clearances.
Crossing Design
The geometric design of railroad-highway grade crossings involves the elements
of alignment, profile, sight distance, and cross section, and should be made jointly
when determining the warning devices to be used. For low-volume crossings
where adequate sight distance is not available, additional signing may be needed.
Traffic control devices for railroad-highway grade crossings consist primarily of
signs, pavement markings, flashing light signals, and automatic gates.
When only passive warning devices such as signs and pavement markings are
used, highway drivers are warned of the crossing location but need to determine
for themselves whether or not there are train movements for which they should
stop.
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When active warning devices such as flashing light signals or automatic gates are
used, the driver is given a positive indication of the presence or the approach of a
train at the crossing. Considerations for evaluating the need for active warning
devices at a grade crossing include the type of highway, volume of vehicular
traffic, volume of railroad traffic, maximum speed of the railroad trains,
permissible speed of vehicular traffic, volume of pedestrian traffic, crash history,
sight distance, and geometrics of the crossing.
The highway traveled way at a railroad crossing should be constructed for a
suitable length will all-weather surfacing. A roadway section equivalent to the
current or proposed cross section of the approach roadway should be carried
across the crossing. The crossing surface itself should have a riding quality
equivalent to that of the approach roadway.
Sight Distance
The two considerations for vehicle drivers intending to cross a railroad-highway
grade intersection without train-activated warning devices are:
The vehicle operator can observe the approaching train in a sight line that
will allow the vehicle to pass through the grade crossing prior to the train’s
arrival at the crossing.
The vehicle operator can observe the approaching train in a sight line that
will permit the vehicle to be brought to a stop prior to encroachment in the
crossing area.
4.1.14 Lay-By
A paved area at the side of an expressway designated for driver to stop in, for
emergency parking or where vehicles can wait.
In addition to acting as short-term stopping places, lay-by may be provided for
more specialized function such as emergency lay-by for broken down vehicles,
bus lay-by and hardstanding where maintenance vehicles may pull off the road.
Several factors need to be taken into account when considering where to site a
lay-by as well as the land-take requirements and consequently it should be
considered at an early stage in the design process in order to reach a balanced
solution.
Lay-by should not be sited on the inside of a left hand curve of radius of less than
the appropriate value for the design speed of the road given in Table 4-22 as this
increases the risk that a fatigued driver may unintentionally cater the lay-by at
high speed.
Table 4-22 Appropriate Value for the Design Speed of the Road
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Advance signing enables driver to decide whether or not to stop a lay-by in good
time, thus avoiding sudden changes in direction and speed. The recommended
spacing is 2.5 km. The cross slope of the lay-by is the same as the cross slope of
the expressway.
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Site Conditions
Interchanges can often be satisfactorily fitted to rolling or hilly topography.
Meanwhile interchange design may be straightforward in flat terrain, but may
require ramp grades that do not favor some types of vehicle.
Right-of-way needed for an interchange is largely dependent on the number of
turning movements that need separate ramps, but also depends on highway type,
topography, overall interchange criteria, and the impact on adjacent property.
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4.2.5 Safety
Grade separation structures themselves may be a roadside obstruction, but their
related safety concerns can be minimized by the use of adequate clear roadside
widths and use of protective devices. More importantly, by separating the grades
of the intersecting roadways, grade separation substantially reduces the
incidence and severity of crashes caused by crossing and turning movements.
Common safety problems at grade separated intersections include:
Over-complicated, confusing layouts
Lack of clear advance signing
Exit ramps that require too much reduction in speed
Gores that are not crashworthy
Initial Costs
The combined cost of an interchange structure, ramps, throughways, grading and
landscaping of large areas, and possible adjustments in existing roadways and
utilities, generally exceeds the cost of an at-grade intersection.
Directional ramp interchanges involve more than one structure, and usually cost
much more than a simple interchange.
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Maintenance Costs
Interchanges generally have large paved and variable slope areas that have to be
maintained, as well as the structure, signs, landscaping and lighting. These costs
are usually more than for maintenance of an at-grade intersection.
Introduction
Various types of structures are used to separate the grades of two intersecting
roadways, or a highway and a railroad. The discussion below is confined to the
geometric features of grade separation structures, and not structural design.
Grade-separated intersections should never be used on single carriageway roads
as they violate driver expectancy.
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For vehicular operation the most desirable structure for the underpass highway
is one that will span the entire highway cross section and provide lateral offset
from structural supports. Center supports may be used on divided highways
where the median is wide enough to provide sufficient lateral offset, or protective
barriers will be required. Provision for future highway widening should be
considered during design, so that such provisions can be utilized as interim clear
space.
A single simple-span girder bridge may be used with spans of up to 45 m and can
accommodate severe skew and horizontal curvature. Spans of greater length
require greater structure depth and higher approach embankments. The
structure depth for single-span girder bridges is usually 1/15 to 1/30 of the span.
The conventional type of overpass structure over divided highways is usually a
deck-type bridge of two spans or more. Two or more structures are not
uncommon at interchanges.
Highway planning in urban areas needs to consider which arterial and cross
streets are important enough to warrant interchange ramps to preserve the
continuity of traffic flow on the local street system, and where frontage roads
may be used each side of the main facility, with due allowance for the land
development that commonly follows the construction of major roadways. Factors
that may influence planning of interchanges include the location of factories,
schools, churches, recreational areas, other public facilities, school bus routes,
and emergency response routes. Cross-street planning should also consider the
needs of pedestrians and bicyclists, and the need for separate dedicated facilities
for their access. Cross-street planning may also consider the phased development
of interchanges as development progressively takes place along the corridor.
Interchange design should also consider:
The need for adequate sight distances and clear roadside recovery areas.
Any necessary improvements needed to approaching streets, such as land
and shoulder widening, control of parking and pedestrian movements, line
marking, signage, and channelizing.
The aesthetics of the underside of an overpass structure.
The provision for expansion of approach width and vertical clearance at
structural openings to elevated viaducts.
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A design that best fits the existing topography is usually the most visually
pleasing and economical to construct and maintain. Where topography does not
govern, the following guidelines should be examined:
Designs are often governed by the need for economy, not only for the
interesting highways but also for all area ramps and slopes. Alternative cost
analyses needs to consider the bridge types, span lengths, roadway cross
sections, angles of skew, soil conditions and cost of approaches.
Desirably, the roadway carrying the highest traffic volume should have the
fewest number of bridges for better readability and fewer issues when repair
and reconstruction are needed.
An underpass may be advantageous where the major road can be built close
to the existing ground, with no pronounced grade changes.
An undercrossing highway has a general advantage in that an approaching
interchange is easily seen by drivers.
The wide overlook from an overpass gives drivers a minimal feeling of
restriction.
Where turning traffic is significant, the ramp profiles are best fitted when the
major road is at the lower level. The ramp grades assist turning vehicles to
decelerate as they leave the major highway, and accelerate as they approach
it. Also ramp terminals are visible to drivers as they leave the major highway.
In rolling or mountainous terrain, the design that provides the better sight
distance on the major road should be preferred.
An overpass offers the best possibility for staged construction.
Troublesome drainage challenges may dictate that the major highway should
be carried over, rather than under, the crossroad.
The choice of underpass or overpass may be determined by design of the
highway as a whole, such as where the proposed grade separation is part of a
depressed or elevated expressway.
In some instances, it may be appropriate to locate the higher volume facility
in a depressed roadway to reduce noise impact.
Where a new highway will cross an existing route carrying a large volume of
traffic, overcrossing by the new highway will cause least disturbance to the
existing route.
Overcrossing structures have no limitation of vertical clearance, which can be
important for oversized loads on a major highway.
When determining the appropriate width of the roadway over or under a grade
separation, the design should aim to provide a facility on which driver reaction
and vehicle placement will be essentially the same as elsewhere on the
intersection roads. However, the width should not be so great as to result in a
high cost of structure without proportionate value in usefulness or crash
reduction.
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Underpass Roadways
The type of structure used should be determined by the dimensional, load,
foundation, and general site needs for the particular location. An underpass
should be consistent with the design standards for the rest of the facility, to the
extent practical. It is desirable that the entire roadway cross section be carried
through the structure without change.
The minimum lateral offset from the edge of the traveled way to the face of the
protective barrier should be the normal shoulder width. On divided highways,
the offset on the left side of each roadway is usually governed by the median
width. A minimum median width of 3.0 m may be used on a four-lane roadway
with 1.2 m shoulders and a rigid median barrier. For a roadway with six or more
lanes, the minimum median width should be 6.6 m with 3.0 m shoulders and a
rigid median barrier.
Where conditions preclude a full clear zone, all abutments, piers, and columns
should be shielded with suitable protective devices unless they are continuously
walled sections of adequate impact strength. Guardrail installed along the face of
an exposed pier or abutment should have an offset appropriate to the dynamic
lateral deflection of the particular rail type.
Vertical clearance is typically determined for an entire route. The vertical
clearance of all structures above the traveled way and shoulders should be at
least 0.3 m greater than the legal vehicle height to allow for future resurfacing
and an occasional slightly over-height load.
Overpass Roadways
The roadway dimensional design of an overpass should be the same as that of the
basic roadway. Overpasses are usually deck structures with their major features
being the parapet rail system, lateral offset, and median treatment where
applicable.
Bridge railings typically have some form of concrete base or parapet on which
metal or concrete rail(s) are mounted on structurally adequate posts. Solid rails
may also be used. The railing is designed to withstand impact from the design
vehicle without penetrating, vaulting, snagging, or causing the vehicle to roll
over.
Where an expressway overpass includes a pedestrian walkway or bicycle path,
barrier-type bridge rails are installed between the walkway and the roadway. A
pedestrian rail or screen is also provided on the outer edge of the walkway.
When the full approach roadway width is continued across the structure, the
parapet rail should align with the guardrail on the approach roadway. At some
interchanges, additional width for speed-change lanes or weaving sections is
needed across overpass structures. Where the auxiliary lane is a continuation of a
ramp, a weaving lane connecting entry and exit ramps, or a parallel speed-change
lane, the lateral offset to the bridge rail should be uniform and at least equal to
the width of the shoulder on the approach ramp.
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On a divided highway with a wide median, the overpass is likely to be built as two
parallel structures. Where the approach is a multi-lane, undivided roadway, or
has a flush median less than 1.2 m wide, a raised median is considered
unnecessary on short bridges up to 30 m in length, but is desirable on bridges of
120 m or more in length. On bridges between 30 and 120 m in length, local
conditions such as traffic volume, speed, sight distance, need for luminaire
supports, future improvement, approach cross section, number of lanes, and
whether the roadway is to be divided determine whether or not a median is
warranted. Where there are medians of narrow or moderate width on
approaches to long single structures, the structure should be wide enough to
accommodate the same type of median barrier as is used in the median of the
approach roadway.
4.2.9 Interchanges
General Considerations
The functions of interchanges are:
To provide grade separation between two or more traffic arteries.
To make possible the easy transfer of vehicles from open artery to the other
or between local streets and the expressway.
There are several basic interchange configurations to accommodate turning
movements at a grade separation. The type of configuration used at a particular
site is determined by the number of intersection legs, expected volumes of
through and turning movements, type of truck traffic, topography, design
controls, proper signing, and culture.
While interchanges are custom designed to fit specific site conditions, it is
desirable that the overall pattern of exists along a expressway have some degree
of uniformity. The need to simplify interchange design from the standpoint of
driver understanding and signing cannot be overstated.
Three-Leg Designs
An interchange with three intersecting legs consists of one or more highway
grade separations and one-way roads for all traffic movements. When two of the
three intersection legs form a through road and the angle of intersection is not
acute, the term ‘T-interchange’ applies. When all three intersection legs have a
through character or the intersection angle with the third intersection leg is
small, the interchange may be considered a Y-configuration.
Three-leg interchanges are very difficult to expand or modify in the future, and
should only be considered when future expansion to the unused quadrant is
highly unlikely.
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Four-Leg designs
Interchanges with four intersection legs may be grouped under six general
configurations: (1) ramps in one quadrant, (2) diamond interchanges, (3) double
roundabout interchange, (4) single-point diamond interchanges, (5) full or
partial cloverleafs, and (6) directional interchanges.
Interchanges with ramps in only one quadrant have application for an
intersection of roadways with low traffic volumes. Where a grade separation is
provided at an intersection because of topography, a single two-way ramp of
near-minimum design will usually suffice for all turning traffic. The ramp
terminals may be simple T intersections. A typical location would be at the
intersection of a scenic parkway and a rural two-lane highway where turning
movements are light, there is minimal truck traffic, and culture, and/or the
terrain, and/or the preservation of environment take precedence over providing
additional ramps. A high degree of channelization at the ramp terminals, at the
median, and at the left-turn lanes on the through facility is normally needed to
control turning movements. In some instances, a one-quadrant interchange may
be constructed as the first stage of a multi-stage construction program.
The simplest and most common interchange configuration is the diamond. A full
diamond interchange is formed when a one-way diagonal ramp is provided in
each quadrant. The ramps are aligned with free-flowing terminals on the major
highway, and the left turns at grade are confined to the crossroad. Advantages of
the diamond interchange are: all traffic can enter and leave the major road at
relatively high speed, left-turning maneuvers entail little extra travel, and a
relatively narrow band of right-of-way is needed. They are used in both rural and
urban areas. Roundabouts are the preferred solution for ramp and minor road
intersections. Where roundabouts are not used, a median should be provided on
the crossroad to prevent wrong-way entry on to one-way ramps, and
signalization is usually needed where the cross street carries moderate to large
traffic volumes. Where the cross street carries large traffic volumes, additional
structures can be added to provide directional ramps that replace signalized
intersections.
Double roundabout interchanges have roundabouts at each crossroad ramp
terminal, which allow free-flow movements on the cross street. Consideration
need to be given to the cross street traffic volumes and expressway ramp
volumes when analyzing the roundabout operations. Profile grades approaching
the roundabouts should be limited to 3% or less to avoid restricting driver sight
lines.
The single-point diamond interchange controls all four turning movements by a
single traffic signal. Typical characteristics include a narrow right-of-way, high
construction cost, and greater capacity than conventional tight diamond
interchanges. They are primarily suited to urban areas.
Cloverleafs are four-leg interchanges that employ loop ramps to accommodate
left-turning movements. Interchanges with loops in all four quadrants are
referred to as ‘full cloverleafs’ and all others are referred to as ‘partial
cloverleafs’. Cloverleafs are not recommended as they increase travel distance for
left-turning traffic, generate weaving maneuvers through the very short weaving
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length typically available, there are difficulties in placing signing for the exit, and
relatively large right-of-way areas are needed.
Directional ramp interchanges are used for important turning movements to
reduce travel distance, increase speed and capacity, eliminate weaving, and avoid
the need for out-of-direction travel. Rural areas rarely have the volume
justification required for direct connections. A semi-direct connection is defined
as a ramp where the driver exits to the right first, heading away from the
intended direction of travel, and then gradually swings left passing around other
interchange ramps before entering the intended road. These are usually confined
to major interchanges in urban areas.
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compared on the following principles: (1) capacity, (2) route continuity, (3)
uniformity of exit patterns, (4) single exits in advance of the separation structure,
(5) with or without weaving, (6) potential for signing, (7) cost, (8) availability of
right-of-way, (9) potential for staged construction, and (10) compatibility with
the environment. The most desirable alternatives can be selected for further
development.
Ramps
The term ‘ramp’ includes all types, arrangements, and sizes of turning roadways
that connect two or more legs at an interchange. The components of a ramp are a
terminal at each leg and a connecting road. The geometry of the connecting road
usually involves some curvature and a grade. Generally, the horizontal and
vertical alignment of ramps is based on lower design speeds than the intersecting
highways, but in some cases it may be equal.
Ramps are generally a one-way roadway, usually with both a left and right-turn
movement at the terminal on the minor intersecting road. Diamond interchanges
have four diagonal ramps. Full cloverleaf interchanges have four loop ramps that
require a turn through approximately 720 degrees to enter the other highway.
General ramp design considerations are:
Design speed – Desirably, ramp design speed should approximate the low-
volume running speed on the intersecting highways. This may not always be
practical, but design speeds should not be less than the low range presented
in Table 4-23.
Table 4-23 Guide Values for Ramp Design Speed as Related to Highway Design Speed
Source: Table 10-1 in AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 6 th Edition.
Used by Permission.
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Loop ramps – minimum design speeds usually control, but for highway design
speeds above 80 kph, the loop design speed preferably should be no less than
40 kph.
Two-lane loop ramps – The radius of the inner edge of the travelled way of the
loop ramp normally should not be less than 55 to 60 m.
Semi-direct connections – Design speeds between the middle and upper
ranges shown in Table 4-20 should be used, and are typically 50 to 60 kph.
Direct connections – Design speeds between the middle and upper ranges
shown in Table 4-20 should be used, with a minimum of 60 kph.
Different design speeds on intersecting highways – The highway with the
greater design speed should be the control in selecting the design speed for
the ramp.
At-grade terminals – Where a ramp joins a major crossroad or street forming
an intersection at grade, Table 4-20 is not applicable to that portion of the
ramp near the intersection because a stop sign or signal control is normally
employed.
Curvature – Design guidelines for turning roadways at interchanges are
discussed in Section 3. The general shape of a ramp evolves from the type of
ramp selected, and is influenced by factors such as traffic pattern, traffic
volume, design speed, topography, intersection angle, culture, and type of
ramp terminal.
Sight distance – Sight distance along a ramp should be at least as great as the
design stopping sight distance.
Grade and profile design – The profile of a typical ramp should be as flat as
practical, but it usually consists of a central portion on an appreciable grade,
coupled with terminal vertical curves and connections to the profiles of the
intersection legs.
Vertical curves – usually ramp profiles assume the shape of the letter ‘S’ with
vertical curves at each end. Additional vertical curves may be needed where
ramps overpass or underpass other roadways.
Superelevation and cross slope – The following guideline should be used:
o Superelevation rates, as related to curvature and design speed on ramps,
are provided in Tables 3-13 to 3-16 should apply.
o The cross slope on portions of ramps on tangent should be sloped one way at a
practical rate ranging from 1.5 to 2% for high-type pavements.
o In general, the rate of change in cross slope in the superelevation runoff section
should be based on the maximum relative gradients presented in Table 3-18.
o Another important control in developing superelevation along the ramp terminal
is that of the crossover crown line at the edge of the through-traffic lane. The
maximum algebraic difference in cross slope between the auxiliary lane and the
adjacent through lane is shown in Table 4-25.
