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Weld Fundamentals PDF
Weld Fundamentals PDF
Fundamentals
of Small Parts Resistance Welding
GENERAL PRINCIPLES BULK RESISTANCE is a function of tempera-
ture. All metals exhibit a Positive Tempera-
HEAT BALANCE – During resistance welding,
part of the heat generated is lost to the
Resistance welding is a thermo-electric
process in which heat is generated at the in- ture Coefficient (PTC), which means that their surroundings by conduction (heat transfer
terface of the parts to be joined by passing an bulk resistance increases with temperature. through solids), convection (heat lost from ex-
electrical current through the parts for a Bulk resistance becomes a factor in longer posed surfaces by air-cooling), and radiation
precisely controlled time and under a con- welds. (does not require a medium). Heat balance is
trolled pressure (also called force). The a function of part material and geometry, elec-
name “resistance” welding derives from the trode material and geometry, polarity, and the
fact that the resistance of the workpieces and weld schedule. The goal of good resistance
electrodes are used in combination or contrast welding is to focus the heat generated close
to generate the heat at their interface. to the weld interface at the spot where the
weld is desired.
Key advantages of the resistance welding
process include: CONTACT RESISTANCE is a function of the In general, the highest resistance results in
• Very short process time extent to which two surfaces mate intimately the highest heat assuming that the resistance
• No consumables, such as brazing materi- or come in contact. Contact resistance is an welding power supply can produce sufficient
als, solder, or welding rods important factor in the first few milliseconds energy to overcome the resistance. Thus,
• Operator safety because of low voltage of a weld. dissimilar parts and electrode combinations
• Clean and environmentally friendly are preferred since their dissimilarity results
• A reliable electro-mechanical joint is formed The surfaces of metal are quite rough if they
in higher resistance. For example, conductive
are examined on a molecular scale. When the
electrodes, e.g. copper, are used to weld re-
Resistance welding is a fairly simple heat metals are forced together with a relatively
sistive materials such as stainless steel or
generation process: the passage of current small amount of force, some of the peaks make
nickel, and resistive electrodes, e.g.
through a resistance generates heat. This is contact.
molybdenum, are used to weld conductive
the same principle used in the operation of
materials, such as copper or gold.
heating coils. In addition to the bulk resistances, On those peaks where the contact pressure
the contact resistances also play a major role. is sufficiently high, the oxide layer breaks,
To force the metals together, electrode
The contact resistances are influenced by forming a limited number of metal-to-metal
pressure (force) provided by the weld head, is
the surface condition (surface roughness, bridges. The weld current is distributed over
equally important. Heat, generated by the re-
cleanliness, oxidation, and platings). a large area as it passes through the bulk
sistance of the workpieces to the flow of elec-
metal. However, as it approaches the inter-
The general heat generation formula for re- tricity, either melts the material at the
face, the current is forced to flow through
sistance welding is: interface or reduces its strength to a level
these metallic bridges. This “necking down” in-
Heat = I2 x R x t x K where the surface becomes plastic. When the
creases the current density, generating
Where “I” is the weld current through the flow of current stops, the electrode force is
enough heat to cause melting. As the first of
workpieces, “R” is the electrical resistance (in maintained, for a fraction of a second, while the
these bridges melt and collapse, new peaks
ohms) of the workpieces, “t” is the weld time weld rapidly cools and solidifies.
come into contact, forming new bridges and
(in hertz, milliseconds or microseconds), and additional current paths. The resistance of the
“K” is a thermal constant. The weld current There are three basic types of resistance
molten metal is higher than that of the new
(I) and duration of current (t) are controlled by welding bonds:
bridges so that the current flow transfers
the resistance welding power supply. The from bridge-to-bridge. This process continues SOLID STATE BOND – In a Solid State Bond
resistance of the workpieces (R) is a function until the entire interface is molten. When the (also called thermo-compression Bond), dis-
of the weld force and the materials used. The current stops, the electrodes rapidly cool the similar materials with dissimilar grain struc-
thermal constant “K” can be affected by part molten metal, which solidifies, forming a weld. ture, e.g. molybdenum to tungsten, are joined
geometry, fixturing and weld force. using a very short heating time, high weld en-
The bulk and contact resistance values of the Exaggerated cross-section of two pieces ergy, and high force. There is little melting
workpieces, electrodes, and their interfaces of metal indicates formation of metallic and minimum grain growth, but a definite
both cause and affect the amount of heat bridges that result in bond and grain interface. Thus the materials
generated. The diagram (above right) il- high current density. actually bond while still in the “solid state.”
lustrates three contact and four bulk re- The bonded materials typically exhibit excel-
Subsequent melting
sistance values, which, combined, help lent shear and tensile strength, but poor peel
and the formation of
determine the heat generated. strength.
new bridges allow the
weld to be formed.
