CONTENT

Psychology plays a very important role in understanding the teaching and learning process. Many
innovations in the learning process have been made possible because of the contributions of psychology.
Psychology is a branch of science that studies human behavior, and helps educators and teachers to
understand the nature of diversity of their learners. Teachers are now more confident and competent to teach because
of a deep understanding of their learners. They can facilitate learning according to the learners’ needs. History has
been witnessed as to how concepts, information, and studies in psychology have helped immensely in understanding
the nature of the human being. They are bases for innovations and reforms in teaching. Teaching strategies are made
more appropriate for every learner. Part of human nature is learning, which has been made interesting because of the
application of knowledge obtained from psychology. Studies are continuously undertaken to enhance knowledge about
the teaching and learning process.

LESSON 1: LEARNING PRINCIPLES ASSOCIATED TO COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTORS;

MOTIVATIONAL AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS AND DEVELEOPMENT, SOCIAL AND INDIVIDUAL
DIFFERENCES
A. Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors
Cognitive factors refer to the mental processes the learners undergo as they process an information. The way
learners think about their thinking as they engage in mental tasks is the concern of the metacognitive factors.
1. The learning of complicated subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional process of
constructing meaning from information and experience.
Teachers play a significant role in guiding their learners to become active, goal-directed, and self-
regulating, and to assume personal responsibility for their learning. The learning activities and opportunities
provided by the teacher are very important situations where learners can integrate knowledge and concepts
to their experiences. Whenever teachers plan their lessons and topics, they always need to consider how they
can bring reality in the classroom. Learners need to have a clear and concrete understanding of knowledge
and concepts presented so that they would also know in what particular situations they have to apply them.
Learning through experience is the most effective way of teaching. An intentional learning environment is one
that fosters activity and feedback and creates a culture that promotes metacognition, that is, one in which the
learner becomes aware of his or her learning process and can use tools to enhance this learning process
(Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1989).

2. The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can create meaningful,
coherent representations of knowledge.
Learners need to be goal-directed. Teachers have to guide learners in terms of determining their
personal goals. They need to set their goals, not dictated by others, to ensure their willingness to achieve
them. Meaningful learning takes place when what is presented to learners is very much related to their needs
and interests. When learners have good understanding of the concepts discussed in school, they can reach
long-term goals most likely. Indeed, it is challenging to motivate learners to succeed.

3. The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful ways.
In planning a new lesson to be presented, teachers would usually find it more effective when they
connect the leaners’ existing knowledge to new information. The integration of prior experiences to a new
concept to be learned is a way of making connections between what is new and what is already known. That
new knowledge is created from old knowledge is the very heart of constructivism. Teachers should initiate
more opportunities for learners to share ideas, experiences, observations, and readings as the need arises.
 Sharing prior knowledge can be done in creative strategies like concept mapping, group activities, and other
collaborative techniques where learners are also able to learn from each other’s experiences.

4. The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful ways.
Strategic thinking is a person’s ability to use knowledge in different ways to solve problems, address
concerns and issues, decrease difficulties in certain situations, and make sound decisions and judgments in
varied conditions. Strategic thinkers do not easily give up even in difficult situations. They are more challenged
to find ways to solve a problem no matter how many times they already failed. They are not afraid to commit
mistakes because they perceive them as meaningful learning experiences to continuously discover other
ways of arriving at solutions. Teachers are supposed to give them as many opportunities to learn, experiment,
solve, and explore new ideas and concepts. Thus, to motivate and encourage the learners to be more creative
and innovative in their ideas, opinions, and responses are musts for teachers.

5. Higher-order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate creative and critical
thinking.
One of the most challenging roles of the teachers is to develop among their learners’ higher order
thinking skills (HOTS). It means that their learners can do evaluation, synthesis, analysis, and interpretation
of varied concepts, information, and knowledge. As previously mentioned, learners develop their thinking skills
when they are provided with opportunities and learning experiences to process varied events and situations,
specifically if given real problems. This context means that aside from mastering information, discovery,
problem-solving, creation, and evaluation should also be integrated into their learning experiences.
Assessment tools in schools should be authentic. Students can make inferences, sound judgments, and
relevant conclusions, and use their learned knowledge to varied situations. HOTS are very much needed in
this fast-changing world.

6. Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology, and instructional

practices.
Learning does not only take place inside the classroom. Much of what learners learn in the classroom
with their teachers can only have meaning once they see them concretely in their everyday life. Examples
given in the classroom should be a reflection of their actual life experiences. The digital tools and instructional
practices must be carefully selected to facilitate a motivating, stimulating, and encouraging learning
environment geared toward effective acquisition of knowledge, concepts, and skills among learners.

B. Motivational and Affective Factors

How the learners push themselves to learn and how they value learning are the concerns of the motivational
factors. Meanwhile, the affective factors relate to the attitude, feelings, and emotions that learners put into the learning
task.
7. What and how much are learned are influenced by the learner’s motivation.
Motivation to learn is influenced by the individual’s emotional states, beliefs, interests and goals, and
habits of thinking. Motivation plays a very important role in learning. It pertains to an individual’s inner drive to
do something, accomplish something, pursue a goal, learn, and master a skill, or just discover without
necessarily being forced or pushed by anyone. The level of one’s motivation would also determine the extent
of his or her ability to accomplish desired tasks. The way teachers motivate their learners is then crucial to
make them actively engaged in the learning process.
In lesson planning, the motivation part of the lesson sets the positive mindset of the learners. No
matter how new, challenging, and technical a topic is, if the level of their motivation is high, they would always
 find the interest to participate and get themselves engaged. Meanwhile, if there were no efforts to motivate
learners, then, there would also be no engagement to learning.
Teachers and parents’ encouragements, praises, and rewards can boost the learners’ confidence.
They can also establish positive emotional states and good habits of thinking in individuals. Learners will
always feel that mistakes and errors are normal parts of learning. Teachers should also use learning materials
and strategies that would eradicate learners’ anxiety, panic, and even insecurities.

8. The learner’s creativity, higher-order thinking, and natural curiosity all contribute to the motivation to
learn.
There are two kinds of motivation – intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is
manifested when an individual engages in an activity or task that is personally gratifying. It is personally
rewarding, and there is no expectation for any external or tangible reward. Extrinsic motivation, meanwhile, is
its direct opposite. A person engages in a task or activity to earn external rewards or to avoid punishments in
some situations. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal
interests, and providing for personal choice and control.
As teachers and mentors, the most important way to motivate the students to learn is to present the
value of that knowledge or concept to their life. Learning is not only about getting good grades or complying
with requirements, but it is more of knowing why they need to learn such and to what specific instances in
their lives that they would be able to use them. When what is being taught to the students is presented
creatively, it stimulates their HOTS, enhances their curiosity, and heightens their interest to learn more about
it. Teaching strategies that allow personal choice and control, collaboration, and creation for learners
contribute to a more heightened intrinsic motivation for learning.

9. Acquisition of sophisticated knowledge and skills requires extensive learner’s effort and guided
practice.
The learners’ motivation to learn is also partnered by their extended efforts. Teachers facilitate
learning opportunities and experiences that encourage learners to exert time and effort and at the same time
commitment and enthusiasm toward a task they have to do and a concept they have to learn. It is through the
teachers’ encouragement that they will have to do tasks with quality and not just for compliance’s sake.
Teachers can praise works that have been done well. They can also acknowledge every little
achievement of a person. Teachers can use the students’ errors or mistakes as opportunities for mentoring.
All these raise a person’s motivation to learn. Positive emotions established in the classroom as well as with
others make learning interesting for everybody in general. The learning environment can also foster positive
emotions when there is no competition between and among learners, and numeric grades are just secondary
considerations as pieces of evidence of learning.

