LESSON 4: Pesticide Types & Formulations
approach 100% active ingredient.
Objectives
•know the definition of a pesticide;
•know definitions and abbreviations for types of
formulations;
•be familiar with the major families of pesticides and
their modes of action;
•know what to consider in choosing the best
formulation and when to use it;
•understand the dangers of various formulations and
how to protect yourself.
Terms To Know
Abrasive — Capable of wearing away or grinding down
another object.
Active Ingredient — Chemical that controls target pest
and has toxicity.
Aerosol — Fine spray produced under pressurized gas
that leaves small fine droplets of pesticide suspended in
air.
Agitation — Process of stirring or mixing.
Alkaline — Opposite of acidic; having pH greater than 7.
Carrier — Primary material used allowing effective
pesticide dispersal; for example, talc in dust
formulations.
Compatibility — Ability of two compounds to mix
without affecting each other’s chemical properties.
Dilute — To make less concentrated.
Emulsion — Mixture of two or more liquids that are not
soluble in one another; one is suspended as small
droplets in the other.
Insoluble — Does not dissolve in liquid.
Nontarget — Any site or organism other than the site or
pest toward which the control measures are being
directed.
Pesticide handler — Person who directly works with
pesticides, such as mixing, loading, transporting, storing,
disposing, and applying, or working on pesticide
equipment.
Petroleum-based — Made from petroleum products,
such as xylene, refined oil, or kerosene.
Soluble — Able to dissolve in another substance, usually
as a liquid.
Solution — A mixture of substance without chemical
change taking place.
Solvent — Liquid, such as water, kerosene, xylene, or
alcohol, that will dissolve pesticide (or other substance)
to form solution.
Suspension — Substance that contains undissolved
particles mixed throughout liquid.
Target pest — Pest toward which control measures are
being directed.
ULV (ultra-low-volume) — Concentrations that
Volatile — Evaporating rapidly; turning easily into a gas
or vapor.
I. Introduction
Many of us have used the word pesticide, but
how often have we really thought about what it means?
According to Federal law, as defined by the amended
Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), a
pesticide is any substance or mixture of substances
intended for destroying, preventing or mitigating
insects, rodents, nematodes, fungi or weeds, or any
other form of life declared to be pests; and any
substance or mixture of substances intended for use as
a plant regulator, defoliant, or desiccant.
Many new chemicals are being developed
which do not fit our traditional views of what a pesticide
is and how it should be applied. For example, are insect
pheromones pesticides? What are plant growth
regulators? Is dish detergent a pesticide when it is used
to kill whiteflies?
Pesticides that target a particular group of
organisms are given specific names to reflect their
activity. The names are derived from the Latin or
scientific name for the group (Table 3.1). The ending or
suffix -cide means kill or killer. But not all pesticides
endwith -cide. Examples include: growth regulators,
which stimulate or retard the growth of pests;
defoliants, which cause plants to drop their leaves;
dessicants, which speed the drying of plants for
mechanical harvest or cause insects to dry out and die;
repellents which repel pests; attractants, which attract
pests, usually to a trap; and chemosterilants, which
sterilize pests. Pheromones, are scents produced by
animals to communicate to other members of the same
species, they are used as attractants to monitor or trap
insects. Finally, the term biocide is often referred to as
a pesticide that kills a wide range of organisms and is
toxic to both plants and animals.
Table 3.1. Major Pesticide Families

Pesticide Type Used Against

Acaricide (miticide) Mites
Algicide Algae
Avicide Birds (Aves)
Bactericide Bacteria
Fungicide Molds, mushrooms, fungal disease (Fungi)
Herbicide Weeds
Insecticide Insects and related animals
Molluscicide Snails and slugs (Mollusca)
Nematocide Nematodes
Rodenticide Rats, mice or other rodents

II. Pesticide Classification diquat bromide is a contact herbicide used to control

Pesticides may be put into categories or “classified” in
several ways. Originally classified according to the ways
they entered the pest, pesticides are now also classified
according to their chemical properties (Table 3.2).
Modes of Entry & Chemical Group
The ways pesticides come in contact with or enter the
target are called modes of entry. These include contact,
systemic, stomach poisons, fumigants, and repellants.