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RESISTANCE WELDING
FUSION BOND – In a Fusion Bond, either similar or dissimilar materials with MATERIALS
similar grain structures are heated to the melting point (liquid state) of both. The
subsequent cooling and combination of the materials forms a “nugget” alloy of The physical metallurgy of the materials to be welded deter-
the two materials with larger grain growth. Typically, high weld energies at mines the application of the resistance welding process
either short or long weld times, depending on physical characteristics, are variables. In general there are two categories of metals to
used to produce fusion bonds. The bonded materials usually exhibit excellent be welded: “Conductive” (such as aluminum, copper, silver
tensile, peel and shear strengths. and gold), and “Resistive” (steel, nickel, inconel, titanium,
tungsten, molybdenum) with a third, small, middle ground
REFLOW BRAZE BOND – In a Reflow Braze Bond, a resistance heating of a low category occupied primarily by brass. In general, electrically
temperature brazing material, such as gold or solder, is used to join either conductive materials are also more thermally conductive
dissimilar materials or widely varied thick/thin material combinations. The and are softer.
brazing material must “wet” to each part and possess a lower melting point
than the two workpieces. The resultant bond has definite interfaces with mini- These categories apply equally to both the workpieces to
mum grain growth. Typically the process requires a longer (2 to 100 ms) heating be joined and to the electrodes. As discussed earlier, higher
time at low weld energy. The resultant bond exhibits excellent tensile strength, electrical resistance produces higher heat and better welds.
but poor peel and shear strength. Thus the “rule of opposites” applies to matching electrodes
to workpieces to be welded. The general rule (with a few
HEAT AFFECTED ZONE (HAZ) is the volume of material at or near the weld exceptions such as aluminum and beryllium copper) is to
which properties have been altered due to the weld heat. Since the resistance utilize conductive electrodes against resistive parts and
welding process relies on heating two parts, some amount of HAZ is in- resistive electrodes against conductive parts. By extension,
evitable. The material within the HAZ undergoes a change, which may or may when welding dissimilar materials, the upper and lower (or
not be beneficial to the welded joint. In general, the goal in good resist- anode and cathode) electrodes must be of different materi-
ance welding is to minimize the HAZ. als to each other in order to apply the
“rule of opposites.”
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY – Low resistance formed easily (melt) under the application of cleaning the workpieces, increasing the weld
metals, e.g. copper, require larger currents to force. Steels and alloys exhibit a wide plastic force to push aside the oxide, and/or using a
produce the same amount of heat. Low resistance temperature range and thus are easy to fu- cover gas during welding to prevent additional
materials also exhibit low contact resistance. sion weld. The natural elements, copper and alu- oxide formation.
minum exhibit a narrow plastic temperature
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY – Metals with PLATING INCONSISTENCIES include varia-
range. Accurate control of the weld tempera-
high thermal conductivity, e.g. copper, exhibit tions in plating thickness, degree of oxide
ture is critical to avoid excessive melting.
high electrical conductivity. The heat gener- contamination in the plating and the type of
ated in high thermal conductivity materials is POLARITY should be considered when using plating. Proper control of workpiece plating
rapidly conducted away from the region of all power supply technologies. If any of the inter- reduces the chance of weak or inconsistent
the weld. For metallic materials, the electrical faces of a resistance weld (between elec- welds and/or electrode sparking or sticking
and thermal conductivity correlate positively, trodes and workpieces or between the to the workpieces. Electroplating is much
i.e. materials with high electrical conductivity workpieces to be joined) is composed of dis- preferred over electroless plating.
(low electrical resistance) exhibit high ther- similar materials, that interface will heat or
SURFACE ROUGHNESS can also result in lo-
mal conductivity. cool depending on the polarity of the applied
calized over/under heating, electrode sticking
potential. This effect is dominant only in the
THERMAL EXPANSION – Softer metals exhibit and/or material expulsion. The same rule ap-
first few milliseconds of a weld. Although it is
a high coefficient of expansion (CTE); whereas plies to all three material parameters: any
more dominant for welds of short duration, it
harder materials, such as tungsten, exhibit surface condition that impairs intimate work-
affects the weld quality and electrode wear of
a low CTE. A CTE mismatch between two piece contact to each other and to the elec-
long welds as well. The effects of polarity can
workpieces can result in significant residual trodes will inhibit good welding.
be minimized or controlled via the use of con-
stresses at the joint which, when combined
trasting size electrode forces and/or weld HEAT IMBALANCE and heat sinks can result
with the applied stresses, can cause failure
pulses of alternating polarity. in unexpected heat loss or misdirection. Heat
at lower pull strengths.