C. Learning Principles in Development, Social and Individual Difference

Development and social factors as well as individual differences are considered critical factors in the capacity
of learners to engage in learning. These principles include the following:
10. As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints for learning.
Learning is most effective when differential development within and across physical, intellectual,
emotional, and social domains is taken into account. Knowledge on the physical, intellectual, emotional, and
social domains of the learners is an excellent springboard for planning learning activities, material, and
assessment. Often, some learners are not learning well because there is a mismatch between the learning
activity and the learners’ developmental stage.
Teachers are persons and professionals who should be knowledgeable of the various developmental
milestones of learners. They should not be working alone along instructional planning. They should always
collaborate with the school administrators, guidance, counselors, learners’ parents, guardians, and even
 family. Specifically, teachers should always look into the readiness of the learners through keen observations,
diagnostic tools, authentic assessments, and the like. All of these will help to create optimal learning contexts
and environment.

11. Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and communication with others.
Collaboration is a 21st century skill. All learners should learn the skill of working with others in
instructional setting. This ability will prepare them for the real world where they are expected to interact
effectively to a community of diverse people. Collaborative skills encompass social interactions, interpersonal
relations, and communication. Learning activities in the classroom should offer opportunities for such
collaborative skills. Group works, group dynamics, as well as group tasks are examples of situations where
such can be developed.
When learners work with their peers and classmates, they learn to appreciate and respect diversity.
They practice their listening skills and at the same time consider each other’s perspectives and contributions
on the task to be completed. When adequately facilitated by the teacher, this ability contributes to a positive
and healthy learning such as respect for each other’s opinions, give-and-take relationships, and taking
responsibility for assigned tasks to develop the interpersonal relationships of the learners.

12. Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning that are a function of
prior experience and heredity.
Diversity is a natural part of life. The learning environment is the best example where diversity is
manifested between and among learners. Each learner has his or her learning style, intelligence, potential,
skills, talents, learning preferences, as well as cognitive abilities, which are the effects of both experience and
heredity. Theories on multiple intelligences, learning styles, and differentiated instructions are all to be
considered when planning the delivery of lessons. Teachers assist and support their learners in identifying
their most effective learning style, dominant intelligence, skills, and potentials, and help them identify the ways
and means on how they can use them to maximize learning.
Current trends in teaching encourage teachers to apply concepts on multicultural teaching,
differentiated instruction (DI), and the Universal Design for Learning (UDL). All these principles support the
premise that teachers should be creative, innovative, and supportive of the individual differences of their
learners. These trends in teaching offer various ideas, options, and ways by which diversity can best be used
for meaningful teaching and learning.

13. Learning is most effective when differences in learners’ linguistic, cultural, and social backgrounds
are taken into account.
Multicultural teaching encourages teachers to consider their learners’ linguistic, cultural, and social
backgrounds. Language can be a barrier in learning when learners cannot express themselves properly and
when the learning material is not also related to their social context. Examples given may be too vague or
abstract because their most specific application cannot be found outside of the school. Cases and situations
should be contextualized and localized. When learners find that their lessons are also concretely seen in their
places and are closely related to their environment, the more they can appreciate learning.
Culture makes one person distinct from the other people. Students manifest differences in language,
values, belief systems, and way of life. An inclusive classroom is one that welcomes and respects these
differences, which are incorporated into their learning activities. They are also used as actual examples of
concepts presented during discussions. Students do not feel discriminated upon and ridiculed because of
their uniqueness as an individual. When each learner feels valued, accepted, and appreciated for what he or
she is, this affirmation contributes to a positive learning environment.

14. Setting appropriately high and challenging standard and assessing the learner as well as the learning
progress – including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment – are integral parts of the learning
process.
 Assessment and evaluation are essential parts of the teaching and learning process. The result of
assessments conducted are used to gauge the learners’ strengths, weaknesses, limitations, and areas of
difficulties. Teachers can also determine what kind of support and scaffold the learners need. This process
also includes knowing which instructional material would best assist a learner for better school performance.
Assessment should be an ongoing process. Whether it was formative or summative, results should
be used as a means of improving the teachers’ strategies and techniques in teaching. Low results may not
always be attributed to students’ negligence and difficulties but may also be because the teacher’s strategy
was not effective during the delivery of the lesson. Assessment, therefore, is for both the teacher and the
learner.

REFERENCE
Bulusan, F., et.al (2019). Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching (First Edication). Manila: Rex Book Store