Contact pesticides must come into physical contact
with the pest to be effective. Contact herbicides kill only
the plant parts to which they are applied. For example,
on the plant (Fig 3.1). If the insect does not feed on the
plant, it will not be controlled.
Stomach poisons must be eaten to control the pest.
Baits for insects, birds, and rodents contain toxins that
must be taken internally.
broadleaf weeds. Contact insecticides may kill the insect
when applied directly, or may kill when an insect
contacts a residue on a surface. Systemic pesticides are
applied to either plants or soil and translocated or
moved throughout plants. Systemic herbicides are
taken up by the foliage or the roots and move
throughout the target plant, andare commonly used to
control established perennial weeds. Systemic
insecticides (e.g., aldicarb) are applied to soil, move
through the host plant, and are fed on by the target
insect when it chews or sucks
Fumigants are poisons applied as liquids that turn to
gas. Fumigants are used to remove stored product pests
from fruits, vegetables and grains, and are used to
control pests in soil.
Repellents do not kill but are distasteful enough to keep
pests away from treated areas/commodities

Table 3.2: Common pesticide chemical groups.

CHEMICAL GROUP EXAMPLE MODE OF ACTION
INSECTICIDES
Organochlorines DDT, methoxychlor Contact
Organophosphates Malathion, ethyl-parathion, Contact/stomach poison
Diazinon
Carbamates Methomyl (Lannate©), Contact/stomach poison
Carbaryl (Sevin©)
Botanicals Nicotine, rotenone Contact/stomach poison
Pyrethroids Permethrin (Ambush©) Contact
Fumigants Methyl bromide Fumigant
Insect growth regulators Methoprene Systemic
HERBICIDES
Inorganics Sodium chlorate Contact
Organic arsenicals MSMA, DSMA Contact/systemic
Phenoxy 2, 4-D, MCAP, MCPP Systemic
Amides Pronamide (Kerb©), Contact/systemic
alachlor(Lasso©)
Dinittoanilines Trifluralin (Treflan©), Contact
Oryzalin (Surflan©)
Triazines Atrazine (AAtrex) Systemic
Cyanazine (Bladex©)
Simazine (Princep)
FUNGICIDES
Inorganics Copper Contact
Sulfur
Triazines Anilazine (Dyrene©) Contact
Substituted aromatics Chlorothalonil (Bravo©) Contact

III. Pesticide Types States in 1971. In fact, Arizona was the first state to limit
its use because of problems with contaminated milk in
a. INSECTICIDES dairies.

INORGANIC Most pesticides are attacked by heat, microorganisms,

Inorganic insecticides are naturally occurring chemical
substances that do not contain the element carbon and,
thus, are not derived from living things. Some of the
first pesticides ever used were elements such as sulfur
or arsenic. Inorganic pesticides in general are slow-
acting, but have the advantage of having long-term
residual activity. Sulfur is still used for thrips control in
citrus.
ORGANIC
Organic insecticides contain the element carbon, which
is the element common to all living things. Some
organic insecticides are derived from living things, and
others are synthetic (man-made). Synthetic insecticides
are manufactured chemicals that have been modified
from biological sources, and selected for biological
activity, then manufactured. For example,
organophosphates were initially discovered in Germany
during World War II by chemists looking for a substitute
for nicotine.
Chlorinated hydrocarbons (also called organochlorines)
were the first widely used group of synthetic
insecticides. Developed during World War II, they are
made up of the elements carbon, hydrogen, and
chlorine. An example of a chlorinated hydrocarbon is
DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane), which was used
extensively throughout the world for many years. For a
number of reasons, it was banned for use in the United
water, or ultraviolet light after they are applied and
eventually break down into compounds that are not
biologically active. Chlorinated hydrocarbons, on the
other hand, do not readily break down, but bind to soil
particles. Because they persist for a long time, they are
more likely to pollute the environment by leaching into
the groundwater and by accumulating in the fatty
tissues of nontarget organisms. Currently, none of the
following are registered for use: chlordane,
methoxychlor and dicofol (an acaricide).
Organophosphates were developed to replace some of
the chlorinated hydrocarbons. Organophosphates break
down more rapidly in the environment and are less
likely to pose an environmental risk. However, they are,
in general, more acutely toxic than chlorinated
hydrocarbons. Organophosphates contain the element
phosphorus linked to oxygen to form the phosphate
group. Methyl parathion and chlorpyrifos are commonly
used organophosphates.