Other material related parameters affect the must be concentrated at the point of the weld
HARDNESS AND STRENGTH – In seeming resistance welding process, and must therefore to insure correct and consistent welds.
contradiction to the “rule of opposites,” hard be controlled. These parameters include PROJECTIONS (low thermal mass islands)
material workpieces generally require harder oxide contamination, plating inconsistencies, are one method of insuring proper heat bal-
electrodes (which exhibit lower conductivity) surface roughness and heat imbalance. ance in difficult applications when there ex-
due to the higher weld forces required.
OXIDE CONTAMINATION causes inconsistent ists a 5:1 size difference between the parts to
PLASTIC TEMPERATURE RANGE is the tem- welds by inhibiting intimate contact at the be welded. Another method is to vary the size,
perature range in which a material can be de- weld joint. Preventive actions include pre- shape and/or material of the welding electrode.
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RESISTANCE WELDING
ADVANTAGES OF PROJECTIONS IN MICRO SPOT WELDING
By providing a projection on the surface of one of the workpieces, the current and force can be focused into
the small area of the projection to produce heat at the desired weld location. Projection welding can also extend
electrode life by increasing the electrode contact area and decreasing the current density at the surface of
the electrode. Projection welding is effective even if the weldments are thick.
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RESISTANCE WELDING
POWER SUPPLY
TECHNOLOGIES
PULSE TRANSFORMERS – are designed to
carry high secondary currents, typically up to
10,000 amps. Welds made with a capacitive
discharge system are generally accomplished
with a single, very short weld pulse with a du-
Functional Diagram of a Stored Energy Resistance Welding Machine ration of from 1 to 16 milliseconds. This pro-
STORED ENERGY duces rapid heating that is localized at the
store and the welding speed. The energy welding interface. The length of the output
(CAPACITIVE DISCHARGE): stored, expressed in watt-seconds (joules), is pulse width can normally be modified by
the product of one-half the capacitance of the changing taps on the pulse transformer. Po-
The stored energy welding power supply,
capacitor bank and the square of the applied larity switching is a convenience when the
commonly called a Capacitive Discharge or CD
voltage. The energy delivered to the electrodes machine is used to weld a wide variety of po-
Welder, extracts energy from the power line
is considerably less than this value because of larity sensitive dissimilar metals.
over a period of time and stores it in welding
losses in the primary and secondary circuits.
capacitors. Thus, the effective weld energy is
In practical applications, the short pulse is
independent of line voltage fluctuations. This Some power supplies provide a “Dual Pulse” used to weld copper and brass, which require
stored energy is rapidly discharged through a feature which allows the use of two pulses to fast heating; the medium pulse is used to
pulse transformer producing a flow of electrical make a weld. The first pulse is generally used weld nickel, steel and other resistive materials
current through the welding head and workpieces. to displace surface oxides and plating, and the and the long pulse is also used to weld re-
second pulse welds the base materials. This sistive materials and to reduce sparking and
Capacitive discharge power supplies are rated
feature also reduces spitting. electrode sticking.
in accordance with the amount of energy they
DIRECT ENERGY (AC) Transformer, the Welding Control, and the specific time period, usually one minute,
Mechanical System. without exceeding its temperature rating.
The AC welder derives its name from the fact The RMS Short Circuit Secondary Current
that its output is generally a sine wave of the WELDING TRANSFORMERS – are used in specification indicates the maximum current
same frequency as the power line. It extracts AC machines to change alternating current that can be obtained from the transformer.
energy from the power line as the weld is from the power line into a low-voltage, high Since heating is a function of the welding
being made. For this reason, the power line amperage current in the secondary winding. current, this parameter gives an indication
must be well regulated and capable of A combination of primary and/or secondary of the thickness of the materials that can
providing the necessary energy. Some AC taps on the welding transformer are be welded.
welders (including all Miyachi Unitek AC commonly used to provide a macro adjustment
welders) include a line voltage compensation of the welding current, as well as adjustment Recent advances in AC welding technology
feature to automatically adjust for power line of secondary voltage. Transformer ratings for have adapted constant current feedback
fluctuations. In its simplest form, the AC AC machines are expressed in KVA (kilovolt- control at the line frequency (50 or 60 Hz) which
welder consists of a welding transformer that amperes) for a specified duty cycle. This duty can be useful for welds longer than 5 cycles
steps down the line voltage (normally cycle rating is a thermal rating, and indicates (82-100 milliseconds) by automatically
between 480 to 100 volts) to the welding the amount of energy that the transformer adjusting the power supply parameters.
voltage (typically 2 to 20 volts). The welding can deliver for a stated percentage of a
current that flows through the secondary of
the transformer, and its connected load, is
very high, ranging from 10 to more than
100,000 amps. The welding current is
allowed to flow for very short periods of time,
typically .001 to 2 seconds. AC welders can
operate at rates up to 5-6 welds per second.
