 Designing and Planning Stage
Control group will receive no
o Research Process: Stage II
 Constructing of research methodology
 Determination of the following:
1. Research design selection
2. Setting
3. Population and sample selection
4. Sampling technique
 Research Design Selection
o Blueprint or roadmap of the research study
o The framework or guide used for the planning,
implementation, and analysis of study
o Major approach:
 Quantitative design: objective data
 Qualitative design: subjective data
 Experimental Design
 Controlled and experimental group
o True Experimental Design
 Elements:
1. Manipulation of variables
a. Application of experimental
treatment
2. Presence of groups:
a. Experimental group: (+)
experimental treatment
b. Control group: (-) experimental
treatment
3. Randomization of subjects
a. Having an equal chance
 Example:
o The use and non-use of external
flushing on post-partum mothers to
determine the extent of post-partum
infections.
 EG: Mothers who will not use
external flushing
 CG: Mothers who will use
external flushing
 Types of True Experimental
1. Pre-Test Post-Test Control Group
Design
a. Subjects are randomly assigned
to both group: (R)
b. Pre-observation is given to
both groups: (01)
c. Experimental treatment is
given to experimental group:
(X)
d.
treatment
i. E.G. Effectiveness of
the use of guava leaves
for external flushing to
post-partum patients to
prevent infection
2. Post-test only Control Group Design
a. Subjects are randomly assigned
to both groups
b. Experimental treatment is
given to experimental group
c. Control group receive
i. E.G. Health teaching
on patients with
urinary incontinence
3. Solomon Four Group Design
i. E.G. Effects of genetic
counselling and pre-
natal supervision on
the incidence of
maternal
complications in high-
risk women
 Experimental Design
o Pre-Experimental Design
 One group and no randomization
 Elements:
1. Manipulation
2. Single group: Experimental group only
3. No randomization
1. One-shot Case Study
 Experimental group
E.G. A group of patients with
COPD receiving Lagundi was
observed and monitored throughout
the treatment process
2. One-group Pre-test Post-test
 Comparison of group before and after
experimental treatment
 Observation done before
E.G. Diet counselling and
exercise regimen on patients with
Diabetes Mellitus
3. Quasi-Experimental Design
 Elements:
Manipulation
Presence of groups:
 o Experimental group: (+) are due to differences among the subjects even
experimental treatment before the treatment
o Control group: (-) experimental o E.G. In a study which aims to help people stop
treatment smoking using a “smoking cessation
 Types of Quasi-Experimental Design intervention” (new treatment). There were 20
1. Non-equivalent Control Group volunteers who offered to stop smoking (EG) and
Design 20 volunteers who refused to stop smoking (CG).
 E.G. Effects of primary However, the EG may have been motivated to
nursing on staff nurses stop smoking even before the treatment started,
satisfaction hence, the selection process may have a biased
2. Time Series Design effect on the results of the study.
o Experimental treatment is  History
administered between series of o This occurs when some even besides the
observation experimental treatment takes places during the
o Epidemiological research design course of the study and affects or influences the
 E.G. Community health dependent variable
nurses assessed and o E.G. The incidence of pre-natal training among
evaluate the health pregnant women after two weeks of teaching
programs implemented to program, but during the teaching process, an
determine incidence of article is published on the rise of maternal
Dengue infections complications. This could result in the increased
incidence of pre-natal training among pregnant
women.
NCM 111  Maturation
LECTURE o This takes place when changes (growing older or
10.8.20 getting tired) within the subjects occur during the
experimental study, thus, may influence study
 Validity of Experimental Design results
o Ability to measure what is intended to be o E.G. The subjects may have gained in height and
measured weight at the time when the pre-test and post-test
o Researcher is interested in controlling or were being administered. If the nurse is
removing extraneous variables that may create interested in gain weight and height of
spurious results or inaccurate findings malnourished children, he will keep in mind that
o Two Types of Validity: change in their size may occur during the
1. Internal Validity treatment of the study
2. External Validity  Pre-testing
 Internal validity o The influence of the pre-test which already
o Degree to which changes in dependent variable projects the results of the post-test scores
can be greatly attributed to independent variable o E.G. Test scores of the actual study subjects may
o Threats to internal validity: be altered in the post-test as a result of their
1. Selection bias knowledge of the pre-test results
2. History  Instrumentation Change
3. Maturation o The existence of a difference between pre-test
4. Pre testing and post-test results caused by change in the
5. Instrumentation change accuracy of the instrument or the ratings
6. Mortality o E.G. A change or breakdown of a
 Selection bias sphygmomanometer used in taking the blood
o This exists when study results are attributed to pressure affects the accuracy of reading
the experimental treatment, when in fact, results throughout the study
 Mortality
o This happens when a difference exists between
the subject dropout rates of either the EG and the
CG
o E.G. If a large EG or CG scored very low in a
pre-test, some of the subjects may have dropped-
out of the study. Thus, the average scores in the
post-test of either the EG or CG would be
correspondingly low.