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Metric US Customary
Design Maxi- Maxi- Total Calcu- Rounded Design Maxi- Maxi- Total Calcu- Rounded
Speed mum e mum ∱ (e/100 + lated Radius Speed mum e mum (e/100 + lated Radius
(km/h) (%) f) Radius (m) (mph) (%) ∱ f) Radius (ft)
(m) (m)
15 4.0 0.40 0.44 4.0 4 10 4.0 0.38 0.42 15.9 16
20 4.0 0.35 0.39 8.1 8 15 4.0 0.32 0.36 41.7 42
30 4.0 0.28 0.32 22.1 22 20 4.0 0.27 0.31 86.0 86
40 4.0 0.23 0.27 46.7 47 25 4.0 0.23 0.27 154.3 154
50 4.0 0.19 0.23 85.6 86 30 4.0 0.20 0.24 250.0 250
60 4.0 0.17 0.21 135 135 35 4.0 0.18 0.22 371.2 371
70 4.0 0.15 0.19 203.1 203 40 4.0 0.16 0.20 533.3 533
80 4.0 0.14 0.18 280 280 45 4.0 0.15 0.19 710.5 711
90 4.0 0.13 0.17 375.2 375 50 4.0 0.14 0.18 925.9 926
100 4.0 0.12 0.16 492.1 492 55 4.0 0.13 0.17 1186.3 1190
60 4.0 0.12 0.16 1500.0 1500
15 6.0 0.40 0.46 3.9 4 10 6.0 0.38 0.44 15.2 15
20 6.0 0.35 0.41 7.7 8 15 6.0 0.32 0.38 39.5 40
30 6.0 0.28 0.34 20.8 21 20 6.0 0.27 0.33 80.8 81
40 6.0 0.23 0.29 43.4 43 25 6.0 0.23 0.29 143.7 144
50 6.0 0.19 0.25 78.7 79 30 6.0 0.20 0.26 230.8 231
60 6.0 0.17 0.23 123.2 123 35 6.0 0.18 0.24 340.3 340
70 6.0 0.15 0.21 183.7 184 40 6.0 0.16 0.22 484.8 485
80 6.0 0.14 0.20 252 252 45 6.0 0.15 0.21 642.9 643
90 6.0 0.13 0.19 335.7 336 50 6.0 0.14 0.20 833.3 833
100 6.0 0.12 0.18 437.4 437 55 6.0 0.13 0.19 1061.4 1061
110 6.0 0.11 0.17 560.4 560 60 6.0 0.12 0.18 1333.3 1333
120 6.0 0.09 0.15 755.9 756 65 6.0 0.11 0.17 1656.9 1657
130 6.0 0.08 0.14 950.5 951 70 6.0 0.10 0.16 2041.7 2042
75 6.0 0.09 0.15 2500.0 2500
80 6.0 0.08 0.14 3047.6 3048
15 8.0 0.40 0.48 3.7 4 10 8.0 0.38 0.46 14.5 15
20 8.0 0.35 0.43 7.3 7 15 8.0 0.32 0.40 37.5 38
30 8.0 0.28 0.36 19.7 20 20 8.0 0.27 0.35 76.2 76
40 8.0 0.23 0.31 40.6 41 25 8.0 0.23 0.31 134.4 134
50 8.0 0.19 0.27 72.9 73 30 8.0 0.20 0.28 214.3 214
60 8.0 0.17 0.25 113.4 113 35 8.0 0.18 0.26 314.1 314
70 8.0 0.15 0.23 167.8 168 40 8.0 0.16 0.24 444.4 444
80 8.0 0.14 0.22 229.1 229 45 8.0 0.15 0.23 587 587
90 8.0 0.13 0.21 303.7 304 50 8.0 0.14 0.22 757.6 758
100 8.0 0.12 0.20 393.7 394 55 8.0 0.13 0.21 960.3 960
110 8.0 0.11 0.19 501.5 501 60 8.0 0.12 0.20 1200.0 1200
120 8.0 0.09 0.17 667 667 65 8.0 0.11 0.19 1482.5 1483
130 8.0 0.08 0.16 831.7 832 70 8.0 0.10 0.18 1814.8 1815
75 8.0 0.09 0.17 2205.9 2206
80 8.0 0.08 0.16 2666.7 2667
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Metric US Customary
Design Maxi- Maxi- Total Calcu- Rounded Design Maxi- Maxi- Total Calcu- Rounded
Speed mum e mum ∱ (e/100 + lated Radius Speed mum e mum (e/100 + lated Radius
(km/h) (%) f) Radius (m) (mph) (%) ∱ f) Radius (ft)
(m) (m)
15 10.0 0.40 0.50 3.5 4 10 10.0 0.38 0.48 13.9 14
20 10.0 0.35 0.45 7.0 7 15 10.0 0.32 0.42 35.7 36
30 10.0 0.28 0.38 18.6 19 20 10.0 0.27 0.37 72.1 72
40 10.0 0.23 0.33 38.2 38 25 10.0 0.23 0.33 126.3 126
50 10.0 0.19 0.29 67.9 68 30 10.0 0.20 0.30 200.0 200
60 10.0 0.17 0.27 105 105 35 10.0 0.18 0.28 291.7 292
70 10.0 0.15 0.25 154.3 154 40 10.0 0.16 0.26 410.3 410
80 10.0 0.14 0.24 210 210 45 10.0 0.15 0.25 540.0 540
90 10.0 0.13 0.23 277.3 277 50 10.0 0.14 0.24 694.4 694
100 10.0 0.12 0.22 357.9 358 55 10.0 0.13 0.23 876.8 877
110 10.0 0.11 0.21 453.7 454 60 10.0 0.12 0.22 1090.9 1091
120 10.0 0.09 0.19 596.8 597 65 10.0 0.11 0.21 1341.3 1341
130 10.0 0.08 0.18 739.3 739 70 10.0 0.10 0.20 1633.3 1633
75 10.0 0.09 0.19 1973.7 1974
80 10.0 0.08 0.18 2370.4 2370
15 12.0 0.40 0.52 3.4 3 10 12.0 0.38 0.50 13.3 13
20 12.0 0.35 0.47 6.7 7 15 12.0 0.32 0.44 34.1 34
30 12.0 0.28 0.4 17.7 18 20 12.0 0.27 0.39 68.4 68
40 12.0 0.23 0.35 36 36 25 12.0 0.23 0.35 119.0 119
50 12.0 0.19 0.31 63.5 64 30 12.0 0.20 0.32 187.5 188
60 12.0 0.17 0.29 97.7 98 35 12.0 0.18 0.30 272.2 272
70 12.0 0.15 0.27 142.9 143 40 12.0 0.16 0.28 381.0 381
80 12.0 0.14 0.26 193.8 194 45 12.0 0.15 0.27 500.0 500
90 12.0 0.13 0.25 255.1 255 50 12.0 0.14 0.26 641.0 641
100 12.0 0.12 0.24 328.1 328 55 12.0 0.13 0.25 806.7 807
110 12.0 0.11 0.23 414.2 414 60 12.0 0.12 0.24 1000.0 1000
120 12.0 0.09 0.21 539.9 540 65 12.0 0.11 0.23 1224.6 1225
130 12.0 0.08 0.20 665.4 665 70 12.0 0.10 0.22 1484.8 1485
75 12.0 0.09 0.21 1785.7 1786
80 12.0 0.08 0.20 2133.3 2133
𝑥
Note: In recognition of safety considerations, use 𝑒 =4.0% should be limited to urban conditions.
Source: Table 3-7 AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highway and Streets 6th Edition. Used
by Permission.
Design Speed of Exit or Entrance Curve (kph) Maximum Algebraic Difference in Cross Slope
at Crossover Crown Line (5)
30 and under 5.0 to 8.0
40 and 50 5.0 to 6.0
60 and over 4.0 to 5.0
Source: Table 9-20 AASHTO, 2011, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highway and Streets 6th Edition. Used
by Permission
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Three segments of a ramp, the exit terminal, the ramp proper, and the entrance
terminal, should be analyzed to determine superelevation rates that would be
compatible with the design speed and the configuration of the ramp.
Gores
The term ‘gore’ indicates a neutral, usually triangular, area downstream from the
shoulder intersection points at the junction of a through roadway and an exit
ramp. The entire area should be striped to delineate the proper paths on each
side to assist the driver in identifying the gore area. The gore area, and the
unpaved area beyond, should be kept as free of obstructions as practical, and be
graded as nearly level as practical to provide a clear recovery area.
Yielding or breakaway supports should be employed for any exit sign in the gore
area. Where concrete footings are used, their surface should be flush with ground
level.
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AASHTO M 0173
ASTM D 3405
Polymeric Asphalt-based
SS-S-1401 C
ASTM D 1190
Elastomeric SS-S-1614
In general, the joint sealants that are most effective in maintaining bond to the
face of the joint are those that are placed with a 1-to-1 width-to-height ratio, that
is, a shape factor of 1.0. Low-modulus sealants, however, can maintain good bond
strength even when placed at ratios of 1-to 2. With field-molded sealants, a stiff
self-adhering strip, coated paper, or metal foil is applied to the bottom of the
sealant space to prevent bond between the sealant and bottom of the reservoir
(Figure 6-13). The bond breaker also supports the sealant so that it does not sag
into the joint. Frequently, cord or rope is used as a bond breaker in the reservoir.
In that case, the reservoir should be deeper by an amount equal to the cord
diameter so the proper shape factor is maintained for the sealant (Figure 6-13).
The Joints should be filled to about 6 mm (0.25 in.) below flush with the
pavement surface.
Before sealing, the joint openings should be thoroughly cleaned of curing
compound, residue, laitance, and any other foreign material. Joint face cleanliness
directly affects the adhesion of the sealant to the concrete. Improper or poor
cleaning reduces the adhesion of the sealant to the joint interface, which
significantly decreases the life and effectiveness of the sealant. Cleaning can be
done with sandblasting, water, compressed air, wire brushing, or a number of
other ways, depending on the joint surface condition and sealant manufacturer’s
recommendations.
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Polymer Sealants
Thermo-plastic polymer sealants are hot-poured and harden as they cool to
ambient temperature in the joint reservoir. Silicone sealants, cold-applied solvent
sealants, and the two-component polymer sealants require a curing period to
gain strength. Two-component polymer-type sealants require that two
components be thoroughly mixed in exact proportions as the material is being
placed in the joint. These sealants require special application equipment.
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Accurate temperature control for the polyvinyl chloride (PVC) type tar polymers
is critical for proper curing and development of beneficial properties.
Before sealing, the joint surfaces should be dry, clean, and free of curing
compound, residue, laitance, and any other foreign material. Cleaning can be
done by water or compressed air, wire brushing, sand blasting, or high-pressure-
water blast, depending on the joint surface condition and sealant manufacturer’s
recommendation. Proper cleaning is essential to obtain a joint surface that will
not impair bond or adhesion with the field-molded sealant. The surfaces should
be dry when the sealant is placed in the joint well.
Compression Sealants
Preformed compression seals are compartmentalized or cellular elastomeric
devices that function between the joint faces in a compressed condition at all
times. The preformed compression seals should remain compressed
approximately 15% at maximum joint opening to maintain sufficient contact
pressure for a good joint seal and to resist displacement and generally not more
than 55% at maximum closing of the pavement joint to prevent
overcompression. A properly selected preformed seal takes into account the
specified compression range, installation temperature, width of the formed
opening, and expected slab movement. The seals should be installed about 6 mm
(0.25 in.) below the surface of the pavement. This dimension may vary in relation
to local environmental conditions and the service record of joints under similar
service conditions. For specific products, seal size recommendations and
availability should be obtained from the manufacturer or supplier.
Preformed compression seals require the application of a lubricant/ adhesive to
the reservoir side walls. While the lubricant/adhesive used during installation
has some adhesive qualities, its primary function is to provide lubrication during
installation. Its adhesive qualities should not be considered in design. The size of
the reservoir is chosen to ensure that the seal remains n compression at all times.
During installation, care should be taken to avoid twisting and to avoid stretching
the sealant more than 3%.
Hot-Applied, Field-Molded Sealants
When the sealant is hot-applied, the safe heating temperature should not be
exceeded, and the manufacturer’s instructions should be followed carefully.
Failure to follow to such instructions may result in a chemical breakdown of the
sealant and render the sealant useless. Because most of the hot-poured sealants
are asphalt-based, they are potential fire hazards, and safety precautions should
be taken. Proper melting units or kettles should be used to ensure proper control
of the sealant temperature. For liquid sealants, the surfaces should be dry and the
sealant should not be placed during cold weather. Good workmanship should
ensure that the sealant material is not spilled on the exposed surfaces of the
concrete.
Cold-Applied, Field-Molded Sealants
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Despite the reduced deflections, skewed joints are no substitute for the use of
mechanical load transfer devices although there is some evidence that pavement
with skewed joints do have less faulting than those with perpendicular joints. It is
generally recommended that their use be limited to undoweled pavement on
low-volume routes.
Source: American Concrete Pavement Association 1991, Design and Construction of Joints for Concrete
Highway
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Solution:
a) Solve for W18:
(1+0.07)10 −1
Bus Design Traffic = (236) [ ](365) = 1.19*106
0.07
(1+0.07)10 −1
Truck Design Traffic = (393) [ ](365) = 1.982*106
0.07
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again until the right side value is equal or slightly greater than the left
side of the equation.
Left Side = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙10 𝑊𝑊18 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙10 (4.0 ∗ 106 )
= 6.602
Try SN = 4.00
Solve manually or by Excel spreadsheet formula.
Right Side = (−1.405)0.49 + 9.36 ∗ 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙10 (4.00 + 1.0) − 0.20 +
1.70
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙10 [ ]
4.2−1.5
1094 + 2.32 ∗ 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙10 (7,500) − 8.07
0.40+
(4.0+1)5.19
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where:
W18 = predicted number of 18-kips equivalent single axle load
application.
ZR = standard normal deviate from Table 6-11
𝑆𝑆Ο = combined standard error of the traffic prediction and
performance prediction from Table 6-11
D = thickness (inches) of pavement slab
∆𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = difference between the initial service ability index (𝑃𝑃Ο ) and the
design terminal service ability (𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡 )
S’c = modulus of rupture (psi) for Portland cement concrete
Construction specifications usually require a characteristics
rigid pavement strength from which a mean target value for a
PCC Modulus of Rupture is established. To account for
variations in material characteristics and in the Modulus of
Rupture, and for the allowable percentage of strength (Ps)
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where:
S’c = estimated mean value for PCC modulus of Rupture, (psi);
Sc = construction specification for the Modulus of rupture, (psi);
Sds = estimated standard Deviation of PCC modulus of rupture, (psi);
and
Z = Standard normal deviation
= 0.841, for Ps = 20%
= 1.037, for Ps = 15%
= 1.282, for Ps = 10%
= 1.645, for Ps = 5%
= 2.327, for Ps = 1%
The average standard deviation for PCC flexural strength is 100
psi, which has been adopted for this project. A Ps of 10%, Sc of
600 psi, and an absolute minimum Sc of 510 psi will be allowed
in the construction specification at 14 days concrete strength.
These values yield and estimated S’c = 638 psi.
J = load transfer coefficient used to adjust for load transfer
characteristic of a specific design.
Cd = drainage coefficient from Table 6-13
Ec = modulus of elasticity (psi) for Portland cement concrete, and
k = effective modulus of subgrade reaction (pci).
k ͚ = composite modulus of subgrade reaction (pci)
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(1+0.07)20 −1
Truck Design Traffic = (1,432) [ ](365) = 21.43*106
0.07
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g) Solve for Ec
Ec = 57,000 (f’c)0.5
= 57,000 (4000)0.5
= 3.6 * 106
i) Solve for k
Try subbase thickness DSB = 270mm = 10.63 inches
Use given values: ESB = 15,000
MR = 7,500
LS = 1.00
Use Figure 6-3 – Chart for Estimating Composite Modulus of
subgrade reaction, k ͚
͚
From Figure 6-3 chart the value of k = 425 pci
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DPWH Department Order No. 22 dated 08 April 2011 on the subject ‘Minimum
Pavement Thickness and Width of National Roads’ specifies for Portland Cement
Concrete Pavement (PCCP):
Minimum thickness for new road construction, rehabilitation or upgrading
shall be 280 mm. However, a range of 230 mm - 280 mm may be used if
CESAL is not more than 7.0x106. Refer to DPWH Department Order No. 22,
Series 2011.
Minimum thickness for pavement rehabilitation using the crack and seal
method shall be 260 mm.
Thickness for pavement re-blocking shall be the same as the replaced blocks.
Minimum width for new road construction shall be 6.70 m.
Minimum width for rehabilitation or upgrading works involving a length of at
least 500 m shall be 6.70 m provided such works will not require right-of-
way acquisition.
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Figure 6-16 Wet-Mix and Dry-Bound Bituminous Roadbases: Minimum Thickness of Surfacing and Roadbase
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Figure 6-20 shows the lowering of the water table by raising the grade of the
embankment to at least one meter from the surface. Figure 6-21 shows the
keeping of the water table at least 1.00 meter below the road surface by the
installation of under-drains.
Failure to comply with the required degree of construction compaction and / or
drainage conditions may be a cause of road failure.
Sub-base
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Figure 6-20 The Lowering of the Watertable by Raising the Grade of the Embankment to at
Least One Meter from the Surface
Figure 6-21 The Keeping of the Water Table at Least 1.00 m Below the Road Surface by the
Installations of Under-Drains
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The group index of the soil can be more easily calculated from the charts given.
A Characteristic of Soils (Classification as per AASHTO Designation M-145) is
shown in Table 6-18.
Charts for graphical determination of group index are shown in the Figure 6-22.
The DPWH Department Order No. 22 dated 08 April 2011 on the subject
‘Minimum Pavement Thickness and Width of National Roads’ specifies for
Asphalt Pavement:
Minimum thickness for overlay works shall be 50 mm.
Pavement thickness of more than 50 mm shall be considered only if the cost
of the asphalt pavement is less than the cost of 230 mm thick PCCP.
Minimum width for new road construction shall be 6.70 m.
Minimum width for rehabilitation or upgrading works involving a length of at
least 500 m shall be 6.70 m provided such works will not require right-of-
way acquisition.