Carbamates were first developed in the 1950’s. They
contain carbon atoms linked to nitrogen and oxygen. In
general, they break down more rapidlythan
organophosphates and have fairly high mammalian
toxicity. Aldicarb, carbofuran, and carbaryl are
carbamates.
Pyrethroids were developed by chemists by modifying
the basic chemical structure of the botanical insecticide
pyrethrum, originally extracted from the flowers of a
chrysanthemum (Fig 3.2). Known for having a quick
knockdown of insects, pyrethroids (or synthetic
pyrethroids) break down under ultraviolet light. More
recent pyrethroids have been modified to last longer in
sunlight. Among these, permethrin and fenvalerate are
examples.
Insect Growth Regulators (IGRs) stimulate or disrupt
growth or development in insects. Juvenile hormone
analogues are compounds that mimic juvenile hormone,
a natural insect hormone involved in controlling molting
and other processes in insects. An example of a juvenile
hormone analogue is MTDD. MTDD is a hormonelike
compound in the wood of balsam fir which prevents
insects from developing to the adult stage.
Biological
Biological control is the use of living organisms,
particularly natural enemies, parasites, and pathogens,
to control or manage pests. As a certified applicator or
pesticide handler, you must be aware of predators such
as the ladybird beetle, that feeds on aphids, as well as
parasites that consume their hosts. But pathogens and
their by-products are also used to manage insects;
examples are microbial and botanical insecticides found
in living organisms.
Microbial insecticides are microorganisms or microbes
that control insect pests. For example, Bacillus
thuringiensis (Bt) a bacterium sprayed onto host plants,
contains a toxin known to disrupt the gut of caterpillars
feeding on the plants. In addition, scientists have taken
the gene that controls the production of the toxin and
inserted it into cotton and other plants. Now the
genetically engineered plants are able to defend
themselves against lepidopteran insect pests.
Many plants contain materials that deter feeding by
insects or act as botanical insecticides. For example,
pyrethrum, the oily extract of certain varieties of
chrysanthemum, has been put to use by humans; our
modern synthetic pyrethroids are based on the
chemistry of pyrethrum. It is important to note,
however, that other botanical insecticides, such as
sabadilla, rotenone, and nicotine, even though derived
from plants, are not necessarily less toxic to humans or
other animals. For example, rotenone is highly toxic to
fish, nicotine is a Category I insecticide, the same
category containing methyl parathion.
b. HERBICIDES
Herbicides are used to control weeds. A weed is any
plant that is out of place. For example, a corn plant in a
field of cotton would be a weed.
Herbicides may be selective or nonselective. A selective
herbicide controls only specific types of plants. For
example, 2,4-D will kill annual grasses and mustard in a
barley field. On the other hand, non-selective
herbicides may be used to control all the vegetation in
an area.
Herbicides may be applied at different times in the plant
growth cycle. Preplant herbicides are applied before a
crop is planted. Preemergence herbicides are applied to
plants before they emerge from the ground;
postemergence herbicides are applied to plants that
have already emerged.
If a herbicide is persistent, it can continue to be active
for more than a growing season, and thus could harm
susceptible plants or interfere with crop rotation.
INORGANIC
As with insecticides, the earliest herbicides were
inorganic materials such as salt or ash. Arsenic salts
such as sodium arsenite were widely used as herbicides
until the 1960’s. Copper sulfate is still used to control
algae in irrigation water conveyance systems.
ORGANIC
Petroleum Oils were the first organic herbicides.
Materials such as used motor oil, kerosene, and diesel,
once applied to keep areas weed free, are no longer
recommended because they contaminate groundwater
and are a fire hazard.
Carbamates are herbicides as well as insecticides and
fungicides. They are commonly used as preemergence
herbicides, although some have postemergence activity
(e.g., chlorpropham).
Triazines are commonly available as herbicides.
Triazines are made up of carbons and nitrogens form
ing a six-sided ring. A classic example is the herbicide
atrazine. The soil sterilant prometryn is also a triazine.
In general, these herbicides migrate easily in the soil,
which may cause leaching problems and affect adjacent
plants.