HIGH FREQUENCY input current is full wave rectified to DC secondary loop resistance and the dynamics
INVERTER (HFDC) and switched at (up to) 25 kHz to produce an of the welding process. For example, a 25 kHz
AC current at the primary of the welding inverter power supply adjusts the output cur-
High Frequency Inverter Welders use transformer. The secondary current is then rent every 20 microseconds after rectification,
submillisecond pulsewidth modulation rectified to produce DC welding current which also allows the weld time (duration of
(switching) technology with closed-loop with an imposed, low-level, AC ripple. The current) to be controlled accurately in incre-
feedback to control the weld energy in high-speed feedback circuitry enables the in- ments as small as 0.1 milliseconds.
submillisecond increments. Three phase verter power supply to adapt to changes in the
4/8
RESISTANCE WELDING
The high frequency closed loop feedback can that exhibit low contact resistance, small
be used to control (maintain constant) either variability in contact resistance, flat parts, and
current, voltage, or power while also monitoring multiple part “sandwiches.”
another of the same three parameters.
CONSTANT VOLTAGE can be used for ap-
Additional benefits of high frequency switching plications where the workpieces do not have
technology include reduced power consumption, flat surfaces, e.g. crossed wires, and where
smaller welding transformers, and the use of the resistance varies significantly, and for ex-
a very short pre-weld “check pulse” to test tremely short welds (less than 1 millisecond).
electrode and parts positioning prior to ex- Functional Diagram of an
ecuting a weld. The result of this pre-weld CONSTANT POWER can be used for applica- HFDC Resistance Welding Machine
check can be used to inhibit the weld by tions with significant variations in electrical
resistance from weld to weld, including appli- Due to their extensive programmability,
setting check limits. small transformer size, and robustness, high
cations where the plating erodes and builds-
CONSTANT CURRENT can be used for 65% up on the face of the welding electrodes. frequency inverter power supplies are generally
of all welding applications including those the best choice for automation applications.
Direct Energy (AC) provides a uni-polar >8 msec Fusion, Reflow, ≤ 5/sec. Rugged and Poor control at
or bi-polar, adjustable duration weld current Braze inexpensive. short cycle times.
pulse with rise times dependent on the %
weld current setting.
High Frequency Inverter (HFDC) provides a 1,000 msec Fusion, Solid ≤ 10/sec. Excellent control Higher cost.
uni-polar, adjustable duration weld current State, Reflow, and repeatability.
pulse with an adjustable moderate-to-fast, Braze High current capacity;
rise time. high duty cycle.
Transistor or Linear DC (DC) provides a 0.010 –9.99 Solid State ≤ 1/sec. Suitable for amorphous Higher cost
uni-polar, adjustable duration weld current msec materials, thin foils, maintenance.
pulse with a fast voltage rise time, and square fine wires. Limited duty
voltage wave. Excellent control cycle. One piece
and repeatability. construction.
5/8
RESISTANCE WELDING
WELDING ELECTRODES
Welding electrodes are installed in the weld head to touch and In conventional macro-welding, e.g. car body assembly, the electrodes
maintain contact with the workpieces through the full weld schedule. are made of copper alloys and usually water-cooled. However, in
The MATERIALS section (pg. 2) discussed the “rule of opposites” and micro-welding, the electrodes are made of a wide variety of
the criteria for selecting the electrode material. conductive and refractory materials depending on the parts to be
joined, and are air-cooled.
The welding electrodes play three different roles in resistance welding:
maintaining uniform current density, concentrating current at welding COMMON ELECTRODE SHAPES:
points, and maintaining thermal balance during welding. Electrodes
are available in many shapes, with the most common shown at right.
Electrode material and shape are determined by considering the force
necessary for welding and the thermal conductivity of the workpieces.