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Table 6-18 Classification of Soil and Soil - Aggregate Mixtures (with Suggested Subgroups)
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Slab Length
Slab length is a very important criterion in the design because the amount of
tensile stresses developed in the pavement heavily depends on the length of the
slab (spacing between joints) and consequently the amount of reinforcement to
be provided to minimize cracking. The selection of slab length depends on
various factors such as the site locality limitations, constructions method
adopted, ride quality requirements and other local requirements. Experience has
shown that the use of slab lengths between 8 and 12 m provide an optimum
balance of joint performance, cost and ride quality (Austroads 2008). The DPWH-
BOD do not allow a slab length to be more than 4.5 m. Refer the discussion in
Section 6.6.1.
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Friction Factor
The friction between the bottom of the slab and the top of the sub-base or
subgrade constrain the stresses developed due to temperature/moisture
variations. Recommended values from AASHTO design guide for natural
subgrade and other sub-base materials are given in Table 6-19.
Source: AASHTO, 1993, Guide for Design of Pavement Structures Vol. 1. Used by Permission.
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Concrete Shrinkage
Concrete shrinkage is caused due to water loss in the concrete and is affected by
cement content, chemical admixtures, curing method, aggregates and curing
conditions. The value of shrinkage at 28 days is used as the design shrinkage
value for design purposes.
When more water is added to the concrete mix, the potential for shrinkage
increases and the strength reduces. Therefore shrinkage can be considered
inversely proportionate to the strength of concrete.
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Friction Factor
The slab base friction factor for continuously reinforced pavements is the same
as that for jointed reinforced concrete pavements as given in Section 6.10.1.3.
Limiting Criteria
There are three limiting criteria that must be considered in addition to the inputs
required for the design of longitudinal steel which are outlined below:
Crack spacing where AASHTO recommends crack spacing between 1m and
2.4 m to minimize the potential for the development of punch-outs and crack
spalling.
The allowable crack width should not exceed 1 mm. The predicted crack
width can be reduced by selecting a higher steel percentage or smaller
diameter reinforcing bars.
To guard against possible steel fracture, the limiting stress should not be
taken more than 75% of the ultimate tensile strength. (AustRoads more
conservatively use a limit of 60%).
Design Procedure
For reinforcement design of jointed reinforced concrete pavements and
continuously reinforced concrete pavements, the method provided in AustRoads
Guide to Pavement Technology: Pavement Structural Design (2008) is used here.
Reinforcements in jointed reinforced concrete pavements can be calculated using
the following formula:
𝜇𝜇 × 𝐿𝐿 × 𝜌𝜌 × 𝑔𝑔 × 𝐷𝐷
𝐴𝐴𝑠𝑠 =
𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠
where:
𝐴𝐴𝑠𝑠 = the required area of steel (mm2/m width of slab
𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠 = the allowable tensile stress of the reinforcing steel (MPa), usually 0.6 times
characteristic yield strength fsy(AASHTO is less conservative and
recommends 0.75 of fsy
g = acceleration due to gravity (m2/s)
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where:
Lcr = theoretical spanning between cracks (m)
fct = tensile strength of concrete (MPa)
m = ration of the elastic moduli of steel to concrete Es/Ec – a value of 7.5 may
be assumed
p = area of longitudinal steel per unit area of concrete (i.e. steel proportion)
u = perimeter of bar per unit area of steel which may be simplified to 2
divided by radius of the bar (m-1)
fb = bond stress (MPa) for mature concrete and when deformed bars are used
this may be assumed as 2 fct
€s = estimated shrinkage strain – the shrinkage strain may be considered to be
in the range 200 to 300 µ€ for a concrete with a laboratory shrinkage not
exceeding 450 µ€ microstrain at 21 days when tested (after 3 weeks of air
drying).
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factors. Table 6-20 from the AASHTO design guide provides the equivalency
factors for each overlay type and existing pavement type.
Table 6-20 Equivalency Factors for Overlay and Existing Pavement Types
Source: AASHTO, 1993, Guide for Design of Pavement Structures Vol. 1. Used by Permission.
AASHTO Guide provides that rigid pavement ESALs can be converted to flexible
pavement ESAL by multiplying the ridged pavement ESAL by 0.67. For example,
15 million rigid pavement ESALs equal to 10 million flexible pavement ESALs.
Sub-surface drainage: An evaluation of sub-surface drainage conditions of the
existing pavement should be conducted before the overlay design. It may be
necessary to improve sub-surface drainage conditions before attempting to
overlay to improve the performance of the overlay.
Rutting in AC pavements: If there is rutting present in the existing pavement,
the cause of rutting should be investigated. If there is extensive rutting due to
instability of any of the existing pavement layers, an overlay may not be
appropriate. In this situation, consideration should be given to mill and
remove the rutted surface and any underlying rutted asphalt layers.
Milling AC surface: In some cases it may be necessary to remove a portion of
an existing pavement to remove cracked and hardened AC material to
improve the performance of an overlay.
Recycling the existing pavement: Recycling of parts of an existing AC layer is
feasible in many situations and this has become a very common practice.
Therefore due consideration should be given in the design on the possibility
of recycling of parts of the existing pavement.
Structural versus functional overlays: AASHTO overlay design procedure
provides an overlay thickness to correct a structural deficiency. If there is no
structural deficiency, the theoretical overlay thickness may be less than or
equal to zero. However, this does not mean an overlay is not necessary.
Overlay may still be required to correct a functional deficiency. Therefore the
designer should be careful to allow for functional deficiencies in addition to
structural deficiencies to determine the final overall overlay thickness.
Overlay material: In the selection of overlay material, the designer should
consider the specific loading, climatic conditions and underlying pavement
deficiencies present and adjust the design accordingly.
Shoulders: Overlay design should include the design of shoulders and factors
such as the extent of deterioration of existing shoulders and the amount of
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traffic that will use the shoulder. The shoulder should be designed so that the
shoulder grade matches with the grade of the pavement.
Existing PCC slab durability: If an overlay is designed over an existing PCC
slab, due consideration should be given to the condition of the existing slab.
The designer must consider the possibility of progressive deterioration of
overlay and allowances should be made to minimize adverse impacts on the
new overlay.
PCC overlay joints: Reinforcements may have to be provided for jointed
reinforced or continuously reinforced overlays to hold cracks together.
Restraints due to the friction between base slab and the overlay slab should
be considered in the design of reinforcements.
PCC overlay bonding/separation layers: Depending on the circumstances, an
overlay slab may be designed as a bonded or separated from the existing slab.
Overall design reliability level and overall standard deviation: Design of an
overlay must incorporate a suitable level of reliability similar to the design of
new pavements as discussed earlier. The designer should be aware that some
sources of uncertainty may be different in the design of overlays. For
example, the uncertainties in the estimation of effective existing structural
capacity should be considered as an added factor in the design of overlays.
Therefore the overall standard deviation may vary by overall type. In the
absence of reliable data, at the present time, AASHTO recommends the use of
0.39 for any type of concrete overlays and 0.49 for any type of AC overlay.
Pavement widening: In case where pavement widening is required in the
overlay sections, it is important to ensure coordination between the overlay
design and new pavement design for the widened section to ensure both
sections are structurally adequate. Failure to do this may cause serious
longitudinal cracking along the joint between the overlay and new
pavements. Key considerations recommended in AASHTO design guide are:
- Both the overlay and the new widening should be designed to have the
same design life.
- The widened cross section should generally closely match with the
existing pavement in material type, thickness, reinforcement. The joint
spacing should match where possible but a shorter joint spacing is
permitted for the new section if it is justifiable.
- The widened slab should be tied with the existing slab using appropriate
tie bars.
- A reflection crack relief fabric may be placed along the longitudinal
widening joint to reduce the possibility of forming a longitudinal crack
along the joint.
- The overlay should be the same thickness over the widening section as
over the rest of the traffic lane.
- If required, a longitudinal sub-drainage should be provides to release
water ingress.
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Surface Roughness
Surface roughness on AC surfaces may be created due to long wavelength surface
distortions, deteriorated transverse cracks, longitudinal cracks or potholes. A
conventional overlay will correct the roughness temporarily until the cracks
reflect through the overlay. For a longer term solution, a full-depth repair of
deteriorated areas and a thicker AC overlay incorporating a reflection crack
control treatment may remedy this problem.
On PCC surfaced pavements, roughness may be caused due to spalling and
faulting of transverse and longitudinal joints and cracks and it can be repaired by
full or partial depth repairs consisting of rigid materials.
In some situations, a layer of ‘preventive overlay’ may be warranted to slow the
rate of deterioration as a precautionary measure.
The general overlay methodology applied to all types of overlay placed on any
type of pavement structure. This methodology employs the serviceability-traffic
(performance) relationship, which rely on life-cycle cost concepts to select a
minimum economic overlay strategy.
Figure 6-23 shows the key relationship and concepts of the general overlay
methodology. They are a) serviceability-traffic repetitious, b) structural capacity-
traffic repetitious, and c) pavement condition-traffic repetitions.
In this figure, the overall pavement condition factor, c is related to the effective
capacity by the following;
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 𝐶𝐶𝑥𝑥 . 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑜𝑜
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When the concept of remaining life is considered, the general overlay equation
becomes:
𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑦𝑦𝑛𝑛 − 𝐹𝐹𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 (𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 )
where:
𝐹𝐹𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = remaining life factor which account for damage of the existing
pavement as well as the desired degree of damage to the overlay at the
end pf the overlay traffic. It is always less than or equal to a value of 1.0
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑂𝑂 = initial capacity of original pavement
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = additional structural capacity required from the overlay
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑦𝑦 = total structural capacity required to support overlay traffic
Figure 6-23 Relation Between Serviceability - Capacity Condition Factor and Traffic
Source: Guide for Pavement Rehabilitation, Volume II. F.S of the Road Improvement Project on Pan-Phil.
Highway, September 1987, JICA
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There are seven (7) steps in the overlay design procedure, as shown in Figure 6-
24..
Step 1: Analysis Unit Delineation
The first step in the overlay process is the clear delineation of basic
analysis units. The objective is to determine boundaries along the project
length that subdivide the rehabilitation project into statistically
homogenous pavement units possessing uniform pavement cross
sections, subgrade (foundation) support, construction histories, and
subsequent pavement condition.
Step 2: Traffic Analysis
The purpose of the traffic analysis step is to determine the cumulative 18
ESAL repetitions along a pavement length from the date the pavement
was originally opened to traffic through the end of the anticipated overlay
period.
Step 3: Materials and Environmental Study
Design values for the layer materials used in the rehabilitation process
may be categorized into three major groups:
Existing pavement layer properties
Existing pavement subgrade (foundation) properties
Design properties of overlay layers
AASHTO Guide 1986 recommends the Pavement Layer Moduli Prediction
Method of NDT (Nondestructive Testing).
Step 4: Effective Structural Capacity Analysis
The fourth step in an overlay analysis is to estimate effective (in situ)
structural capacity of the pavement to be overlaid. Information regarding
material properties derived in the previous step is used to arrive at this
parameter.
Rigid Pavements
Aside from two methods of NDT, AASHTO Guide 1986 recommends
approximate procedures to estimate effective structural capacity of the
pavement to be overlaid. These are:
Visual Condition Factor Approach
The relationship between Cv (Visual condition factor) and DxeH value
(Effective Thickness of PCC Slab) are proposed as shown in Table
6-21.
Normal Size of PCC Slab Fragments
Remaining Life Approach
Flexible Pavements
Only NDT method can be applied
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ASSHTO Guide 1986 recommends the following methods aside from NDT
approach to determine the remaining life of the existing pavement, R LX .
Traffic Approach
Time Approach
Serviceability Approach
Visual Condition Survey Approach
Table 6-21 provides general guidance to estimate visual condition factors.
After 𝐶𝐶𝑥𝑥 Value has been determined Figure 6-25 can be used to estimate
the R LX value.
The remaining life of overlaid pavement, R Ly is directly set in selection of
the desired terminal serviceability for SCy, by the following equation.
R Ly = (Nfy − y)/Nfy
where:
Nfy = ultimate number of traffic repetitions to failure.
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Traffic Pavement; R LT
Analysis Method
NDT Method
Traffic Method
Time Approach
Serviceability Approach
Visual Condition Survey Approach
Source: Guide for Pavement Rehabilitation, Volume II. F.S of the Road Improvement Project on Pan-Phil. Highway, September 1987, JICA
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Table 6-21 Summary of Visual (Cv) and Structural (Cx) Condition Values
Asphaltic 1. Asphalt layers that are sound, stable, uncracked and 0.9 - 1.0 0.95
have little to no deformation in the wheel paths.
2. Asphalt layers that exhibit some intermittent cracking 0.7 – 0.9 0.85
with slight stable.
3. Asphalt layers that exhibit some moderate to high 0.5 – 0.7 0.70
cracking, have raveling or aggregate degradation
and show moderate to high deformation in wheel
path.
4. Asphalt layers that show very heavy (extensive) 0.3 – 0.5 0.60
cracking, considerable ravelling or degradation and
very appreciable wheel path deformations.
PCC 1. PCC pavement that is uncracked, stable and 0.9 – 1.0 0.95
undersealed, exhibiting no evidence at pumping.
Pozzolanic Base/ 1. Chemically stabilized bases (CTB, LCf…) that are 0.9 – 1.0 0.95
Subbase relatively crack free, stable and show no evidence of
pumping.
2. Chemically stabilizes bases (CTB, LCF…) that have 0.3 – 0.5 0.60
developed very strong pattern or fatigue cracking,
with wide and working cracks that are progressive in
nature: evidence of pumping or other causes of
instability may be present
Granular Base/ 1. Unbound granular layers showing no evidence of 0.9 – 1.0 0.95
Subbase shear or densification distress, reasonably identical
physical properties as when constructed and
existing at the same “normal” moisture – density
conditions as when constructed.
Special Notes:
1. The visual condition factor, Cv is related to the structural condition factor, Cx, by:
Cv = Cx 2
2. The structural condition factor, Cx, and not the Cv value, is the variable used in the structural overlay and
design equation (for all overlay-existing pavement types), it is defined by:
SCself = Cv SCD
Source: Guide for Pavement Rehabilitation, Volume II. F.S of the Road Improvement Project on Pan-Phil.
Highway, September 1987, JICA
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Figure 6-25 Remaining Life Estimate Predicted from Pavement Condition Factor
Source: Guide for Pavement Rehabilitation, Volume II. F.S of the Road Improvement Project on Pan-Phil.
Highway, September 1987, JICA
Figure 6-26 Remaining Life Factor as a Function of Remaining Life of Existing and Overlaid
Pavements
Source: Guide for Pavement Rehabilitation, Volume II. F.S of the Road Improvement Project on Pan-Phil.
Highway, September 1987, JICA
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where:
DOL = required thickness of overlay
Dy = total structure capacity required for overlay traffic
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Institute recommends 4 inches (10 cm) which is also recommended for the
country.
Overlay Design Analysis for Flexible Overlay- Existing
The basic equation for determining the required SN value due to a flexible
overlay over an existing flexible pavement is:
SNol = SNy − FRL SNxeff
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No. of Values 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 or
Available (n) more
Source: Guide for Pavement Rehabilitation– Feasibility Study of the Road Improvement
Project on Pan-Philippine Highway – September 1987, JICA
The design subgrade MRcan be determined either in the field (dynamic cone
penetrometer) or by means of laboratory testing. Non-destructive testing (NDT)
back-calculation, estimation from resilient modulus correlation studies, or using
original design and construction data can be used.
The following formula should be used to back-calculate the subgrade MR value
from NDT data: (This formula is valid for English units and must be checked for
Metric units.)
0.24𝑃𝑃
𝑀𝑀𝑅𝑅 =
𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟
where:
MR = back-calculated subgrade resilient modulus (units)
P = applied loads (units)
dr = measured direction of radial distance r (units)
r = radial distance at which the deflection is measured (units)
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The selected resilient modulus value has a significant effect on the resulting
structural number determined and therefore caution should be exercised in
accurately determining the value. If a high resilient modulus values are used, the
resulting overlay thickness may be too thin.
Feasibility
An AC overlay may be a feasible alternative for a deteriorating AC pavement,
except if excessive rutting exists. Excessive surface rutting indicates a lack of
sufficient stability, serious deterioration in the existing stabilized base, and a
weak granular base due to infiltration by a soft subgrade. Stripping of the existing
AC surface may also dictate that it should be removed and replaced.
Pre-Overlay Repair
In many situations, if the damage to the existing pavement is excessive, repair
work should be carried out prior to overlay of AC pavements to ensure the
expected service life of the overlay is maintained. Some of those situations are as
follows:
Alligator cracking: All areas of severe alligator cracking must be repaired.
Areas with medium damage should be repaired unless reflective crack
control is used in the overlay. Any soft sub-surface material must be removed
as a part of the repair work.
Linear cracking: Cracks with high severity damage should be patched. Linear
cracks with a width greater than 6 mm should be filled with a sand-asphalt
mixture or other suitable crack filler. If transverse cracks are experiencing
significant opening and closing, some method of reflective crack control is
recommended in the new overlay.
Rutting: Ruts should be removed by milling or placing a leveling course
before overlay. If rutting is too severe, the cause for it should be investigated.
Depending on the results of the investigation, a decision has to be made
whether overlay is feasible option or not.
Surface irregularities: Excessive depressions, humps and corrugations will
have to be investigated and they should be removed and replaced where
required.
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Thickness Design
The following equation is specified in the AASHTO Guide to calculate the required
thickness to increase structural capacity to carry future traffic.
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑎𝑎𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 ∗ 𝐷𝐷𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑓𝑓 − 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
where:
SNol = required overlay structural number
aol = structural coefficient for the AC overlay
Dol = required overlay thickness (mm)
SNf = structural number required to carry future traffic
SNeff = effective structural number of the existing pavement
Design Procedure
Step 1: Existing Pavement Design and Construction
Obtain the following parameters from the existing pavement design and
construction data:
Thickness and material type of each pavement layer.
Available subgrade soil information (from construction records, soil surveys
or any other reports or documents.
Step 2: Traffic Analysis
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Obtain or determine the following data about existing and future traffic:
Past cumulative ESALs in the design lane (Np), for use in the remaining life
method of SNeff determination only.
Predicted future ESALs in the design lane over the design period (Nr)
Step 3: Condition Survey
Obtain following information on the existing condition of the pavement (this is
usually done during a condition assessment survey):
Percentage of surface area with alligator cracking (low, medium and high
severities).