Phenoxy herbicides were developed in the 1940’s, and
are also called “chlorphenoxy” herbicides because they
contain the element chlorine. Phenoxy herbicides mimic
auxins, natural plant hormones used as growth
regulators (e.g., 2,4-D).
Amides contain the element nitrogen. Generally simple
molecules that break down readily and do not persist in
the soil, amides may be used as postor preemergence
applications. Some inhibit root elongation in seedlings,
and others interrupt photosynthesis (e.g., propanil).
Dinitroaniline (or substituted aniline) herbicides, like the
amides, contain the element nitrogen, but the nitrogen
atoms are linked to oxygen. These herbicides interfere
with enzymes produced by the plant and inhibit root or
shoot growth (e.g., Treflan©).
Substituted ureas block the photosynthesis process.
Examples are diuron and monuron.
Plant growth regulators (PGRs) are also used to control
weeds. Auxins, giberellins, cytokinins, ethylene
generators, and growth retardants all affect growth and
fruit ripening of plants.
IV. Pesticide Formulations
An Overview of the Formulation Process
The active ingredients in pesticide products come from
many sources. Some, such as nicotine, pyrethrum, and
rotenone, are extracted from plants. Others have a
mineral origin, while a few are derived from microbes.
However, the vast majority of active ingredients are
synthesized (man-made) in the laboratory. These
synthetic active ingredients may have been designed by
an organic chemist or discovered through a screening
process of chemicals generated by various industries.
Regardless of their source, pesticide active ingredients
have different solubilities. Some dissolve readily in
water, others only in oils. Some active ingredients may
be relatively insoluble in either water or oils. These
different solubility characteristics, coupled with the
intended use of the pesticide, in large measure define
the types of formulations in which the active ingredient
may be delivered.
It is preferable from the manufacturer’s perspective to
use the active ingredient in original form, when possible
(e.g., a water soluble active ingredient formulated as a
water soluble concentrate). When this is not feasible, it
may become necessary to alter the active ingredient in
order to change its solubility characteristics. This would
be done, obviously, in a manner that did not detract
from the pesticidal properties of the active ingredient.
Usually, an active ingredient will be combined with
appropriate inert materials prior to packaging. A brief
review of some basic chemistry terminology should
prove helpful in understanding differences among the
various types of formulations.
Sorption
In some cases it may be necessary or desirable to
adhere a liquid active ingredient onto a solid surface
(e.g., a powder, dust, or granule). This process is called
sorption and it can be accomplished by two possible
mechanisms:
• Adsorption—a chemical/physical attraction between
the active ingredient and the surface of the solid.
•Absorption—entry of the active ingredient into the
pores of the solid.
Solution
A solution results when a substance (the solute) is
dissolved in a liquid (the solvent). The solute can be a
solid or a liquid. The components of a true solution
cannot be mechanically separated. Once mixed, a true
solution does not require agitation to keep its various
parts from settling. Solutions are frequently
transparent. An example of a solution is the active
ingredient in the herbicide Roundup PRO: glyphosate
(solute) dissolved in water (solvent).
Suspension
A suspension is a mixture of finely divided, solid
particles dispersed in a liquid. The solid particles do not
dissolve in the liquid, and the mixture must be agitated
to maintain thorough distribution. Most suspensions
will have a cloudy appearance. The herbicide Spike
80W is formulated as a wettable powder. This product
forms a suspension when mixed with water for
application as a spray. Label information describes the
need for sufficient agitation to keep the product
dispersed in the spray tank.
Emulsion
An emulsion is a mixture that occurs when one liquid is
dispersed (as droplets) in another liquid. Each liquid will
retain its original identity and some degree of agitation
generally is required to keep the emulsion from
separating. Emulsions usually will have a “milky”
appearance. The insecticide Demon EC is formulated as
an emulsifiable concentrate. The active ingredient is
dissolved in an oil-based solvent. When the product is
mixed with water, an emulsion is formed. An
emulsifying agent (emulsifiers) in the formulated
product helps prevent the emulsion from separating by
surrounding the oil droplets that contain the dissolved
active ingredient.
Some pesticide products are sold in concentrate form
and must be mixed or diluted before use. Concentrates
come in both liquid and solid form. An emul sifiable
concentrate is an example of a liquid concentrate (LC).