 External Validity
o Degree to which research findings can be
influenced or affected by external factors or
populations and settings.
o Threats to external validity
1. Hawthorne Effect
2. Halo Effect
3. Experimenter Effect
 Hawthorne Effect
o Occurs when study participants respond in a
particular manner, or there is obvious change of
behavior because they are aware that they are
being observed
o E.G. A student nurse applies correct techniques
in doing nursing procedure while the researcher
observes her
 Halo Effect
o The tendency of the researcher to rate the subject
high or low because of the impression he has on
the subject
o E.G. A student nurse known to be intelligent is
exempted in taking the post-test. The clinical
instructor with that impression
 Experimenter Effect
o Refers to a threat to the study which results when
the researcher’s behavior influences the behavior
of the subjects such as researcher’s facial
expression, gender and clothing among others
 Rosenthial Effect
 Threats to External Validity (Cont.)
o To minimize threats, double blind method may
be used to remove the researcher’s bias
o Neither the subject nor the researcher knows the
specific research objectives or who belong to the
EG or CG
o If double blind is not feasible, double observer
method may be used to determine the extent of
bias between the two observers as they both
observe and record the subjects’ performance on
a dependent variable
 Non-experimental Design
o No manipulation of variables
o Also known as Descriptive Design
o Describes the nature of phenomenon under
investigation after a survey of current trends,
practices, and conditions that relate to that
phenomenon
o Tools used in Descriptive Design
1. Test papers
2. Survey questionnaires
3. Interview
4. Observation schedules
5. Check lists
6. Score cards
7. Rating scale
A. Comparative Design
 Examine two or more intact groups to
find out the difference in performance
between and among the studies in certain
dependent variables of interest
 No manipulation of independent variables
because characteristics of the subjects are
inherent such as personality type,
educational level, and medical condition
 Two Categories of Comparative Design
1. Retrospective/ Ex post facto
a. Past (Independent Variable)
and Present (Dependent
Variable)
2. Prospective
a. Present (Independent
Variable) and Future
(Dependent Variable)
 E.G. A study between DMSF and
San Pedro College nursing students
class of 2012 and their performance
in Nursing Licensure Exam.
B. Correlational Design
 Examine the extent of relationship
between variables by determining how
changes in one variable relate to changes
in another variable
 Does X and Y vary together
 Two categories:
1. Positive (Direct): as X increases, the
Y increases
2. Negative (Inverse): as X increases,
the Y decreases
 Measure of Relationship
 1. Correlation Co-efficient and instruments after which an evaluative
a. Pearson-Product Moment Correlation: (r) judgment is done
b. Determine the extent and direction of the  Used to revise, modify existing programs or
relationship between two variables develop more effective programs, methods, and
conducted through (+) or (-) correlation procedures in nursing for more efficient and
using a range of -1.00 to 1.00 effective delivery of healthcare
c. A correlation co-efficient of 0.0 indicates  Also known as Methodological or
non-existence of a relationship between Developmental Design
variables  E.G. 1
 Correlational Co-efficient o Training programs for new graduate
 r= -1.00 to 1.00 nurses and their clinical proficiency
 r= -1.00: perfect negative  E.G. 2
correlation Development of feedback mechanisms for faculty
 r= 1.00: perfect positive performance
correlation
 r= 0.00: no correlation
 E.G. There is a relationship
between age and assertiveness
level among nurses
r= 0.80: positive correlation
 Interpretation:
increased age and
increased assertiveness
level
r= -0.80: negative
correlation
 Interpretation:
increased age and
decreased assertiveness
level
2. Scatter Plot/ Scatter Diagram
a. Graphical presentation of correlation co-
efficient
C. Descriptive Normative Survey
 Self-reported data which are collected from
samples for purposes of exploring and describing
real-life situations
 Conducted by phone, mail, or through personal
contact with the subjects
 Data collection is mostly done through
questionnaires and interviews
 E.G. A survey on staff nurses and nursing
administrators to obtain their perception on the
extent of staff nurses’ responsibility for patient
education
D. Descriptive Evaluative Survey
 Concerned with the development, testing and
evaluation of methods, procedures, guidelines,