Number of transverse cracks per km (low, medium and high severities)
Mean rut depth.
Evidence of pumping at cracks and at pavement edges.
Step 4: Deflection Testing
Measurement of deflections in the outer wheel path at an interval sufficient to
adequately assess conditions -intervals of 30 to 300m are typical. Leave out the
areas that have been deteriorated and require repairs. Use of a Benkelman Beam
or a Falling Weight Deflectometer with a nominal 40 kN loading per half axle
Deflection should be measured at the center of the load and at least one other
distance from the load.
Using the deflection measurement away from the load magnitude, back-calculate
the subgrade resilient modulus using the following formula:
0.24𝑃𝑃
𝑀𝑀𝑅𝑅 =
𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟
where:
MR = back-calculated subgrade resilient modulus (units)
P = applied loads (units)
dr = measured direction of radial distance r (units)
r = radial distance at which the deflection is measured (units)
The minimum distance to the point where deflection is measured away from the
point of load magnitude can be calculated using the following equation:
𝑟𝑟 ≥ 0.7𝑎𝑎𝑒𝑒
where:
2
𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝
3
𝑎𝑎𝑒𝑒 = √[𝑎𝑎2 + (𝐷𝐷 √ )
𝑀𝑀𝑅𝑅
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1
[1 − 2
]
1 √1+(𝐷𝐷)
𝑎𝑎
𝑑𝑑𝑜𝑜 = 1.5𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 +
2 𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝
𝐷𝐷 3 𝐸𝐸
𝑀𝑀𝑅𝑅 √1 + ( √ 𝑝𝑝 )
𝑎𝑎 𝑀𝑀𝑅𝑅
{ }
where:
d0 = deflection measured at the center of the load plate (and adjusted to a
standard temperature of 20°C.
p = NDT load plate pressure (unit)
a = NDT load plate radius (unit)
D = total thickness of pavement layers above the subgrade (unit)
MR = subgrade resilient modulus (unit)
Ep = effective modulus of all pavement layers above the subgrade (unit)
Step 5: Coring and Material Testing
If deflection test as discussed in Step 4 is not performed, laboratory testing of
samples of the subgrade may be conducted to determine its resilient
modulus.
Samples of AC layers and stabilized base should be visually examined to
assess asphalt stripping, degradation and erosion.
Samples of granular base and sub-base should be visually examined and a
gradation carried out to assess degradation and contamination by fines.
The thickness of all layers should be measured.
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where:
D = total thickness of all pavement layers above the subgrade (units)
Ep = effective modulus of pavement layers above the subgrade (units)
where:
D1, D2, D3 = thickness of existing pavement surface, and sub-base layers
a1,a2,a3 = corresponding structural layer coefficients
m2, m3 = drainage coefficients for granular base and sub-base
The remaining life of the pavement can be calculated using the following formula:
𝑁𝑁𝑝𝑝
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 100 [1 − ( )]
𝑁𝑁1.5
where:
RL = remaining life, present
Np = total traffic to date, ESALs
N1.5 = total traffic to pavement failure, ESLAs
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where:
CF = condition factor
SN0 = structural number of the pavement if it were newly constructed.
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Thickness Design
The AASHTO 1993 Guide for Design of Pavement Structures contains the most
comprehensive procedure. The procedure is based on the remaining life concept
and can be applied to any type of overlay (Huang 1993). The process is similar to
that for asphalt overlays on asphalt pavements. Both effective thickness and
deflection based methods are available for asphalt overlays on rigid pavements of
all types.
6.12.1 Feasibility
A bonded overlay of JPCP, JRCP, or CRCP is a feasible rehabilitation alternative for
PCC pavements except when the conditions of the existing pavement dictate
substantial removal and replacement or when durability problems exist (28).
Conditions under which a PCC bonded overlay would not be feasible include:
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The amount of deteriorated slab cracking and joint spalling is so great that a
substantial amount of removal and replacement of the existing surface is
dictated.
Significant deterioration of the PCC slab has occurred due to durability
problems (e.g., “D” cracking or reactive aggregates). This will affect
performance of the overlay.
Vertical clearance at bridges is inadequate for required overlay thickness.
This is not usually a problem because bonded overlays are usually fairly thin.
If construction duration is critical, PCC overlays may utilize high-early-strength
PCC mixes. PCC overlays have been opened within 6 to 24 hours after placement
using these mixtures.
Source: AASHTO, 1993, Guide for Design of Pavement Structures Vol. 1. Used by Permission.
Full-depth repairs and slab replacements in JPCP and JRCP should be PCC,
dowelled or tied to provide load transfer across repair joints. Full-depth repairs
in CRCP should be PCC and should be continuously reinforced with steel which is
tied or welded to reinforcing steel in the existing slab, to provide load transfer
across joints and slab continuity. Full-depth AC repairs should not be used prior
to placement of a bonded PCC overlay, and any existing AC patches should be
removed and replaced with PCC.
Installation of edge drains, maintenance of existing edge drains, or other
subdrainage be done prior to placement of the overlay if a subdrainage
evaluation indicates a need for such an improvement.
Pressure relief joints should be done only at fixed structures, and not at regular
intervals along the pavement. The only exception to this is where a reactive
aggregate has caused expansion of the slab. On heavily trafficked routes,
expansion joints should be of the heavy-duty type with dowels. If joints contain
significant incompressibles, they should be cleaned and resealed prior to overlay
placement.
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6.12.4 Subdrainage
The subdrainage condition of an existing pavement usually has a great influence
on how well the overlay performs. A subdrainage evaluation of the existing
pavement should be conducted. Improving poor subdrainage conditions will
have a beneficial effect on the performance of an overlay. Removal of excess
water from the pavement cross-section will reduce erosion and increase the
strength of the base and subgrade, which in turn will reduce deflections. In
addition, stripping in AC pavement and “D” cracking in PCC pavement may be
slowed by improved subdrainage.
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developed based upon visible distress observation by skipping Steps 4 and 5, and
by estimating other inputs.
The overlay design can be prepared for a uniform section or on a point-by-point.
Step 1: Existing Pavement Design
1. Existing slab thickness
2. Type of load transfer (mechanical devices, aggregate interlock, CRCP)
3. Type of shoulder (tied, PCC, other)
Step 2: Traffic Analysis
1. Past cumulative 18-kip ESALs in the design lane (Np ), for use in the
remaining life method of Deff determination only
2. Predicted future 18-kip ESALs in the design lane over the design period (Nf )
Step 3: Condition Survey
The following distresses are measured during the condition survey for JPCP,
JRCP, and CRCP. Sampling along the project may be used to estimate these
quantities in the most heavily trafficked lane.
JPCP/JRCP:
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transfer when the ambient temperature is greater than 80°F. Place the load
plate on one side of the joint with the edge of the plate touching the joint.
Measure the deflection at the center of the load plate and at 12 inches from
the center. Compute the deflection load transfer from the following equation.
Δul
ΔLT = 100 ∗ ( ) ∗ B
Δl
where:
ΔLT = deflection load transfer, percent
Δul = unloaded side deflection, inches
Δl = slab bending correction factor
The slab bending correction factor, I is necessary because the deflections d0
and d12 , measured 12 inches apart, would not be equal even if measured in
the interior of a slab. An appropriate value for the correction factor may be
determined from the ratio of d0 to d12 for typical center slab deflection basin
measurements, as shown in the equation below. Typical values for B are
between 1.05 and 1.15.
d0 center
B=
d12 center
If a single overlay thickness is being designed for a uniform section, compute
the mean deflection load transfer value of the joints tested in the uniform
section.
For JPCP and JRCP, determine the Load Transfer Coefficient “J” from Table 6-
24.
Source: AASHTO, 1993, Guide for Design of Pavement Structures Vol. 1. Used by Permission.
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Source: AASHTO, 1993, Guide for Design of Pavement Structures Vol. 1. Used by Permission.
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Figure 6-28 PCC Elastic Modulus Determination from k-Value, Area and Slab Thickness
Source: AASHTO, 1993, Guide for Design of Pavement Structures Vol. 1. Used by Permission.
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where:
S′c = modulus of rupture, psi
E = backcalculated elastic modulus of PCC slab, psi
For CRCP, S′c may be determined from the backcalculated E values only at
points which have no cracks within the deflection basins.
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Figure 6-29 Chart for Estimating Composite Modulus of Subgrade Reaction, k, Assuming a
Semi-Infinite Subgrade Depth. (for Practical Purposes, a Semi-Infinite Depth is
Considered to be Greater than 10 Feet Below the Surface of the Subgrade)
Source: AASHTO, 1993, Guide for Design of Pavement Structures Vol. 1. Used by Permission.
Compute Df for the above design inputs using the rigid pavement design equation
or nomograph. When designing an overlay thickness for a uniform pavement
section, mean input values must be used, When designing an overlay thickness
for specific points along the project, the data for that point must be used. A
worksheet for determining Df is provided in Table 6-25. Typical values of inputs
are provided for guidance. Values outside these ranges should be used with
caution.
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The effective thickness of the existing slab (Deff) is computed from the following
equation:
Deff = Fjc x Fdur x Ffat x D
where:
D = existing PCC slab thickness, inches
1. Joints and cracks adjustment factor (Deff). This factor adjust for the extra loss
in PSI caused by deteriorated reflection cracks in the overlay that will result
from any unrepaired deteriorated joints, cracks and other discontinuities in
the existing slab prior to overlay. A deteriorated joint or crack in the existing
slab will rapidly reflect through an AC overlay and contribute to loss of
serviceability. Therefore, it is recommended that all deteriorated joints and
cracks (for non-“D” cracked or reactive aggregate related distressed
pavements) and any other major discontinuities in the existing slab be full-
depth repaired with dowelled or tied PCC repairs prior to overlay, so that Fjc
= 1.00.
If it is not possible to repair all deteriorated areas, the following information
is needed to determine Fjc , to increase the overlay thickness to account for
the extra loss in PSI from deteriorated reflection cracks (per design lane):
Pavements with no “D” cracking or reactive aggregate distress:
Number of unrepaired deteriorated joints/mile
Number of unrepaired deteriorated cracks/mile
Number of unrepaired punchouts/mile
Number of expansion joints, exceptionally wide joints (greater than 1
inch), and full depth, full-lane-width AC patches/mile
Note that tight cracks held together by reinforcement in JRCP or CRCP are
not included. However, if a crack in JRcp or CRCP is spalled and faulted
the steel has probably ruptured, and the crack should be considered as
working. Surface spalling of CRCP cracks is not an indication that the
crack is working.
The total number of unrepaired deteriorated joints, cracks, punchouts,
and other discontinuities per mile is used to determine the Fjc from
Figure 6-27.
Pavements with “D” cracking or reactive aggregate deterioration:
These types of pavements often have deterioration at the joints and cracks
from durability problems. The Fdur factor is used to adjust the overlay
thickness for this problem. Therefore, when this is the case, the Fjc should be
determined from Figure 6-28 only using those unrepaired deteriorated joints
and cracks that are not caused by durability problems. If all of the
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deteriorated joints and cracks are spalling due to “D” cracking or reactive
aggregate, then Fjc = 1.0. This will avoid adjusting twice with the Fjc and Fdur
factors.
2. Durability adjustment factor (Fdur ). This factor adjust for an extra loss in PSI
of the overlay when the existing slab has durability problems such as “D”
cracking or reactive aggregate distress. Using condition survey data from
Step 3, Fdur is determined as follows.
1.00:No sign of PCC durability problems
0.96-0.99:Durability cracking exists, but no spalling
0.80-0.95:Cracking and spalling exist (normally a bonded PCC overlay is not
recommended under these conditions)
Table 6-25 Worksheet for Determination of Df for JPCP, JRCP and CRCP
SLAB:
Existing PCC slab thickness = inches
Type of load transfer system: mechanical device, aggregate interlock CRCP
Type of shoulder = tied PCC, other
PCC modulus of rupture (typically 600 to 800 psi) = psi
PCC E modulus (3 to 8 million psi for sound PCC, <3 = psi
million for unsound PCC)
J load transfer factor (3.2 to 4.0 for JPCP, JRCP 2.2 to 2.6 =
for CRCP)
TRAFFIC:
Future 18=kip ESALs in design lane over the design period =
(Nf)
SUPPORT AND DRAINAGE:
Effective dynamic k-value = psi/inch
Effective static k-value = effective dynamic k-value/2 = psi/inch
(typically 50 to 500 psi/inch)
Subdrainage coefficient, Cd =
(typically 1.0 for poor subdrainage conditions)
SERVICEABILITY LOSS:
Design PSI loss (P1 – P2) =
RELIABILITY:
Design Reliability, R (80 to 99 percent) = percent
Overall standard deviation, So (typically 0.39)
FUTURE STRUCTURAL CAPACITY:
Required slab thickness for future traffic is determined
from rigid pavement design equation or nomograph in,
Figure 6.2
Df = inches
Source: AASHTO, 1993, Guide for Design of Pavement Structures Vol. 1. Used by Permission.
3. Fatigue damage adjustment factor (𝐹𝐹𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 ). This factor adjusts for past fatigue
damage that may exist in the slab. It is determined by observing the extent of
transverse cracking (JPCP, JRCP) or punchourt (CRCP) that may be caused
primarily by repeated loading. Use condition survey data from Step 3 and the
following guidelines to estimate Ffat for the design lane.
0.97-1.00: Few transverse cracks/punchouts exist (none caused by “D”
cracking or reactive aggregate distress)
JPCP: <5% slabs are cracked
JRCP: <25 working crack per mile
CRCP: <4 punchouts per mile
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Table 6-26 Calculation of Deff for Bonded PCC Overlay of JRCP, and CRCP
Np
RL = 100 [1 − ( )] = _______________________
N1.5
CF =
Deff = CF ∗ D = _______________________
Source: AASHTO, 1993, Guide for Design of Pavement Structures Vol. 1. Used by Permission.
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Source: AASHTO, 1993, Guide for Design of Pavement Structures Vol. 1. Used by Permission.
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6.12.6 Shoulders
Overlaying traffic lanes generally requires that the shoulders be overlaid to
match the grade line of the traffic lanes. In selecting an overlay material and
thickness for the shoulder, the designer should consider the extent to which the
existing shoulder is deteriorated and the amount of traffic that will use the
shoulder. For example, if trucks tend to park on the shoulder at certain locations,
this should be considered in the shoulder overlay design.
If an existing shoulder is in good condition, any deteriorated areas should be
patched. An overlay may then be placed to match the shoulder grade to that of
the traffic lanes. If an existing shoulder is in such poor condition that it cannot be
patched economically, it should be removed and replaced.
6.12.7 Joints
Existing JPCP and JRCP. Transverse and longitudinal joint should be saw cut
completely through the overlay thickness (plus 0.5-inch depth) as soon as
curving allows after overlay placement. Failure to saw joints soon after
placement may result in debonding and cracking at the joints. No dowels or
reinforcing steel should be placed in these joints. An appropriate sealant
reservoir should be sawed and sealant should be placed as soon as possible.
Existing CRCP. Transverse joints must no be cut in the bonded overlay, as they
are not needed. Transverse joints are also not needed for the end joints for full-
depth reinforced tied concrete patches. Longitudinal joints should be sawed in
the same manner as for JPCP and JRCP.
6.13 Unbonded JPCP, JRCP, and CRCP Overlay of JPCP, JRCP, CRCP and AC/PCC
An unbounded JPCP, JRCP, or CRCP overlay of an existing JPCP, JRCP, CRCP, or
composite (AC/PCC) pavement can be placed to improve both structural capacity
and functional condition. An unbounded concrete overlay consists of the
following construction tasks:
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6.13.1 Feasibility
An unbounded overlay is a feasible rehabilitation alternative for PCC pavements
for practically all conditions. They are most cost-effective when the existing
pavement is badly deteriorated because of reduced need for pre-overlay repair.
Conditions under which a PCC unbounded overlay would not be feasible include:
The amount of deteriorated slab cracking and joint spalling is not large and
other alternatives would be much more economical.
Vertical clearance at bridges is inadequate for required overlay thickness.
This may be addressed by reconstructing the pavement under the overhead
bridges or by raising the bridges. Thicker unbounded overlays may also
necessitate raising signs and guardrails, as well as increasing side slopes and
extending culverts. Sufficient right-of-way must be available or obtainable to
permit these activities.
The existing pavement is susceptible to large heaves or settlements.
If construction duration is critical, PCC overlays may utilize high-early strength
PCC mixes. PCC overlays have been opened within 6 to 24 hours after placement
using these mixtures.
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Source: AASHTO, 1993, Guide for Design of Pavement Structures Vol. 1. Used by Permission.
where:
Dol = required thickness of unbounded PCC overlay, inches
Df = slab thickness to carry future traffic, inches
Deff = effective thickness of existing slab, inches
Unbonded concrete overlays have been successfully constructed as thin as 5
inches and as thick as 12 inches or more. Thicknesses of seven to 10 inches have
been typical for most highway pavement unbounded overlays.
The required overlay thickness may be determined through the following design
steps. These design steps provide a comprehensive design approach that
recommends testing the pavement to obtain valid design inputs. If it is not
possible to conduct this testing, an approximate overlay design may be
developed based upon visible distress observations by skipping Steps 4 and 5,
and by estimating other inputs.
The overlay design can be prepared for a uniform section or point-by-point basis.
Step 1: Existing Pavement Design
1. Existing slab thickness
2. Type of load transfer (mechanical devices, aggregate interlock CRCP)
3. Type of shoulder (tied, PCC, other)
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Measure slab deflection basins in the outer wheel path along the project at an
interval sufficient to adequately assess conditions. Intervals of 100 to 1,000 feet
are typical. Measure deflections with sensors located at 0, 12, 24, and 36 inches
from the center of load. A heavy-load deflection device (e.g., Falling Weight
Deflectometer) and a load magnitude of 9,000 pounds are recommended. ASTM
D 4694 and D 4695 provide additional guidance on deflection testing.
For each slab tested, backcalculate the effective k-value using Figure 6-32 or
backcalculation procedure. The AREA of each deflection basin is computed from
the following equation.
d12 d12 d36
AREA = 6 x [1 + 2 ( ) + 2 ( ) + ( )]
d0 d0 d0
where:
d0 = deflection in center of loading plate, inches
d𝑖𝑖 = deflections at 12, 24, and 36 inches from plate center, inches
AREA will typically range from 29 to 32 for sound concrete.