Wettable powders (WP), soluble powders (SP), and
water-dispersible granules/dry flowables (WDG/DF) are
examples of concentrated materials sold in solid form.
Other formulations are sold readyto-use. You can apply
ready-to-use products with no further dilution or
mixing. Examples include liquids prepared as end-use
dilutions and aerosol (A), dust (D), pellet (P), granule
(G), and most bait (B) formulation products.
Manufacturers package many specialized pesticides,
including products intended for residential uses by
nonoccupational users, in ready-to-use formulations.
Concentrates are often less expensive per
treatment/unit area treated than ready-to-use
formulations. However, this cost savings may be offset
by other considerations. For example, concentrates are
usually more toxic than dilute formulations of the same
active ingredient. More handling is required to mix and
load them. As a result, concentrates present a higher
exposure risk to the user.
Abbreviations in trade or brand names are often used to
describe the formulation (e.g., WP for wettable
powders), how the pesticide is used (e.g., TC for
termiticide concentrate), or the characteristics of the
formulation (e.g., LO for a low-odor formulation). The
amount of active ingredient (a.i.) and the kind of
formulation are listed on the product label. Numbers in
a product’s trade or brand name may also indicate the
amount of active ingredient it contains. For example, 80
WDG indicates that this dry product contains 80% by
weight of active ingredient and is a water-dispersible
granule. In this case, a 10-pound bag of product
contains 8 pounds of a.i. and 2 pounds of inert
ingredient. Liquid formulations usually state the amount
of a.i. in pounds per gallon. For example, 4F means 4
pounds of the a.i. per gallon in a flowable formulation.
Some common formulation abbreviations are listed in
Table 4.1. A single active ingredient is often sold in
several kinds of formulations. Below is a short
description of common formulations, along with the
pros and cons of each. If more than one formu lation is
available for your pest control site and situation, choose
the best one for the job. Base your decision on:
• Legal, labeled uses.
• The signal word.
• Applicator safety.
• Environmental safety.
• Pest biology.
• Site characteristics.
• Target (surface to be treated).
• Appropriate and available application equipment.
Pesticides come in various formulations. Formulations
enable the pesticide to be applied. A pesticide
formulation can be a wettable powder (WP), soluble
powder (SP), or emulsifiable concentrate (EC). Pesticide
formulations are broken-down into active ingredients
and inert ingredients. The active ingredients in a
pesticide are the chemicals that control the target pest.
Most pesticide products you buy also have inert
(inactive) ingredients, which are used to dilute the
pesticide or to make it safer, more effective, easier to
measure, mix, or apply, and more convenient to handle.
Usually the pesticide is diluted in water, a petroleum-
based solvent, or another diluent. Other chemicals in
the product may include wetting agents, spreaders,
stickers, or extenders.
Some formulations are ready for use. Others must be
further diluted with water, a petroleum-based solvent,
or air (as in airblast or ULV applications) before they are
applied.
A single active ingredient is often sold in several
different kinds of formulations. To choose the best
available formulation for your pest control situation, ask
yourself the following questions about each
formulation:
• Do I have the necessary application equipment?
• Can the formulation be applied safely under the
conditions in the application area (e.g., drift, runoff,
wind, rain)?
• Will the formulation reach your target and stay in
place long enough to control the pest?
• Is the formulation likely to harm the surface to which I
will apply it?
To answer these kinds of questions, you need to know
something about the characteristics of different types of
formulations (liquid, dry, or fumigant) and the general routine application and one that is the source of
advantages and disadvantages of each type. environmental contamination— or worse, a serious
human exposure.
FORMULATION SELECTION CONSIDERATIONS
Abbreviations for Formulations
The importance of formulation type is generally A = aerosol
overlooked. A well-considered decision to use the AF = aqueous flowable
most appropriate formulation for a given application AS = aqueous solution or aqueous suspension
will include an analysis of the following factors. B = Bait
C = concentrate
• Applicator safety. Different formulations present CM = concentrate mixture
various degrees of hazard to the applicator. Some CG = concentrate granules
products are easily inhaled, while others can penetrate D = dust
DF = dry flowables
skin or cause injury when splashed in the eyes.