6/8
RESISTANCE WELDING
The size of the weld will not be larger than should be positioned where the weld is de- cleaned and dressed regularly. Electrodes
the electrode face. Therefore, it is important sired, should generally not overhang the should be dressed with 600 grit silicon car-
to utilize electrodes of the same tip diameter edges of the part (except in wire and small bide paper or polishing disk pulled with light
as the desired weld nugget. The current den- terminal welding), should not bend, should force in one direction only. Electrodes should
sity at the workpiece interfaces varies as the be perpendicular to the plane of the work- be replaced when the tip is damaged or blows
square of the diameter of the electrode face. pieces, should maintain constant diameter out. It is best to have all electrode tips reground
Electrode positioning is critical: electrodes (constant area) as they wear, and should be regularly by a qualified machine shop.
The choice of electrode configurations is determined by the geometry of the workpieces, the application, and the desired current path.
Opposed (Direct) Welding is the Step (Indirect) Welding is often used Series Welding is also used when Seam Welding is another variation
most commonly used type of resist- when the workpieces are configured only one side of the weldment is ac- on resistance spot welding. in this
ance welding. The welding current in such a way that only one side of cessible with electrodes. This form of case, the welding electrodes are
flows directly from one electrode to the workpiece is accessible with an welding has the advantage of making motor-driven wheels rather than sta-
the other, through the weldments. electrode, or there is a large thermal two weld nuggets at one time. How- tionary rods. The result is a “rolling”
imbalance. The welding current flows ever, series welding is generally less resistance weld or seam weld used to
from the first electrode, through the controllable because of the many join two sheets together. Overlap-
workpiece, through the area of the shunt paths available to the welding ping and continuous seam welds can
weld, through the other workpiece current. produce gas- or liquid- tight joints.
and into the other electrode.
7/8
RESISTANCE WELDING
Today’s state-of-the-art resistance weld- tool. It is used less often as a quality evalua- clude statistical process control (SPC) soft-
ing monitors can measure the following pa- tion tool. ware. SPC software packages can perform
rameters practically and effectively: statistical calculations, generate X-bar and
• Current Extensive experiments are normally re- R-control charts, and provide summary in-
• Voltage quired in order to determine which combi- formation of the weld data. A few monitors
• Force nation of measurement parameters can compare multiple weld parametrics for
• Displacement (weld collapse) correlates with the quality of their specific weld analysis.
Combining these measurements in vari- parts. Once correlation is verified in a pro-
ous ways can provide the user practical in- duction environment over a reasonable
formation regarding weld quality. time, the weld monitor becomes a vital man-
ufacturing tool. If the user carefully controls
Pre-weld resistance checks can be used to the quality of the workpieces and uses good
detect the absence of parts or major irregular- manufacturing process control, a weld moni-
ities in part thickness or fit-up. tor can provide the necessary electrical data
for statistical process control which in turn
Force monitoring can be used as a preventive should increase quality and reduce man-
measure to prevent excessive impact or weld ufacturing costs.
force and as a diagnostic tool. Force moni-
toring is generally used as a process control Modern weld monitors integrate with or in-
PROCESS VALIDATION
Studies by the Edison Welding Institute have • Peel, tensile or shear strength. • Weld Transformer:
shown the following probability ratio of causes • Cosmetic acceptability. ❑ Model
of poor weld quality: ❑ Tap Setting
4. Establishing process limits.
40% Fixture related
5. Documenting weld schedule and monitor • Weld Head:
20% Weld head related
schedule. ❑ Weld head model
20% Part/electrode geometry
❑ Weld force (lbf, Kgf, dN)
20% Weld schedule or power supply related 6. Auditing the weld schedule and weld ❑ Weld cable length
As with all good manufacturing practices, process regularly. ❑ Weld cable diameter
the welding process must be clearly defined, ❑ Weld force verification frequency
7. Establishing a regular equipment inspection
documented, and validated. The typical and maintenance.
steps include: • Electrodes:
Weld documentation should address each of ❑ Electrode polarity
1. Defining weld quality parameters: the following subjects: ❑ Electrode alloys
• Peel, tensile, or shear strength. ❑ Electrode dimensions
• Part deformation allowable. • Materials: ❑ Electrode gap
• Nugget penetration and diameter. ❑ Alloys ❑ Electrode cleaning and changing frequency
• Cosmetic requirement. ❑ Dimensions
❑ Surface Conditions • Test Parameters:
2. Optimizing the weld schedule. ❑ Projections, if applicable ❑ Pull strength
3. Correlating welding and weld monitor with • Power Supply: ❑ Cross section depth
weld quality. ❑ Model/Voltage ❑ Weld monitor parameters
• Peak weld current and electrode voltage. ❑ Time/Pulse width (msec) ❑ Sampling schedule
• Displacement (set-down). ❑ Energy (w-s, I, V, or P) ❑ Cosmetic requirements
• Force. ❑ Heat profile
• Nugget diameter (if applicable). ❑ Limit settings
• Nugget penetration.
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