1) Effective dynamic k-value. Enter Figure 6-32 with d0 and AREA to determine
the effective dynamic k-value beneath each slab for a circular load radius of
5.9 inches and magnitude of 9,000 pounds. Note that for loads within 2,000
pounds more or less, deflections may be scaled linearly to 9,000-pound
deflections.
If a single overlay thickness is being designed for a uniform section, compute
the mean effective dynamic k-value of the slabs tested in the uniform section.
2) Effective static k-value.
Effective static k-value = Effective dynamic k-value/2
The effective static k-value may need to be adjusted for seasonal effects using
the approach presented in Part II, AASHTO, Design of Pavement Structure,
1993, Section 6.5.4. However, the k-value can change substantially and have
only a small effect on overlay thickness.
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Source: AASHTO, 1993, Guide for Design of Pavement Structures Vol. 1. Used by Permission.
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modulus of rupture, and load transfer), which will control the performance of the
unbounded overlay.
1. Effective static k-value beneath the existing pavement. Determine from one of
the following methods.
Backcalculate the effective dynamic k-value from deflection basins as
described in Step 4. Divide the effective dynamic k-value by 2 to obtain
the effective static k-value. The static k-value obtained may need to be
adjusted for seasonal effects.
Conduct plate load tests (ASTM D 1196) after slab removal at a few sites.
This alternative is very costly and time-consuming and not often used.
The static k-value obtainted may need to be adjusted for seasonal effects.
See effective Modulus of Subgrade Reaction.
Estimate from soils data and base type and thickness, using Figure 6-29.
This alternative is simple, but the static k-value obtained must be
recognized as a rough estimate. The static k-value obtained may need to
be adjusted for seasonal effects. See effective Modulus of Subgrade
Reaction.
2. Design PSI loss. PSI immediately after overlay (P1) minus PSI at a time of next
rehabilitation (P2).
3. J, load transfer factor for joint design of the unbonded PCC overlay.
4. PCC modulus of rupture of unbounded PCC overlay.
5. Elastic modulus of unbounded PCC overlay.
6. Loss of support. Use LS = 0 for unbonded PCC overlay.
7. Overlay design reliability, R (percent).
8. Overall standard deviation (S0 ) for rigid pavement.
9. Subdrainage capability of existing slab, after subdrainage improvements.
Pumping or faulting at joints and cracks determined in Step 3 is evidence that
a determined in Step 3 is evidence that a subdrainage problem exists. In
selecting this value, note that the poor drainage situation at the AASHO Road
Test would be given a Cd of 1.0.
Compute Df for the above design inputs using the rigid pavement design
equation. A worksheet for determining Df is provided in Table 6-28.
Step 7: Determination of Effective Pavement
The condition survey and remaining life procedures are presented.
𝐃𝐃𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞 From Condition Survey
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where:
D = existing PCC slab thickness, inches (Note: maximum D for use in unbounded
concrete overlay design is 10 inches even if the existing D is greater than 10
inches
Fjcu = joints and cracks adjustment factor for unbonded concrete overlays
Note that the existing AC surface is neglected determining the effective slab
thickness of an existing AC/PCC pavement.
Field surveys of unbounded jointed concrete overlays have shown very little
evidence of reflection cracking or other problems caused by the existing slab.
Therefore, the Fdur and Ffat are not used for unbounded concrete overlays. The
Fjcu factor is modified to show a reduced effect of deteriorated cracks and joints
in the existing slab, and is given in Figure 6-33.
1) Joints and cracks adjustment factor (Fjcu ). This factor adjust for the extra loss
in PSI caused by deteriorated reflection cracks or punchouts in the overlay
that result from any unrepaired deteriorated joints, cracks and other
discontinuities in the existing slab prior to overlay. Very little such loss in PSI
has been observed for JPCP or JRCP unbonded overlays.
The following information is needed to determine Fjcu to adjust overlay
thickness for the extra loss in PSI from deteriorated reflection cracks that are
not repaired:
Number of unrepaired deteriorated joints/mile
Number of unrepaired deteriorated cracks/mile
Number of expansion joints, exceptionally wide joints (greater than 1 inch) or
full depth full-lane-width AC patches/mile
The total number of unrepaired deteriorated joints/cracks and other
discontinuities per mile prior to overlay is used to determine the Fjcu from
Figure 6-31 for the appropriate type of PCC overlay. As an alternative to
extensive full-depth repair for an unbonded overlay to be placed on a badly
deteriorated pavement, a thicker AC interlayer should eliminate any
reflection cracking problem, so that Fjcu = 1.0.
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Source: AASHTO, 1993, Guide for Design of Pavement Structures Vol. 1. Used by Permission.
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Figure 6-33 Fjcu Factor for Unbonded JPCP, JRCP, and CRCP Overlays
Source: AASHTO, 1993, Guide for Design of Pavement Structures Vol. 1. Used by Permission.
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where:
Dol = required thickness of unbonded PCC overlay, inches
Df = slab thickness determined in Step 6, inches
Deff = effective thickness of existing slab determined in Step 7, inches
The thickness of overlay determined from the above relationship should be
reasonable when the overlay is required to correct a structural deficiency.
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Figure 6-34 Fjcu Adjustment Factor for Unbonded JRCP and CRCP Overlays
Source: AASHTO, 1993, Guide for Design of Pavement Structures Vol. 1. Used by Permission.
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6.13.5 Shoulders
See Section 6.11.6 for guidelines.
6.13.6 Joints
Transverse and longitudinal joints must be provided in the same manner as for
new pavement construction, except for the following joint spacing guidelines for
JPCP overlays. Due to the unusually stiff support beneath the slab, it is advisable
to limit joint spacing to the following to control thermal gradient curling stress:
Maximum joint spacing (feet) = 1.75 x Slab thickness (inches)
Example: slab thickness = 8 inches
Joint spacing = 8 x 1.75 = 14 feet
Table 6-29 Calculation of Deff for Unbonded FCC Overlay of JPCP, JRCP, CRCP, and AC/PCC
Total/mile =
Notes: Maximum D allowed is 10 inches for use in calculating Deff for unbonded overlays. Existing AC surface is
neglected in calculating Deff for existing AC/PCC pavement when designing an unbonded PCC overlay.
Np
RL = 100 [1 − ( )] = _______________________
N1.5
CF = (Figure 6-28)
Deff = CF ∗ D = _______________________
Note: Maximum D allowed is 10 inches for use in calculating Deff for unbonded overlays
Source: AASHTO, 1993, Guide for Design of Pavement Structures Vol. 1. Used by Permission.
6.13.7 Reinforcement
Unbonded JRCP and CRCP overlays must contain reinforcement to hold crack
tightly together. The design of the reinforcement would follow the guidelines
given for new pavement construction, except that the friction factor would be
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high (e.g., 2 to 4) due to bonding between the AC separation layer and the new
PCC overlay. Refer Section 6.5.2.3.
Feasibility
A PCC overlay is a feasible rehabilitation alternative for AC pavements for
practically all conditions. They are most cost-effective when existing pavement is
badly deteriorated. Conditions under which a PCC overlay would not be feasible
include:
1. The amount of deterioration is not large and other alternatives would be
much more economical.
2. Vertical clearance at bridges is inadequate for required overlay thickness.
This may be addressed by reconstructing the pavement under the overhead
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bridges or by raising the bridges. Thicker PCC overlays may also necessitate
raising signs and guardrails, as well as increasing side slopes and extending
culverts. Sufficient right-of-way must be available or obtainable to permit
these activities.
3. The existing pavement is susceptible to large heaves or settlements.
If construction duration is critical, PCC overlays may utilize high-early-strength
PCC mixes. PCC overlays have been opened within 6 to 24 hours after placement
using these mixtures.
Pre-overlay Repair
One major advantage of a JPCP, JRCP, or CRCP overlay over AC pavement is that
the amount of repair required for the existing pavement is greatly reduced.
However the following types of distress (Refer Section 2.4.1) should be repaired
prior to placement of the overlay to prevent reflection cracks that may reduce its
service life. Guidelines on repairs are provided in References 1 and 3, AASHTO
Guide for Design of Pavement Structures, 1993.
Source: AASHTO, 1993, Guide for Design of Pavement Structures Vol. 1. Used by Permission.
Thickness Design
The required thickness of the PCC overlay is a function of the structural capacity
required to meet future traffic demands and the support provided by the
underlying AC pavement. The required overlay thickness to increase structural
capacity to carry future traffic is determined by the following equation.
Dol = Df
where:
Dol = required thickness of PCC overlay, inches
Df = slab thickness to carry future traffic, inches
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c. How many ACC overlays have been placed on this slab, what was the
overlay depth and date of placement, what was the material makeup, and
what surface preparations were done prior to each overlay? Are the
overlay materials subject to stripping or deformation?
d. What type, amount, and location of drainage layers or systems are
present along the roadway? A review of existing drainage ways adjacent
to the project can identify farm tile and drainage obstructions.
2. Traffic Estimate. Determine the historical mix of the traffic and the number of
axle loadings it has experienced from original construction to the present
time. What will be the mix and volumes of various vehicle types (especially
trucks or farm equipment) expected in the design period?
3. Field review of the project. This activity should involve the combined efforts
of the pavement engineer, soils engineer, planner, designer, and the local
maintenance supervisor at a minimum and any pavement
history/management records review for the project area. This is an
important step in collecting knowledge of the pavement that does not appear
in written records.
a. Identify each pavement distress, frequency, and severity over the length
of the project. Is the distress found throughout the project or in isolated
portions? Take note of field entrances of heavy farm equipment or
crossroads locations such as a quarry location near the roadway.
b. Try to determine whether the distress is load, environmental, or material
related. Examples may include excessive numbers of transverse cracks
that are "tented" upwards. If these cracks are associated with joints in the
underlying PCC pavement, it may mean that the concrete is deteriorated
to a point where the new overlay will not bridge this problem. It may also
mean there is no load transfer or the reinforcement is deteriorated to a
point of no practical use. If there are many transverse cracks between
PCC joints, one should consider the existence of transverse steel in the
concrete layer acting as another deteriorated joint.
c. Look for longitudinal working cracks at a joint between the original
pavement and the widening unit. A working crack here must be
considered in the jointing plan for the overlay.
d. Determine the location of other working cracks (longitudinal, transverse,
or diagonal) that will require reinforcement in the overlay.
e. Identify the location of existing full depth patches and their condition. If
they have failed, this is the time to replace them. If more than 20% of the
transverse joints in the project have been patched in this manner and
more are needed, thin concrete overlay rehabilitation should not be
considered. An unbonded overlay of significant thickness (6" or greater)
should be considered along with the option of removal and replacement
of the entire roadway structure.
f. Identify areas of potential delamination in the ACC or ACC/PCC
underlying pavement layers due to moisture or pavement longitudinal
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growth and blowups. If blowups have occurred in the past, what material
was used to patch them and were moisture conditions dealt with at the
site? How much additional drainage work will be required and how will it
be placed relative to the existing pavement cross section?
g. Identify special needs for additional widening to accommodate trucks
entering and leaving the pavement and navigating horizontal curves.
h. Identify special needs of the surrounding property owners that must be
met during construction. Is daily access essential or can special
arrangements for access be provided during construction?
i. Identify the drainage structures that must be lengthened or widened. Will
bridge decks be overlaid or will the overlay be transitioned into the
existing decks? Are the drainage structures in need of replacement? If so,
they should be replaced and patched with a full depth before the overlay
is placed.
j. Identify the need and location for any shoulder widening. The new
pavement should have at least 3 foot of earth or granular shoulder
outside the paved area to protect the pavement section.
k. A review of detour potential routes should be considered at this time. It is
not necessary, but could speed up construction and opening to traffic.
l. Field review data collection should include the following: random coring
of layers at selected distressed and good performing transverse joints,
wheel paths and mid panel/quarter points to determine the stability of
each layer, and potential delamination areas between various layers.
m. FWD deflection testing should be performed at each 0.2-mile location in
the outer wheel path in each direction of travel on the project roadway.
This amount may be reduced over time by the design agency when they
develop a level of confidence in the variability along the roadway with
their results. Testing should be done with a load and with sensors placed
between surface cracks and not across a reflective crack.
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performance of the new PCC overlay and to reduce the potential for reflective
cracking.
2. Overlay depth should be determined from the results of the coring, deflection
testing, and anticipated traffic mix and volume. It should consider the amount
of ACC depth being removed in the milling procedure and make allowance for
the reduced composite section depth.
3. The entire ACC surface should be milled to a minimal depth that allows for
the road surface crown to be restored while removing any high spots across
the road surface. It is not necessary or advised to remove the ACC to the
bottom of the ruts that may be present in the ACC surface. Millings can be
used for shoulder materials in most cases.
Termini at bridges or ends of the project should be milled to a depth of 6
inches or greater at the junction with the existing pavement. Mill across the
slab at this point to get a vertical edge at the junction of the new and old
surfaces. If this means removal of some of the existing PCC, treat that section
as a bonded section in terms of joint patterns. This provides a thickened end
where vehicle impact loads are prevalent.
In the event the existing widening unit longitudinal joint is open and working,
it is suggested that the widening unit be milled to a depth of the design
widening unit and a new joint established at this point. Expansion joint
material shall be replaced near bridge termini according to highway agency
standards.
4. Joint patterns in the surface PCC overlay should be determined in
relationship to the slab width of the underlying PCC pavement. Divide the
lane width into segments that are nearly square in nature and allow for the
retention of a lane or centerline joint. Either joint can become a reflective
crack if not considered in the design. Joint spacing of the PCC overlay in feet
should not exceed twice the depth in inches, unless fibers are used. In this
case, do not exceed the instructions of the fiber manufacturer. The fibers will
hold cracks tight and to some degree assist in bonding, but they will not stop
the crack from forming. The object of joint design is to allow for the
differences in cement chemistry of today and allow for curl and warp to occur
in the thin surface without causing cracks. Care should be taken to eliminate
longitudinal joints in the wheel paths wherever possible.
Evaluate the condition of the existing widening joint. If geotextile or metal
reinforcement was used across the original joints in the overlay and the joint
is tight, the designer can neglect this joint as a potential reflective crack in the
overlay.
5. The use of fibers is suggested in PCC overlays of less than 4 inches as an
insurance policy against loss of surface due to a crack. They will not stop
cracking, but will retard loss of material around the crack. Research is
ongoing to evaluate the use of the fibers to allow for larger joint patterns in
the overlay that could match the underlying PCC layer joint pattern.
6. Tie bars across the longitudinal joints should be used in PCC depths of 6
inches or greater due to placement problems. In the case of the longitudinal
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joint between a new widening unit and the existing pavement, where the PCC
overlay thickness is less than 3 inches to 6 inches, tie bars, nailed to the
existing ACC surface at 36 inch spacings should be considered.
7. Concrete quantities should be bid in two bid items. The first should be for
volume delivered in cubic yards. Be aware that this reduces the risk to the
contractor, fills the rutted areas and the overlay volume, and will often
overrun between 10%-20% due to irregularities in the slab wheelpaths. The
second bid item is for concrete placement by the square yard that covers the
placement and finishing, curing, and texturing of the concrete as will be used
in a conventional PCC new pavement construction.
8. Construction survey for the overlay should involve cross sections on 25 foot
intervals and points across the slab that involve the two edges of slab,
centerline of roadway, center of wheelpath (rut), and lane centerpoints as a
minimum. This minimizes the potential for unexpected overrun identified in
item 7. It allows the engineer to identify high points in the cross section that
will affect the minimum depth in a given cross section and the longitudinal
grades vs. the volume of concrete required to meet a good profile and
minimum depth of concrete requirements. This also requires the paving
contractor to utilize two string lines to guide his machine for each edge of the
roadway.
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joint. The maturity method of estimating concrete strength can be used with
proper concrete mix selection to reduce property owner inconvenience to
less than 20 hours (car traffic) and construction traffic to approximately 30
hours (truck traffic) being off the placed slab.
This type of paving moves very quickly and the contractor must be prepared
to not only take care of the surface area in terms of finishing, but also
maintain a good surface profile. This will be the controlling activity in this
type of construction.
3. The use of fibers and current texturing methods using burlap, Astroturf, and
tining machines will bring some of the fibers to the surface behind the paving
operation. These will not damage the pavement performance and can be
removed by the first set of highway traffic or snowplow operations of the
winter season.
4. Traffic control can be the same as that used on other overlay projects. It is
essential that the contractor and the businesses along the project understand
the construction process to be used. A preconstruction public meeting can
alleviate many of the potential conflicts with deliveries and access along the
project.
5. Concrete placement for this type of overlay requires that the pavement be
clean of all foreign matter in front of the paving operation. This will insure
the proper opportunity for bonding between the overlay and the existing
surface. Temperature monitoring of the existing ACC surface should be
employed to keep the surface temperature below 100 degrees Fahrenheit. In
the event that temperature is exceeded, the surface should be sprayed with
water to cool the surface. Excess water should be removed prior to the
placement of the concrete.
6. In the event fibers are selected for introduction into the mix, the contractor
should demonstrate that the introduction method will eliminate the potential
for balling. The use of agitating haul units allows for the addition of the fibers
at the plant and mixing during hauling. If dump trucks are used for hauling,
means of blowing the fibers into the mixing drum or alternative but worker-
safe modes should be demonstrated prior to beginning the work.
7. Curing and surface texturing for this type of work must remain close to the
slipform paving operation due to the depth of the overlay and the changing
weather conditions over the course of the day. It is recommended that
multiple maturity locations be considered for each day's placement. Research
indicates that the changes in existing pavement surface temperature over the
course of the day may dictate that some areas be skipped by the saw in the
morning in order to meet the rapid strength gain potential that could have
occurred in the middle of the afternoon.
8. Due to the small distance between joints, the joint formation should be done
with early entry saws and 1/8-inch-wide blades. Joint formation in both
directions should be initiated as soon as concrete strengths are in the 100 to
120 psi flexural strength range or when raveling of the joint does not occur
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behind the saw. Depth of joint formation should be accomplished to the same
relative depth as that in full-depth pavement specifications.
The process of first sawing a transverse joint in the 15 to 20 foot range of
spacing and then allowing other saws to follow with the intermediate joints
can prevent premature cracks on hot weather days. In the case of thin
overlays, it is important to keep the longitudinal sawed joint formation closer
to the slipform than on full depth pavements. It is probable and possible to
keep all the joint formation operations within 1,000 to 1,500 feet of the
slipform paver for mixes that do not contain slag or similar retarding type
materials.