DS = soluble dust
• Environmental concerns. Special precautions need to E = emulsifiable concentrate
EC = emulsifiable concentrate
be taken with formulations that are prone to drift in air
F = flowable (liquid)
or move off target into water. Wildlife can also be G = Granules
affected to varying degrees by different formulations. Gl = Gel
Birds may be attracted by granules, and fish or aquatic L = liquid (flowable)
invertebrates can prove especially sensitive to specific LC = liquid concentrate or low concentrate
pesticide formulations. LV = low volatile
M = microencapsulated
• Pest biology. The growth habits and survival strategies MTF = multiple temperature formulation
of a pest will often determine what formulation P = Pellets
RTU = ready-to-use
provides optimum contact between the active
S = solution
ingredient and the pest. SD = soluble dust
SG = soluble granule
• Available equipment. Some pesticide formulations
SP = soluble powder or soluble packet
require specialized handling equipment. This includes ULV = ultra low volume
application equipment, safety equipment, and spill ULW = ultra low weight or ultra low wettable
control equipment. W = Wettable powder
WDG = Water-dispersible granules
• Surfaces to be protected. Applicators must be aware WP = Wettable powder
that certain formulations can stain fabrics, discolor Ws = Water soluble
linoleum, dissolve plastic, or burn foliage. WsG = Water-soluble granules
WSL = Water-soluble liquid
• Cost. Product prices may vary substantially, based on WsP = Water-soluble powder or watersoluble packet
the ingredients used and the complexity of delivering
active ingredients in specific formulations.
V. Liquid Formulations
Individuals such as commercial pest control technicians
or farmworkers who may not be involved in the Emulsifiable Concentrates (EC or E)
These formulations usually contain a liquid active
selection process but are responsible for the actual
ingredient, one or more petroleum-based solvents, and
application also should be very aware of the type of an agent that allows the formulation to be mixed with
formulation they are using. As stated, formulation type water to form an emulsion. Each gallon of EC usually
can have an impact on hazards to human health and the contains 25% to 75% (2 to 8 pounds) active ingredient.
environment. Inattention to the type of formulation EC’s are among the most versatile formulations. They
being used could mean the difference between a are used against agricultural, ornamental, turf, forestry,
structural, food processing, livestock, and public health
pests. They are adaptable to many types of application
equipment, including small portable sprayers, hydraulic
sprayers, low-volume ground sprayers, and mist
blowers.
Advantages:
• Relatively easy to handle, transport, and store
• Little agitation required and will not settle out or
separate when equipment is running
• Non-abrasive
• Will not plug screens or nozzles
• Leaves little visible residue on treated surfaces.
Disadvantages:
• High concentration makes it easy to overdose or
underdose through mixing or calibration errors
• May cause unwanted harm to plants
• Easily absorbed through skin of humans or animals
• Solvents may cause rubber or plastic hoses, gaskets,
and pump parts and surfaces to deteriorate
• May cause pitting or discoloration of painted finishes
• Flammable (should be used and stored away from
heat or open flame)
• May be corrosive
• Insoluble in water
Solutions (S)
Some pesticide active ingredients dissolve readily in
liquid solvents such as water or a petroleum-based
solvent. When mixed with the solvent, they form a
solution that will not settle out or separate.
Formulations of these pesticides usually contain the
active ingredient, the solvent, and one or more other
ingredients. Solutions may be used in any type of
sprayer.
Ready-to-Use (RTU). These solutions contain the
correct amount of solvent when you buy them. No
further dilution is required before application. These
formulations, usually in petroleum-based solvents,
contain small amounts (often 1% or less) of active
ingredient per gallon.
Concentrate Solutions (C or LC). These must be further
diluted with a liquid solvent before you apply them.
Occasionally the solvent is water, but more often the
solvent is a specially refined oil or petroleum-based
solvent. Some uses include livestock and poultry pest
control, space sprays in barns and warehouses, shade
tree pest control, as well as mosquito control.
Advantages:
• No agitation necessary
Disadvantages:
• Limited number of formulations of this type available
The other advantages and disadvantages of solutions
vary depending on the solvent used, the concentration
of the active ingredient, and the type of application
involved.