Existing Iowa research indicates no difference in joint performance between
joints that were air blasted after sawing and joints that were not cleaned. The
only caution is the buildup of sawing dust and its effect on profile
measurements. This can be eliminated with the use of a poer broom. If water
is used to cool the saw blades, then water flushing of the joints should be
done.
9. The owners and contactors must change their perspective on opening this
road to traffic. Shouldering should be done as soon as the pavement strength
allows for construction traffic. This normally will be within two days after
paving and can be monitored with the maturity method of estimating
concrete strength.
6.18 References
AASHTO (1993), Guide for Design of Pavement Structures. American Association
of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington DC, 1993.
Austroads (2003). Guide to the Selection of Road Surfacings Revised Edition. Part 2
Properties of Road Surfacings. Austroads publication AP-G63/03, Austroads
Sydney 2003.
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7 Earthworks
7.1 Introduction
Traffic is very frequently disturbed by damage resulting from earthquakes and
heavy rains. In particular, traffic disturbances are largely caused by the failure of
slopes. The stability of a slope is maintained mainly by a balance between the
integrity of the ground subject to sliding probability and the sliding force by
slope gravity. However, the stability of a slope is greatly disturbed by (1)
decreases in the strength of the ground due to groundwater seepage or heavy
rainfall, (2) changes in the balance of gravity due to artificial cuts and fills, (3)
increase of the pore pressure due to heavy rainfall or movement of groundwater,
or (4) increases in the gravity acceleration during earthquakes. The failures of
slopes are classified into ‘Landslides’ and ‘Failures’. Prior survey and
measurement are of great importance since the areas where failures are expected
to frequently occur are determined by geological conditions and can be
topographically predicted. Many causes of ‘failures’ exist, and sometimes several
causes compound in one failure, making the prediction of the location, scale and
so forth of a ‘failure’ more difficult to perform when compared to the case of
‘landslides’.
Appropriate slope protection works are required in order to prevent slope
failures. Sodding is the generally preferred method in view of its construction
cost and aesthetic appearance combined with slope flattening. However, slope
protection works using structures are sometimes employed as an alternative
where sodding or slope flattening is difficult to perform because of
meteorological, topographical, agronomical, gradient, construction limitations or
spring water conditions. In principle, areas where landslides are likely to occur
should be avoided at the route selection stage, but appropriate countermeasure
works will become necessary if road construction in such areas is unavoidable.
The existence of water is one of the greatest causes of slope failures and
landslides and so full precautions should be taken for the action of water.
Permanent drainage facilities as well as the temporary drainage facilities during
construction should be very carefully planned.
Slope protection measures deteriorate after many years and their functions are
also gradually degraded. In addition, external forces not taken into account at the
time of construction may begin to act and result in deformation of the slope. Also,
changes in the terrain due to nearby land development may sometimes increase
the likelihood of instability of slopes. The detection of changes that may cause
failures and the appropriate countermeasures are of great importance in the
daily maintenance of slopes.
This chapter is a compilation of considerations to be taken at the stages of
survey, design, construction, and maintenance and is based upon experience and
the results of studies accumulated for the purpose of indicating guidelines for
stabilizing slopes and for securing the safety of road traffic.
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 - Highway Design
7.2.1 Height
Due to gravitational forces, high embankments generally pose serious threat. For
high embankments, it is sometimes necessary to provide lateral support such as
retaining structures or other structural measures. Standard slope gradients may
only be applicable up to a certain height, beyond which expert opinion/provision
must be conducted to ensure safety.
Safety is improved if embankment heights are kept as low as possible, as well as
the provision of berms, or other stepped measures, to reduce the effective height
of the slope.
7.2.2 Slopes
The gradient of the slope plays an important role that can produce tremendous
risk if left unchecked. The gradient of side slopes, provision for drainage, seismic
consideration, and erosion must be seriously addressed to prevent problems for
embankments.
7.2.3 Foundation
The highway embankment may be sufficient in terms of slope specifications, but
it will not be stable if the foundation it is placed on is soft ground or problematic
soils. It can result in problems such as soil liquefaction, settlement (both
differential and total), and deep-seated slope failure. The bearing capacity of the
foundation must be considered for suitability in undertaking highway designs.
7.2.4 Loading
The loading at the top and base of a slope can have both positive and negative
effects on the stability of a slope. A load at the base of the slope can improve toe
stability while a load at the top of a slope can increase the mobilization potential
of the slope. Construction loading from earthmoving equipment as well as
loading from traffic or structures must be taken into account in the design of
slopes.
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 – Highway Design
No. 27 dated 01 May 2009 on the subject ‘DPWH Standard Specifications for
SOM Top Seal, Item 316’ approves the use of polymer based SOM Top Seal
soil stabilizer.
7.2.6 Groundwater
The groundwater table and saturated soil is of particular importance in design.
Landslide or slip risk can be affected by an increase in the soak-away drainage or
the construction of retaining walls which inhibit groundwater flow, or during
heavy rain or human activities that upset the natural balance.
These conditions can lead to a reduction in beneficial soil suction, increased
static water pressures below the water table, increased hydraulic pressures, loss
of strength (softening) of clay, loss of cementing in some soils/rock and
transportation of soil particles, all of which contribute to slope failure.
Suitable drainage measures at the top and base of slopes, behind and in front of
retaining structures and sub soil drainage for roads and embankments need to be
considered to reduce the effect of the groundwater table (or changes within it)
and their effect on constructed works. These can include surface water drains,
surface protection, sub-soil drains, deep drainage or other methods.
Vegetation and trees draw large quantities of water out of the ground on a daily
basis which lowers the water table and increases suctions, both of which reduce
the likelihood of a slip or landslide occurring.
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 - Highway Design
material but on saturation can lead to failure due to the effect of particle
transportation.
For cuts in rock, the weathering, strength, defects, discontinuities, dips, strikes,
infill and other pertinent geological information is assessed in order to determine
the most efficient and safe rock cut slope. For example, a Fresh weathered rock
may be of extremely low strength so needs a flatter slope, whereas an extremely
weathered rock may be of medium strength with few discontinuities and can be
steeper. It must be understood that there is a difference in weathering of a rock
and its potential for failure at certain cut angles based on the rock mass
orientation. Defects, infill and bedding plane orientation can have a major effect
on the stable cut slope and as such a generic cut slope cannot be defined for all
rock types for the degree of weathering. The values given in Table 7-1 are
conservative estimates. Geological mapping of a rock mass with oriented core
boreholes or similar effective drilling allows the nature of the rock mass to be
established for design of cut slopes.
Geotechnical design parameters should be established for the material of the cut
slope and the cut slope be analyzed by slope stability calculations or specialized
design software (such as Geostudio Slope/W or similar) that can establish the
likelihood of slope failure for the inherent geotechnical conditions.
Groundwater needs to be addressed in the analysis of cut slopes and drainage
measures to reduce the effect of groundwater on the instability of the slope
should be designed.
Slopes must be protected by means of retaining walls, soil nails, micropiles,
cribwork, or other stabilization options when it is unavoidable to form a cut
slope with a gradient steeper than the safe gradient determined by slope stability
analysis. An estimate of allowable gradients for some common soil types
encountered and rocks is provided in Table 7-1.
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 – Highway Design
Table 7-1 Stability of Cut and Fill Slopes for Different Material Types
* Table 7-1 not applicable for soil and rock types not included
** Refer Section 7.3 for rock slopes for cuts
*** All slope ratios assume that berms are in place at regular intervals and slope
protection such as nets, catch drains and other protective measures are in place, as
required.
The stability of fill in the above cases should be examined by stability calculations
or slope stability software (such as Slope/W) using the results of classification
tests, unconfined compression tests, direct shear tests, or tri-axial tests using fill
material which has been compacted to the prescribed degree with geotechnical
design parameters determined for each material type, including effects of
groundwater and saturation. Additionally, engineering judgment and experience
on material type and slope batters for construction and permanent works should
be sought.
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 - Highway Design
Standard tables have been used in the past as an estimate for potential “safe” cut
slopes however these are intended as a guide only and in practice there is more
to consider than the material type. The slope batters in Table 7-1 can provide an
initial indication of generally regarded suitable slopes for different material
types. The design slope, height, berms and retaining structures (if required)
should be analyzed by a geotechnical engineer in order to determine the safe
working slope batter and retaining structures (if required) for cut slopes.
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 – Highway Design
seepage water. Slope failures also occur where rock formation has been
decomposed by weathering.
When considerably fractured rocks, rocks with fissures, or friable rocks are to be
excavated, partial slope falls sometimes occur due to vibration during work,
removal of load by cut works, or by weather.
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 - Highway Design
Also, when embankments are made on a slope, the groundwater level in the
embankment may rise not only due to the rainfall but also to the seepage water
from the ground, sometimes resulting in failures of the entire embankment.
The scale of this type of failure is such that the functions of the embankments are
fully lost in many cases.
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 – Highway Design
Clayey Soil
.8
1 :1
Sand, Etc.
Pit-Run Gravel
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 - Highway Design
Lower Subgrade
Upper Subgrade
Sand
Private Road
Berms
It is recommended to provide berms about 1.0 to 2.0 m wide every 3.0 to 5.0 m of
height, starting from the top of fill slope. Basically, the following considerations
should be taken for the berms:
Except low fills, ditches are frequently provided on fill berms to prevent
erosion due to rains during and after the works, and these berms will be
sometimes used as inspection galleries.
Earth structures are always required to be built while making corrections to
the original design, and the berms are able to provide allowances for making
such corrections (such as extra space for foundation for slope protection
structure).
Berms function as temporally work yards, if necessary, for maintenance and
repair work (such as restoration work after disasters, partial reinforcement
of slope).
When filling across a narrow valley, the location of berms may be determined
based upon the mean fill height instead of the maximum fill height (almost at the
center of valley).
Where a drainage layer is installed inside the fill, the positional relation between
the berms and drainage layer should be considered in the design stage. Generally,
the drainage layer should be designed in such a manner that it will be located 1 to
2 m above the berm.
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 – Highway Design
External Conditions
Stability investigations are also required where:
The fill is easily affected by spring water from the ground (such as a partial
cut and fill section, a widened-embankment, fill on a slope, or fill across a
valley).
The fill slope may be inundated or the toe of the slope may be eroded during
floods (such as for fill on ponds).
Serious damage may occur to adjacent structures in the event of failure.
The bedrock of fill is instable, such as soft ground or a landslide area.
A long time is needed for restoration work and the function of the road may
be considerably disturbed in the event of failure (such as fill on slanted
ground like on a mountainous road and where there is no other alternate
road).
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 - Highway Design
By this method, a mass on the sliding surface is divided into several slices with
appropriate width, the shearing forces and resisting forces of slices are totaled
respectively, and then the factor of safety is determined from the ratio between
them. Normally, the number of slices is greater than 6.
The shearing strength of soil is normally determined from the triaxial
compression, direct shear and unconfined compression tests, but the tests must
be carefully performed since the results may vary depending upon the test
method or skill of test. The pore water pressure should be determined by the
method described in Section 7.6.3.3.
Vertical Line
OC
Center of Gravity
Precautions should be taken since the test method in the survey stage is different
when making calculations by the effective stress and total stress method.
Calculating formulas:
With effective stress method
∑(𝑐𝑐 ′ 𝑙𝑙 + (𝑊𝑊 cos 𝜗𝜗 − 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢) tan 𝜑𝜑′)
𝐹𝐹𝑆𝑆 =
∑ 𝑊𝑊 sin 𝜗𝜗
where the shearing strength is given by:
𝑠𝑠 = 𝑐𝑐 ′ + (𝜎𝜎 − 𝑢𝑢) tan 𝜑𝜑′
With total stress method
∑(𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + (𝑊𝑊 cos 𝜗𝜗) tan 𝜑𝜑)
𝐹𝐹𝑆𝑆 =
∑ 𝑊𝑊 sin 𝜗𝜗
where the shearing strength is given by:
𝑠𝑠 = 𝑐𝑐 + 𝜎𝜎 tan 𝜑𝜑
where:
Fs = factor of safety
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 – Highway Design
σ = normal stress
W = weight of slice
l = length of arc of sliding surface cut by each slice
c = cohesion
φ = angle of internal friction
u = pore water pressure
c’ = cohesion of soil for effective stress
φ’ = angle of internal friction for effective stress
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 - Highway Design
When using the total stress method, the shearing constants are determined by
using the results of the un-drained shear test. For the cohesive soils, φ = 0 and c=
qu/2 may be used from an unconfined compression test.
Figure 7-4 Example of Results of Triaxial Un-drained Shear Test of Unsaturated Fine-Grained
Soil and Design Shear Strength Parameters, Cu and Φu
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 – Highway Design
Impermeable Layer
9.894
Impermeable Layer
9.978
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 - Highway Design
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 – Highway Design
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (13) (14)
2 γ W = γA (t) θ cos θ sin θ Wcos θ u·l Wcos θ - (Wcos θ Wsin θ l c·l
Number A (m )
(t/m3) (t/m) u·l - u·l) (m) (t/m)
tan θ
① 3.4 x 5.5 x ½ = 9.35 1.85 17.30 58° 00' 0.52992 0.87805 9.17 9.17 5.29 14.67 6.39 5.43
② (7.1 + 5.5) x 3.5 x ½ = 22.05 1.85 40.79 48° 40' 0.66044 0.75088 26.94 26.94 15.55 30.63 5.34 4.54
③ (7.8 + 7.1) x 3.5 x ½ = 26.08 1.85 48.25 40° 50' 0.75661 0.65386 36.51 36.51 21.08 31.55 4.71 4.00
2.0 x 4.9 x ½ =
(5.9 + 7.8) x 4.0 x ½ = 27.40 1.85 50.69 33° 20' 0.83549 0.54951 48.7 43.8 23.29 32.03 4.92 2.46
④
4.90
58.29
2.0 x 4.0 x ½ = 4.00 1.90 7.60
(2.0 + 3.1) x
(4.9 + 5.9) x 4.0 x ½ = 19.80 1.85 36.63 26° 00' 0.89879 0.43879 50.34 39.12 20.8 24.55 4.40 2.20
⑤
4.4 x ½ =
56.01
11.22
(3.1 + 2.0) x 4.0 x ½ = 10.20 1.90 19.38
(3.1 + 3.6) x
(2.6 + 4.0) x 4.4 x ½ = 14.52 1.85 26.86 18° 50' 0.94646 0.32282 51.93 36.18 19.24 17.71 4.71 2.36
⑥
4.7 x ½ =
54.87
15.75
(3.6 + 3.1) x 4.4 x ½ = 14.74 1.90 28.01
(3.1 + 3.6) x
(1.5 + 2.6) x 4.8 x ½ = 9.84 1.85 18.20 11° 10' 0.95107 0.11366 47.83 31.75 16.88 9.44 4.82 2.41
4.8 x ½ =
⑦ 48.75
16.08
(3.1 + 3.6) x 7.8 x ½ = 16.08 1.90 30.55
(4.8 + 3.1) x
(0.3 + 1.5) x 4.8 x ½ = 4.32 1.85 7.99 3° 30' 0.99813 0.0610 31.19 19.18 10.2 1.97 4.92 1.73
4.9 x ½ =
⑧ 31.25
12.01
(2.0 + 3.1) x 4.8 x ½ = 12.24 1.90 23.26
1.8 x 3.5 x ½ =
0.8 x 0.3 x ½ = 0.12 1.85 0.22 - 3° 10' 0.99847 -0.0552 6.86 3.71 1.97 -0.37 3.46 1.73
⑨
3/15
31.25
2.0 x 3.5 x ½ = 3.50 1.9 6.65
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 – Highway Design
Figure 7-9 Groundwater Drainage Facilities and Drainage Layer for Fill on Inclined Ground
Underground Drainage
Permeable layer
Settlement of Original
Ground
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 - Highway Design
should be determined based upon the place where the ground settlement is the
greatest.
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 – Highway Design
Winch Bulldozer
That is, where the slope ratio is gentler than 1.8:1, a tire roller or vibrating roller
which is connected to and towed by a bulldozer is used to compact the main body
of fill. The fill is compacted by driving this heavy equipment up and down the
slope. Where the slope ratio is about 1.8:1, every layer in the main-fall body is
first compacted, the surface of slope is roughly finished according to finishing
stakes, and the slope is then compacted with a vibrating roller heavier than 3
tons pulled by a bulldozer on the top of fill as shown in Figure 7-11. If the roller is
lowered along the surface of slope while it is vibrating, the surface may
sometimes become loose and therefore it is more desirable to compact the earth
by vibrating while the roller is being pulled upward.
However, if the slope ratio is about 1.5:1, compaction by ordinary roller will
become difficult to perform and so special slope rollers such as vibrator or
vibration-type slope compacting equipment are normally used in this case. These
are used for compacting each layer of main fill body and simultaneously the
surface of slope, but the maximum slope ratio for the compaction with this
machine is 1:1.
The vibration roller specially designed for the slope is possible in the direction
transverse or parallel to the center line of the road. Compaction up to a slope
ratio of 1.2:1 is possible by the machine.
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 - Highway Design
If possible, it is desirable to have a gentle slope ratio of about 1.8:1 for the fill
slope and to design a thickness of about 2 to 3 m for blanket soil in order to make
machine execution possible.
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 – Highway Design
Figure 7-15 Example of Central Drain Pipe System in a Fill Slope Made of Volcanic Ash Under
Construction
By Non-Structural Method
Vegetation works are performed to prevent erosion due to rain water by growing
plants on the faces of the slope and by firmly binding the faces with roots of
plants and to ease the temperature change on the ground surface and the provide
aesthetically pleasing views created by greening. Vegetation is frequently used in
places where the vegetation is possible, since the costs for vegetation are
relatively low in most cases. Typical types of slope protection by vegetation are
shown in Table 7-3.