Ultra-Low-Volume (ULV). These concentrates may
approach 100% active ingredient. They are designed to
be used as is or to be diluted with only small quantities
of specified solvents. These special-purpose
formulations are used in agricultural, forestry,
ornamental, and mosquito control programs.
Advantages:
• Relatively easy to handle, transport, and store • Little
agitation required
• Not abrasive to equipment
• No plugging of screens and nozzles
• Leave little visible residue on treated surfaces
Disadvantages:
• Difficult to keep pesticide in the target site (high drift
hazard)
• Specialized equipment required
• Easily absorbed through skin of humans or animals
• Solvents may cause rubber or plastic hoses, gaskets,
and pump parts and surfaces to deteriorate
Flowables (F or L)
Some active ingredients are insoluble solids. These may
be formulated as flowables in which the finely ground
active ingredients are mixed with a liquid, along with
inert ingredients, to form a suspension. Flowables are
mixed with water for application and are similar to EC or
wettable powder formulations in ease of handling and
use. They are used in the same types of pest control for
which EC’s are used.
Advantages:
• Seldom clog nozzles
• Easy to handle and apply
Disadvantages:
• Require moderate agitation
• May leave a visible residue
Aerosols (A)
These formulations contain one or more active
ingredients and a solvent. Most aerosols contain a low
percentage of active ingredient. There are two types of
aerosol formulations: the ready-to-use type, and those
made for use in smoke or fog generators.
Ready-to-Use Aerosols
These aerosol formulations are usually small, self-
contained units that release the pesticide whenthe
nozzle valve is triggered. The pesticide is driven through
a fine opening by an inert gas under pressure, creating
fine droplets. These products are used in greenhouses,
in small areas inside buildings, or in localized outdoor
areas. Commercial models, which hold 5 to 10 pounds
of pesticide, are usually refillable.
Advantages:
• Ready to use
• Easily stored
• Convenient way to buy small amount of a pesticide
• Retain potency over fairly long time
Disadvantages:
• Practical for very limited uses
• Risk of inhalation injury
• Hazardous if punctured, overheated, or used near an
open flame
• Difficult to confine to target site or pest
Formulations for Smoke or Fog Generators
These aerosol formulations are not under pressure.
They are used in machines that break the liquid
formulation into a fine mist or fog (aerosol) using a
rapidly whirling disk or heated surface. These
formulations are used mainly to control insect pests in
structures such as greenhouses and warehouses, and to
control mosquitoes and biting flies outdoors.
Advantages:
• Easy way to fill entire space with pesticide
Disadvantages:
• Highly specialized use and equipment
• Difficult to confine to target site or pest
• May require respiratory protection to prevent risk of
inhalation injury
Invert Emulsions
This mixture contains a water-soluble pesticide
dispersed in an oil carrier. Invert emulsions require a
special kind of emulsifier that allows the pesticide to be
mixed with a large volume of petroleum-based carrier,
usually fuel oil. When applied, invert emulsions form
large droplets that do not drift easily. Invert emulsions
are most commonly used in vegetation control where
drift to susceptible nontarget plants is a problem.
VI. Dry Formulations
Dusts (D)
Most dust formulations are ready to use and contain a
low percentage of active ingredient (usually 0.5% to
10%), plus a very fine dry inert carrier made from talc,
chalk, clay, nut hulls, or volcanic ash. The size of
individual dust particles is variable.
A few dust formulations are concentrates and contain a
high percentage of active ingredient. These must be
mixed with dry inert carriers before they can be applied.
Dusts are always used dry, and they easily drift into
non-target sites. They are widely used in seed
treatment. Dusts also are used to control lice, fleas, and
other parasites on pets and livestock.
Advantages:
• Usually ready to use, with no mixing
• Effective where moisture from a spray might cause
damage
• Require simple equipment
Disadvantages:
• Easily drift off target during application
• Residue easily moved off target by air movement or
water
• May irritate eyes, nose, throat, and skin
• Do not stick to surfaces as well as liquids
Baits (B)
A bait formulation is an active ingredient mixed with
food or another attractive substance. The bait either
attracts the pests or is placed where the pests will find
it. Pests are killed by eating the pesticide the bait
contains. The amount of active ingredient in most bait
formulations is quite low, usually less than 5%.
Outdoors they are used to control snails, slugs, and
some insects, but their main use is for control of
vertebrate pests such as rodents, other mammals, and
birds.