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 - Highway Design
Classifi- Principal Goal Work Category Work Sub- Purpose or Details of the Work Application Range and Special Features
cation category
Protecting the slope Surface water Preventing surface water from flowing on the One of the It is used in almost all works. Its cost is low
from the action of rain drainage work slope by rapidly collecting and draining surface most basic and it is very cost-effective. This method
Drainage works water outside the slope. It includes drainage methods, it includes drainage channels that drain the
channels at the top of the slope, berm drainage is rarely collected water out of the slope area.
works, slope toe drainage channels, longitudinal used
drainage channels, permeation prevention work, alone, but
and check dams almost
always
Underground Stabilizing the slope by draining the with It is used at locations where landslide type
water drainage underground water seepage to lower the pore another failure is predicted or where there is a lot of
work water pressure. It includes culvert work, method. underground water. It is often used for work
impervious wall works, collection well, etc. smaller than landslide prevention work.
Slope Protection Sodding work It includes spreading seeds, soil dressing, thick When the principal method is vegetation, it is a cut slope
work using layer spraying method, vegetation network, sand with little spring water, where in principle, a standard slope
vegetation bag works, sodding, vegetation pots, and gradient can be guaranteed.
transplanting. It is done to prevent rainwater
erosion, reduce surface temperature and It is superior because it harmonizes the slope with its
beautify slopes by reforestation. surrounding environment.
Spraying Sprayed mortar or Preventing erosion of the slope along with It is suitable for rock with little spring water, which has only a
shotcrete weathering of the slope and a decline in the few cracks, and where a large failure has not occurred. Its
strength of the ground that forms the slopes by use is premised on a full study of its durability and of its
blocking it from the atmosphere, rainwater, etc. impact on the environment.
Control works
Control works (1)
Stone pitching, Preventing weathering, erosion, and fine Stone pitching or block pitching is pitching is used on slopes
block pitching, separation or failure etc. of slopes. with a gradient less than 1:1.0 that are suitable for
concrete slab vegetation work, and on slopes of non-cohesive sand or
Pitching pitching hard plan pan and fragile clay. Concrete pitching is used on
Work rock slopes or slopes of compacted soil with developed
Concrete pitching joints and a steep gradient greater than 1:1.0 that would
presumably be unstable with spraying or pre-cast grating
crib works.
Pre-cast grating Cast-in-place concrete or pre-cast grating crib Pre-cast crib works are used on slopes with a gradient
crib works works are assembled on the slope and either gentler than 1:1.0 and cast-in-place grating crib works are
vegetation is planted or concrete poured inside used on steep slopes. The vertical height of pre-cast
them to prevent weathering/erosion of the slope. grating crib works is, in principle, no higher than 5 m, and if
Grating Pre-cast grating crib works that have been it is greater than this, separation walls are installed at
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 – Highway Design
Classifi- Principal Goal Work Category Work Sub- Purpose or Details of the Work Application Range and Special Features
cation category
Protecting the slope Others Other slope These include plastic soil cement works, net Because of their durability and environmental properties,
from the action of rain protection works works, fluid synthetic resin spray works, mat- these are not appropriate for steep slope failure
covering works, asphalt slope works, etc., and countermeasures, and are rarely used for these purposes.
are intended to prevent erosion. But they are used for temporary works or partial use.
Excluding slopes Cutting unstable Cutting work (A) Overhangs are cut, unstable surface soil layers One of the most basic countermeasures, it is also one of the
where there is a high soil mass are cut, and unfixed stones removed, to most reliable if it is thoroughly implemented. It is often used
probability of failure eliminate soil layers or rock mass at risk of along with drainage works, vegetation works, and structural
under the action of collapse. protection works using structures.
Control
works (2)
rainfall
Balancing 0 forces to Cutting work that Cutting works (B) Cutting the slope to a gradient or height It is one of the most basic countermeasures, and one of the
prevent failure even improves the necessary to maintain its safety even under the most reliable methods when it is executed safely. It is often
under the action of shape of the action of rainfall combined with drainage works, vegetation works, or slope
rainfall slope. protection works based on structures. It is often impossible
to execute it completely, when homes are constructed close
to the top or bottom of the slope or when the volume of cut
soil would be huge, so it is often combined with another
method (retaining wall, etc.).
Retaining wall Stone masonry or Preventing small failure at the bottom of the When it is a soil slope with gradient steeper than 1:1.0
block masonry slope. (normally 0.3:1 to 0.5:1), and the earth pressure is low
retaining wall because the ground behind it is firm.
Leaning concrete In addition to directly preventing failure, It can be used on ground with inadequate solidity: less than
wall effectively protects the slope from erosion and of gravelly ground. Even in a narrow space, it is compatible
weathering. with changing topography without taking space.
Gravity concrete Directly preventing failure, stabilizing It is used to stabilize the bottom (toe) of slopes, and to
retaining wall counterweight fill, and providing a foundation for prevent failure. It is used in the middle parts of slopes.
slope protection works.
Restraint works
Concrete crib Preventing small failures and stabilizing slopes Because of its good permeability and its flexibility, it is suited
retaining wall with a lot of spring water and relatively soft for places where there is a lot of spring water and the
ground. ground is soft, or to prevent landslide type failure.
Anchor works Ground anchor It is used along with cast-in-place concrete It is appropriate for cases where there are dwellings at the
work and rock bolt grating crib work, concrete retaining wall work, top or bottom of the slope, if cutting work, passive retaining
work concrete pitching work, or other wall work, etc. cannot be done, if the slope gradient is steep
countermeasures to stabilize these works in and the slope is long, and cast-in-place grating crib work,
order to prevent failure and sliding of severely concrete grating crib work, concrete pitching work, etc. are
weathered rock, rock with many cracks, and not stable enough. It is particularly appropriate when the
surface soil. It also anchors rock that is cracked, ground or rock to which the anchor is fixed is relatively solid
has joints, or bedding stratification to rock that is and shallower than the slope surface.
internally stable to prevent its failure and
separation.
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 - Highway Design
Classifi- Principal Goal Work Category Work Sub- Purpose or Details of the Work Application Range and Special Features
cation category
Pile works Pile work Installing piles in a slope so that the bending It is used in special cases of steep slope failure prevention
moment and shear resistance of the piles resist work. It is used to prevent failure of slopes where landslide
sliding force to improve the stability of the slope. type failure is predicted and of bedrock slopes that act as
dip slopes.
Counterweight fill Counterweight fill Forming an embankment at the bottom of a It is rarely executed by itself, because there is little room for
work work place where failure is predicted to stabilize it by execution on a steep slope. It is executed along with a
resisting sliding force. gravity retaining wall.
Others Preventing falling rocks Rock fall Rock fall Work intended to prevent rocks from falling. It Cutting work, drainage work Usually provided as a
countermeasure protection work includes rock removal and foot protection works. grating crib work, spraying supplementary measure
work work and pitching work are with failure prevention work.
also used to prevent rocks
from falling.
Method of protecting dwellings etc. from falling Its foundation is often made
rocks. It includes preventive network, preventive by combining it with
fence work and preventive retaining wall work. retaining wall work.
Methods that combine the functions Fence work Earth retaining Used to prevent failure in cases of relatively It is appropriate for relatively large slopes. It can be
of control work and prevention work fence work gentle slope with a thin surface soil layer and executed while preserving existing vegetation on the slope.
prevent such failure from spreading.
Wicker work Used as supplement to vegetation work in order It is used along with vegetation work and slope grating crib
to prevent erosion of the surface soil of the slope work on relatively gentle slopes where cutting work has
by rain and surface water. been done.
Gabion work Gabion work Preventing slope erosion and acting as As a steep slope failure prevention work method, it should
counterweight fill work. not be used to completely cover the slope. There are cases
where it is used as a provisional method in a transitional
area with adjoining natural ground.
Work methods that prevent damage Passive work Passive concrete In cases where it would be difficult to directly It should be used along with methods executed to improve
when failure occurs retaining wall work prevent failure of a slope, a gravity retaining wall slope conditions as much as possible. It is often used on
is constructed at a distance from the bottom large slopes. It is effective when it is necessary to preserve
(toe) of the slope to halt the soil produced by a the existing vegetation as much as possible.
failure.
Protective work used during Temporary Temporary Protecting lives and properties from collapsed The installation of temporary protective fence work is
execution of prevention work protective work protective fence soil and falling rocks during the construction of required when executing steep slope failure prevention
work failure prevention work. work.
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 – Highway Design
NO
Is it possible to
A. Catch wall adopt the measure
in the slope area?
YES
Soil
Soft Rock/Rippable Rock
Will it easily collapse? Will it easily YES Are there many YES Is there spring
NO weather? cracks? water?
YES NO NO NO YES
Is there spring water? E. Drainage
NO F. Cutting + Drainage +
D. Cutting + Drainage + Retaining wall/Masonry
Retaining wall/Masonry works/Concrete spraying
B. Cutting + Retaining works/Cast-in place slope + Vegetation Works
wall/Masonry works + crib works
Drainage +
Vegetation works YES
G. Cutting + Drainage +
Retaining wall/Masonry
C. Cutting + Gabion/ works/ Cast-in place slope
Retaining wall/Masonry crib works
works + Drainage +
Vegetation works
Hard Rock
H. Drainage
Will it easily YES Is there spring
YES
weather? water?
NO NO
NO
J. Cutting + Drainage +
L. Rock Fall Retaining wall/Masonry
Protection System + works/Concrete pitching
Drainage
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Simple seed matting works For preventing erosion of fill and for partial vegetation
Simple sodding works
Seed board works For preventing erosion of slope made of poor soil or
Seed packet works hard soils
Coconut mat soil protection
The following DPWH Department Orders relate to the use of coconut bio-
engineering technology solutions:
No. 41 dated August 27, 2010 on the subject of ‘Prescribing the Use of
Coconut Bio-Engineering Technology Solutions in DPWH Projects’.
No. 68 dated September 20, 2012 on the subject of “Prescribing Guidelines on
the Design of Slope Protection Works’.
No. 23 dated February 22, 2013 on the subject of ‘Clarifications on the
Specification of Coconut Coir Fiber Materials’.
Structural Method
Slope protection works with structures are used for slopes not suited to
vegetation, slopes whose stability cannot be assured with vegetation alone for a
long time, or slopes requiring protection against failures and rockfalls.
Retaining walls, pile works, and slope anchor works are mainly used for covering
slopes required to resist earth pressure. Other types of slope protection by
structures that are not required to resist earth pressure, or have limited capacity
as shown in Table 7-4.
The following DPWH Department Orders relate to the use of shotcrete and
rockfall protection systems:
No. 26 dated 15 May 2007 on the subject of ‘DPWH Standard Specification for
Shotcrete (Concrete Spray), Item 514’.
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7.7.2 Precautions for Applying Protection Works According to Soils and Geology
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Cut Slope. Where considerable spring water is present, gabions, crib-works filled
up with cobblestones, and wicker works are chosen according to the degree of
spring water. However, these methods are permeable to surface water at the
same time and thus the rear portions are sometimes scoured. In this case,
groundwater drainage facilities may be installed in the form of tree branches and
then protected by concrete blocks.
Vegetation works are generally employed where little spring water is present, or
crib-works filled up with sediment and wicker works are suited, both of which
are used together with vegetation as auxiliary methods.
Where vegetation alone is used, sodding works and sodding mats which are able
to cover the whole slope from the beginning are suitable but, in the case of seed-
mud spraying, it is required to protect the slopes with emulsion, nets or straws
until the grass can grow thickly.
Regardless of the amount of spring water, it is desirable to provide drainage
facilities on the top of slope and berms.
Fill Slope. It is desirable to protect the slope with blanket soil (soil suited to
vegetation) of 30 to 50 cm thick where sandy soils are used as filling materials.
It is required to apply sodding mats or sodding works which are able to cover the
whole slope, or to protect the slope with emulsion, nets or straw in the case of
seed-mud spraying where blanket soil is not used.
In the case of a high-fill slope, the portion near the toe of the slope may
sometimes scour and collapse in the form of a mudflow due to seepage water. If
this is the case, it is desirable to cope with the problem by means of not only
sodding but also filters or groundwater drainage works, or by means of wicker
work or concrete block cribwork used in conjunction with sodding.
Hard Soil
It is necessary to perform grooving and soil dressing or digging and soil dressing
at some portions of a slope so as to allow roots to grow, and sodding should then
be performed on the dressed soil of hard slopes made of dense sandy soils, hard
clayey soils (both exceeding the soil hardness of 27 mm), soft rocks or hard clays
(exceeding the soil hardness of 23 mm).
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tester, a reagent is added to a sample solution for coloring and then the color is
compared to the color sample in order to find the approximate value.
Countermeasures. When performing vegetation work on excavated earth with a
strong acidity, or earth containing a large amount of salt, the work should be
performed after a dressing of good quality soil to a thickness greater than 20 cm.
Where filling materials contain sulfur, salt, or other components harmful to
plants, or the acidity is very strong (i.e. less than pH 4), the soil must be improved
with lime or dressed soil suited to vegetation must be used. The same treatment
is necessary where the soil has a strong basicity (greater than pH 8.5).
7.7.3 Vegetation
Features of Vegetation
The purpose of vegetation is to prevent the erosion of a slope immediately after
the completion of work, and one of the features of sodding works is that the face
of the slope can be restored naturally, unlike other slope protection works.
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Sodding Materials
Materials used for sodding are seed, fertilizer, and curing materials.
Seed
Kinds and characterizations of seed, amount of seed, and optimum season for
growth should be well understood. It is fundamental to select species suited to
the weather and to determine the proper amount of seed and the seeding season
using upon the results of a germination test.
Fertilizer
A good fertilizer should contain the three elements of nitrogen, phosphorus, and
potassium almost equally mixed with a ratio of 1:1:1. There are many kinds of
soils which fix and make phosphorus inactive, and it is desirable to use a fertilizer
containing a large amount of phosphorus in order to grow grasses with strong
stems and leaves.
A large amount of fertilizer is desirable as an original fertilizer during execution
of work but the amount of fertilizer should then be restricted since an excessive
amount of fertilizer may check the germination. Damage is caused when the
nitrogen content exceeds 10 g/m2 and thus the amount of fertilizer not exceeding
this limit should be determined.
Curing Materials
The functions of curing materials are to protect seed from being washed away by
rain water until the germination is completed, and also to prevent the erosion of
the slope until the vegetation will cover the whole area of slope and the effects of
erosion prevention will be realized.
Chemical Curing Agents. There are many kinds of chemical curing agents used
in seed spraying. Some of them form films over the surface layer of a slope, while
others permeate into the layer to a certain depth and harden this layer. The most
common agent of the film type is asphalt emulsion (cationic), which also has the
advantage of erosion prevention.
Also, polyvinyl acetate is frequently used, and many synthetic resins as permeate
and hardening types are available.
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Fibers. More recently, fibers are being frequently used for seed spraying.
Ligneous fibers have been developed in the USA, and as well bark fibers and slag
fibers are also available. In order to fully realize the effects of erosion prevention
by fibers, the amount of fiber should be greater than 150 g/m2. If the amount of
spraying is less than this, no effects of seed protection and erosion resistance can
be obtained.
Covering Materials. Covering materials available for slopes are synthetic fiber
nets, straw products, fiber mats and paper products. Mats and nets made of straw
or fiber products have high erosion resistance. However, in order to realize the
full effects, a smooth face of slope and careful work are necessary, so that work
by machinery is not appropriate, thereby decreasing the efficiency in some cases.
Some covering materials are pre-mixed with seed and fertilizer.
Seed Spraying
In seed spraying, the seed, fertilizer and fibers are scattered in water and sprayed
through a pump to the face of either cut or fill slopes. Seed spraying is suited to
relatively low land or to slopes with gentle gradient. A tank with an agitator is
used for the execution of seed spraying, in which (1) water, (2) fibers, (3)
cohesive agent, (4) fertilizer, and (5) seed are placed in tank in the order listed
and fully agitated in order to obtain uniform slurry. Green-colored ligneous fibers
are often used. Where the covering and curing are required after the execution of
work in the typhoon season or heavy rain season, the curing should be
performed by using asphalt emulsion or the like.
Seed-Mud Spraying
Seed, soil, fertilizer and water are mixed together to form a mud-like mixture and
then sprayed to the face of the slope in seed-mud spraying. This spraying is
suited to cut slopes and can be applied to places where the gradients of slopes
are steep, as well as high places. A spray gun is employed in this method in
combination with an air compressor, in which seed, dressing soil and others are
sprayed by means of compressed air, and then asphalt emulsion is sprayed to
perform the film curing. Wet type guns for mortar spraying are used.
The thickness of soil to be covered over the seed should be 2 to 3 times the size of
seed to assure good germination; an normal amount of soil to be used is 0.01
m3/m2. Also, if the amount of water is maintained to about 30 to 40% of the
amount of soil, the soil to be sprayed will have a relatively stiff consistency,
thereby preventing the sprayed soil from flowing down. When mixing materials
(1) soil, (2) water, (3) fertilizer, (4) seed, and (5) others should be placed in the
chamber in the order listed and well mixed.
Different from cement mortar spraying, seed spraying should be performed
without holding the tip of spray normal to the face of slope, and instead the
spraying distance and angle of nozzle should be adjusted in response to the
hardness of the ground so as not to roughen the face of the slope. The thickness
of the sprayed mixture should be as uniform as possible.
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Curing by asphalt film provides a high erosion resistance, and this film is able to
withstand heavy rains during typhoon or rainy seasons. A doubled solution of a
cationic type is normally used at a rate of 1 l/m2 as asphalt emulsion.
Sodding Mats
For sodding mats, the face of the slope is covered with mats containing seed and
fertilizer. This method is also called ‘artificial sodding’. This method offers the
inherent protection of the mats until the completion of vegetation and, thus, can
be executed in any season.
Mat materials used for artificial sodding are non-woven cloth, rough cloth, paper,
straw blind, straw mats and cut-straw felt. Some mats are also reinforced with
nets.
The slope should be smoothly finished without irregularity, and the mats should
be firmly fixed with pegs or rope to the ground so as to fit the mats with the
ground without floating, and so as to prevent the mats flying away with the wind.
Mats should be extended at least 20 cm from the edge of the top for coverage, and
the edge of mats should be embedded in the ground so as to prevent water from
entering underneath the mats from the top of the slope. If the mats float
germination may be delayed and water may flow underneath the mats resulting
in the occurrence of scour.
If long mats are to be used, they should be laid longitudinally where the face of
the slope has been finished, and be laid transversely where they are to be
installed while tamping the slope. Mats should be overlapped by approximately
5cm at each joint in all cases.
Sodding
This is a conventional method in which sods are directly laid on the face of the
slope, and is suited to easily erodible soils since the protection effects can be
realized immediately after the placement of sods.
Normally, wild sods are used for sodding. The standard size of a field sod is 36 x
28 cm, and each bundle contains ten units of sods which are good for 1 square
meter.
When laying sods, they are laid flat directly over the face of the slope with the
long side of each sod directed in the horizontal direction without providing
longitudinal joints. If joints are provided, scouring may start from the joints. Each
sod should tightly contact the ground by hitting it with a tamping board. More
than two pegs should be used per sod unit. For sods laid on a fill slope, drying of
sods can be effectively prevented by thinly sprinkling good quality soil on the
sods. But this is usually not so effective for a cut slope since the gradient is steep
and covering soil may easily flow down.
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Artificial sods are basic strip of cloth, paper, cut-straw or synthetic net, with seed
and fertilizer attached to the strip.
The artificial sods are inserted horizontally into the slope at 30cm on centers
along the face of slope while tamping the slope in the same way as simple
sodding work.
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gravity type, supported type, cantilever beam type, counterfort type and the
buttressed type. There are also other special types of retaining walls.
Applications: Requirements described herein should be applied to the design
and construction of standard retaining walls in conjunction with the road works.
Design concepts for earthquake are important. However, design calculations
against earthquakes are normally not required for the ordinary retaining walls
considered in this guide since the load increase by a seismic force can
alternatively be compensated by a slightly increased factor of safety for the
normal design calculations, and by resisting forces which are not taken into
account in the calculations.
However, it is required to design taking into account the effects of earthquake for
retaining walls higher than 8m, or retaining walls which may cause serious
damage and which cannot be easily restored after failure.
Also, where deep slips or consolidation settlement below the bottom of a
foundation are expected, where scouring of the foundation due to running water
or waves along rivers or coasts is expected, or where some problems are
expected because of a retaining wall curved outwardly, rational engineering
judgment must be made during design based upon experience.
For structures along or near the coastline, which is a highly corrosive
environment, the use of corrosion-resistant materials is evidently warranted.
This may involve the utilization of geosynthetic facing or zinc-coated wires for
gabions.
Structures along or near coastlines are subjected to highly corrosion
environment. The use of corrosion-resistant materials is evidently warranted.
This may involve the utilization of geosynthetic facing or zinc-coated wires for
gablons.
Conventionally, the earth pressure method proposed by Coulomb, Rankine, or
Terzaghi-Peck may be used. In these design guidelines, Terzaghi-Peck’s earth
pressure diagram and table has been adopted for standard retaining walls.
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and the time-consuming work of stone masonry. The height of these retaining
walls is normally less than 7 m.
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Backfill Grading Requirements should comply with DPWH Item 515 (DPWH
Standard Specifications for Highways, Bridges and Airports 2013 Edition) .
Reinforcements. Can either be inextensible (steel) or extensible (geosynthetics).
Thses are usually fastened to the facing components and extend on the backfill at
a certain distance, depending on the designed length.
Steel strips and steel grids are among the first reinforcements used for RSS which
are composed of galvanized or epoxy coated steel. Geosynthetic reinforcements
are now widely used for RSS. There are three general types of geosynthetics
depending on the material; high density polyenthylene (HDPE) geogrid, polvester
(PET) geogrid and geotextiles which are made of polyester and polypropylene.
Facing. Facing units or systems are used not just for aesthetics purposes but
more importantly to avoid shallow erosion on gap between reinforcements.
Certain facing units provide drainage paths which are critical for earth retaining
structures. Types of facing units are concrete panels, modular blocks, metallic
facings, welded wire grids, gabion facing and geosynthetics facing.
Some types of facings such as gabions and geosynthetic bags can blend with
green areas where certain vegetation may grow on it. Geotextile filters are also
used and usually laid between the interfaces of the facing or gravel drains and
soil mass to prevent migration of fines from the backfill.
In rural areas, the selection of materials used for facing units will depend on
availability and labor constraints of the project at the particular site.
A MSE wall is shown in Figure 7-22.
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Table 7-5 Height and Gradient Limits for Stone and Concrete Block Masonry Walls
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Foundation Works
If the bearing ground is bedrock, the bearing ground should be cut to a depth
required for placing the footing, the new surface of bedrock should be cleaned,
then the spread footing should be placed. Refer Figure 7-23.
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If the bearing ground is earth or gravel, rubble-stones should be laid over the
excavated surface and rolled fully and uniformly, leveling concrete should be
poured over the rubble-stones, and then the spread foundation should be placed
over it. Refer Figure 7-24.
If the bearing ground surface is slanted, the portion at the valley side should be
cut in the form of steps and the rock should be replaced with concrete to the
bedrock line to form a horizontal, uniform foundation. The body of the retaining
wall should then be directly built over the foundation. Refer Figure 7-25.
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A pile foundation is normally used when building a retaining wall above poor
ground. If the poor stratum is thin or if replacement material is easily available,
the poor stratum should be replaced with good quality gravelly soil or the like to
provide a uniform bearing ability so that the retaining wall may be built directly
over the replaced material. Refer Figure 7-26.
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Figure 7-27 Erosion Control: (left) the problem; and (right) the solution
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For roads without curbs, a minimum clear distance of 0.60 m beyond the edge
of shoulder, not less than 3.0 m from the edge of pavement, and with a
minimum clear distance of 1.0 m from the ROW limit.
For roads with curbs, a minimum setback of 1.00 m beyond the face of the
curb.
Except for roads with narrow ROW where no tree planting shall be
undertaken to preclude accidents and allow space for vehicles to pull over
during emergency.
7.10 References
Highway Earthwork Series. Manual for Slope Protection. 1984. Japan Road
Association. Tokyo, Japan.
Landscaping and Erosion Control. www.geosyntheticsworld.com
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8 Road Facilities
8.1 Road Safety and Clear Zone Requirements
With the development of higher standard highways and expressways, the nature
and characteristic of crashes changed from head-on crashes and tree collisions to
cases of drivers running off the road and colliding with man-made objects. The
man-made objects include bridge piers, sign supports, culverts, ditches and other
design features of the roadside. In response the clear zone concept has been
developed – an unobstructed, traversable area provided beyond the edge of the
through traveled way for the recovery of errant vehicles. The clear zone includes
auxiliary lanes other than those that function like through lanes, bike lanes, and
shoulders, plus varying widths of foreslope and backslope beyond the shoulder,
depending upon the design speed and traffic volume.
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Table 8-1 AASHTO Suggested Clear Zone Distances in Meters from Edge of Through Travel
Lane
8 1500 – 6000 6.0 – 6.5 7.5 – 9.0 4.5 – 5.0 5.0 – 5.5 6.0 – 6.5
b
Also refer to DPWH Order No. 217 dated 17 November 2000 on the subject of ‘Prohibiting the Installation of
Advertisements, Billboards and Signs within the Road Right-of-Way of National Roads’.
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Obstacle Guidelines
Bridge piers, abutments, and Shielding generally needed
railing ends
Boulders Judgment decision based on nature of fixed object and likelihood of
impact
Culverts, pipes, headwalls Judgment decision based on size, shape and location of obstacle
Foreslopes and backslopes Shielding generally not needed other than for embankment
(smooth)
Foreslopes and backslopes Judgment decision based on likelihood of impact
(rough)
Ditches (parallel) Judgment decision depending on geometry of ditch
Ditches (transverse) Shielding generally needed if likelihood of head-on impact is high
Retaining walls Judgment decision based on relative smoothness of wall and
anticipated maximum angle of impact
Sign / luminaire supports Shielding generally needed unless break-away supports used
Traffic signal supports Isolated traffic signals within clear zone on high-speed rural facilities
may need shielding
Trees Judgment decision based on site-specific circumstances
Utility poles Shielding may be needed on case-by-case basis
Permanent bodies of water Judgment decision based on location, depth of water and likelihood of
encroachment
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Table 8-3 Factors to be Considered in the Selection of Specific Types of Safety Barriers
Criteria Comments
Performance Barrier should be structurally able to contain and redirect the design vehicle
capability for the appropriate test level – refer to Table 8-2 below
Deflection Expected deflection of barrier should not exceed available deflection distance
Site conditions Slope approaching the barrier and distance from traveled way may preclude
use of some barrier types
Compatibility Barrier should be compatible with planned terminal or anchorage and
capable of transitioning to other barrier systems (such as bridge railing)
Cost Standard barrier systems may be relatively consistent in cost, but high-
performance systems can cost significantly more
Maintenance
Routine Few systems require a significant amount of routine maintenance
Collision Generally flexible or semi-rigid systems require significantly more
maintenance after a collision than rigid or high performance systems
Material storage The fewer the number of systems used, the fewer inventory items/storage
space required
Simplicity Simpler designs are easier to maintain and more likely to be reconstructed
properly by field personnel
Aesthetics Barrier aesthetics may be a consideration in selection
Field experience The performance and maintenance requirements of existing systems should
be monitored to identify problems that could be reduced with correct barrier
type selection
Source: AASHTO, 2009, Manual for Assessing Safety Hardware (MASH), First Edition. Used by
Permission.
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Median barriers can reduce the incidence of cross-median crashes, and the
overall severity of such crashes. Their disadvantages are initial cost, an increase
in the number of crashes due to the reduction of recovery area, maintenance
costs associated with increased crashes, and a reduction in median access
opportunities for maintenance and emergency service vehicles.
Standard practice in Europe is to use barriers on all expressway medians less
than 15 m wide. AASHTO guidelines for the use of median barriers on high-speed,
fully controlled-access roadways are:
A barrier is required where the median width is less than 9.1 m and the ADT
is greater than 20,000 vehicles per day.
A barrier is optional for locations with a median width less than 15.2 m and
ADT less than 20,000 vehicles per day.
Where the median with is between 9.1 m and 15.2 m, and the ADT is greater
than 20,000 vehicles per day, a cost/benefit analysis should be conducted to
determine the need for a barrier.
Alternative crashworthy median barrier systems are listed in AASHTO, 2011,
Roadside Design Guide 4th Edition, Table 6-1, and shown in DPWH Highway Safety
Design Standards, Part 1, Road Safety Design Manual Figure 20.12.
Design safety strategies for channelized islands and medians in urban areas are
provided in Table 8-5.
Table 8-5 Design Safety Strategies for Channelized Islands and Medians in Urban Areas
Purpose Strategy
Reduce likelihood of run-off-the-road collision Widen median
Reduce crash severity Place only frangible items in channelized island or
median
Shield rigid objects in median
8.2.3 Drainage
In urban areas, where drainage ditches are a potential hazard for motorcyclists,
pedal cyclists and pedestrians, only shallow gutters or covered drains should be
provided. A closed drainage system with curbs and drop inlets should be
considered for higher speed roads.
Drainage inlets, grates, and similar devices should be placed flush with the
pavement ground surface and must be able to support wheel loads. Traversable
drains should be used within clear zones.
Curbs and curbs with gutters are commonly used in urban settings to separate
pedestrians from the traffic flow. However curbs have limited re-directional
capability, particularly where vehicle speed is above 40 kph.
Design safety strategies for curbs in urban areas are provided in Table 8-6.
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Purpose Strategy
Design curb to minimize Use appropriate curb height compatible with expected vehicle
potential for vaulting vehicles trajectories
Orient barriers with respect to curbs so as to improve curb-barrier
interaction
Grade adjacent terrain flush with the top of the curb
Table 8-7 Design Safety Strategies for Gateways/Traffic Calming in Urban Areas
Purpose Strategy
Reduce likelihood of run-of- Apply speed reduction signs, pavement markings, narrowed
the-road crashes crossings with raised pavement, and other traffic calming treatments
Reduce severity of run-off- Construct roundabouts with traversable island centers in initial islands
the-road crash
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5 5
POYOPOY POYOPOY
PLAN A
Ramp Ramp
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Purpose Strategy
Purpose Strategy
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8.2.9 Parking
On street parking can narrow the effective width of a roadway, resulting in speed
reduction and reduced crash severity. However it also may increase collisions
associated with vehicles attempting to pull in or out of parking spaces.
Design safety strategies for on-street parking are provided in Table 8-10..
Purpose Strategy
Reduce crash severity Where parking is appropriate, use parallel parking rather than angular
parking
Table 8-11 Design Safety Strategies for Roadside Utility Poles, Light Poles and Street signs
in Urban Areas
Purpose Strategy
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8.3.2 Basic Principles in the Design, Installation and Maintenance of Traffic Signs
Uniformity in the design of signs facilitates identification by the road user.
Standardization of shape, color, dimensions, legends and illumination or
reflectorization is important.
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8.3.5 Markings
Section 9.1 to 9.3 of the Manual confirms the functions and limitations, legal
authority and standardization of line marking.
Types of Marking
Section 9.4 of the Manual discusses types of markings
Longitudinal Lines
Section 11 of the Manual details center, lane, barrier, edge, continuity, and
transition lines.
Transverse Lines
Section 12 of the Manual details Stop, Give Way (or Yield or Holding),
Roundabout Holding lines, and Pedestrian Crossing markings.
Other Lines
Section 13 of the Manual details Turn, Parking Bay, Median, Bus and PUJ Lane,
Loading and Unloading Bay, and ‘Do Not Block Intersection’ lines.
Other Markings
Section 14 of the Manual details:
Approach Markings to Islands and Obstructions
Chevron Markings
Diagonal Markings
Rumble Strips
Markings on Expressway Exit and Entrance Ramps
Curb Markings for Parking and Loading/Unloading Restrictions
Markings for the approach to Railroad Crossings
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Object Marking
Section 16 of the Manual details the marking of objects off the roadway.
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Many agencies install speed humps on roads with an urban cross section (i.e.
curb and gutter). Street where speed humps and applied may or may not have
side walks as bicycle facilities. The surrounding land use for street where speed
humps are applied is generally residential in nature and may include schools,
parks or community center.
Source: Guidelines for the Design and Application of Speed Humps. Report RP-023 A, ITE Traffic
Engineering Council Speed Hump Task Force 1997
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9.4.1 Introduction
Accepted methods exist for achieving a given lighting condition known as either
level of illuminance or level of luminance. These methods permit ready analysis
of alternative lamps, luminaires, mounting height, luminaire spacing, energy
consumption, etc., to determine a preferred design.
The design of a roadway lighting installation is a process of applying known or
specified photometric characteristics of selected lamp-luminaire combinations. A
trial-and-adjust process of assumed luminaire locations is used in making
calculations of either the average amount of illuminance or the average
luminance over the roadway.
The level and uniformity of illuminance or luminance along a highway depends
on the lumen output of the light source, luminaire distribution, mounting height,
luminaire position, pavement reflectance, and spacing and arrangement. All
appropriate light sources should be considered, and the size or sizes that will
give the most effective and economical lighting system should be used.
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9.6.1 Underpasses
An underpass is defined as a portion of a roadway that extends through and
beneath some natural or man-made structure, which requires no supplementary
daytime lighting.
Underpass lighting is warranted in areas that have frequent night-time
pedestrian traffic, or where unusual or critical roadway geometry occurs
adjacent to or in the underpass area. Continuous lighting on the associated
expressway lanes also warrants the installation of underpass lighting.
Night-time lighting levels and uniformity should be aimed at the lighting levels on
the adjacent roadways. Higher levels of lighting may result because of luminaire
mounting height and spacing limitations, and lighting from other nearby sources,
but increased levels should not exceed approximately twice that of the adjacent
roadway.
Luminaires attached to the structure along the roadside in full or partial view of
the motorist may necessitate glare control or the use of lower wattages. It is
generally better to minimize source glare by using several lower output
luminaires than one or two high output luminaires.
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 - Highway Design
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 – Highway Design
9.8 Roundabouts
Roundabouts require special attention with respect to lighting. Motorists
unfamiliar with the roundabout need the navigation assistance of good lighting to
deal with limited sight distances, weaving traffic, direction and other signs, and
the need for quick decisions.
Roundabouts should be lit to a level that is 1.3 to 2 times the value used on the
best lit approach. The illuminance method should be used, with light levels
extended 2 to 3 m outside the outer curb of the sidewalk or other roadside
features. The lighting should be extended a minimum of 125 m along each road
connecting to the roundabout.
Provision of god pedestrian recognition is important at roundabouts. Crosswalks
should be typically lit with the pedestrians in positive contract by installing light
poles 3 to 10 m before crosswalks. Roundabouts should be lit from the outer edge
of the roadway.
9.11.1 Introduction
Traffic signs are placed along the roadway in strategic locations and are used to
convey specific, consistent messages to the motorist. Sign legibility at night can
be achieved in one of two ways:
The retro-reflection of the letters and background of the sign by vehicle
headlights.
The illumination of the sign face by an internal or external fixed-source sign
lighting system.
The visibility and legibility of a sign during the hours of darkness depend on:
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 - Highway Design
Table 9-4 Recommended Illuminous and Luminous Lighting Levels for Illuminated Signs
Lighting units that illuminate the face of a sign may be located either on top of the
sign, on the bottom of the sign, or remotely located on an adjacent support in
consideration of:
The luminaire housing should not obstruct the view of the sign message.
The reflected light should not reduce the visual performance of the sign
message.
Contribution to sky-glow should be limited as much as is practicable.
The spill light should not be directed into the eyes of motorists.
The luminaire mounting arrangement should not create maintenance
problems.
Solar street lights are raised light sources powered by photovoltaic panels
typically mounted on the street light support structure. Photovoltaic panels
charge a rechargeable battery to provide power to a fluorescent or LED lamp
during the night. LED lamps are usually used as they provide much higher
Lumens with lower energy consumption. Most solar panels turn on and turn off
automatically by sensing outdoor light.
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Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 4 – Highway Design
9.13.1 Overview
Lighting systems affect the area surrounding the roadway.
Sky glow is defined as the added sky brightness caused by the scattering of light
into the atmosphere. That portion of scattered light that is redirected back
towards the ground is, in essence, light that is emitted by the sky. At high enough
levels, the sky will appear as a self-luminous body, and will glow. Sky glow is of
concern to astronomers and others who like to see the moon and starts, or just
wish to enjoy the natural night-time environment.
The term light trespass describes light that strays from its intended target and
illuminates adjacent properties. Most complaints about this impact are from the
public, when lighting from roadway luminaires shines onto their property.
9.14 Reference
AASHTO, October 2005, Roadway Lighting Design Guide, American Association of
State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington DC
Department of Energy, Philippines, December 2008, Roadway Lighting Guidelines.
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