Advantages:
• Ready to use
• Entire area need not be covered because pest goes to
bait
• Control pests that move in and out of an area
Disadvantages:
• Can be attractive to children and pets
• May kill domestic animals and non-target wildlife
outdoors
• Pest may prefer the crop or other food to the bait
• Dead pests may cause odor problem
• Other animals may be poisoned as a result of feeding
on the poisoned pests
If baits are not removed when the pesticide becomes
ineffective, they may serve as a food supply for the
target pest or other pests.
Pastes, Gels, and Other Injectable Baits
Pastes and gel baits are mainly used in the pest control
industry for ants and cockroaches. In fact, insecticides
formulated as pastes and gels are now the primary
formulations used in cockroach control. They are
designed to be injected or placed as either a bead or dot
inside small cracks and crevices of building elements
where insects tend to hide or travel. Two basic types of
tools are used to apply pastes and gels: syringes and
bait guns. The bait is forced out of the tip of the device
by applying pressure to a plunger or trigger.
Advantages:
• Odorless; no vapors.
• Low human toxicity.
• Last for long periods.
• Low applicator exposure risk.
• Hidden placements minimize human and pet
exposure.
• Very accurate in their placement and dosage.
• Easily placed where insects shelter for maximum
effectiveness.
Disadvantages:
• Can become contaminated from exposure to other
pesticides and cleaning products.
• When exposed to high temperatures, gels can run and
drip.
• May stain porous surfaces.
• Repeated applications can cause an unsightly buildup.
Granules (G)
Granular formulations are similar to dust formulations
except that granular particles are larger and heavier.
The coarse particles are made from an absorptive
material such as clay, corn cobs, or walnut shells. The
active ingredient either coats the outside of the
granules or is absorbed into them. (Fig 3.8) The amount
of active ingredient is relatively low, usually ranging
from 1% to 15%.
Granular pesticides are most often used to apply
chemicals to the soil to control weeds, nematodes, and
insects living in the soil. Granular formulations are
sometimes used in airplane or helicopter applications to
minimize drift or to penetrate dense vegetation.
Granular formulations also are used to control larval
mosquitoes and other aquatic pests. Granules are used
in agricultural, structural, ornamental, turf, aquatic,
right-of-way, and public health (biting insect) pest
control operations.
Advantages:
• Ready to use; no mixing
• Drift hazard is low, and particles settle quickly
• Little hazard to applicator (no spray, little dust)
• Weight carries the formulation through foliage to
target • Simple application equipment, such as seeders
or fertilizer spreaders
• May break down more slowly than WPs or ECs
through a slow-release coating
Disadvantages:
• Do not stick to foliage or other nonlevel surfaces
• May need to be incorporated into soil or planting
medium
• May need moisture to start pesticidal action
• May be hazardous to non-target species, especially
waterfowl and other birds that mistakenly feed on the
grainlike or seedlike granules
Pellets (P or PS)
Most pellet formulations are very similar to granular
formulations; the terms often are used interchangeably.
In a pellet formulation, however, all the particles are the
same weight and shape. The uniformity of the particles
allows them to be applied by precision applicators such
as those being usedfor precision planting of pelleted
seed. A few fumigants are formulated as pellets;
however, these will be clearly labeled as fumigants and
should not be confused with nonfumigant, granule-like
pellets.
Wettable Powders (WP or W)
Wettable powders are dry, finely ground formulations
that look like dusts. They usually must be mixed with
water for application as a spray. A few products,
however, may be applied either as a dust or as a
wettable powder — the choice is left to the applicator.
Wettable powders contain 5 % to 95% active ingredient,
usually 50% or more. Wettable powder particles do not
dissolve in water. They settle out quickly unless
constant agitation is used to keep them suspended.
Wettable powders are one of the most widely used
pesticide formulations. They can be used for most pest
problems and in most types of spray equipment where
agitation is possible.
Advantages:
• Easy to store, transport, and handle
• Less likely than ECs and other petroleum-based
pesticides to cause unwanted harm to treated plants,
animals, and surfaces
• Easily measured and mixed
• Less skin and eye absorption than ECs and other liquid
formulations
Disadvantages:
• Inhalation hazard to applicator while pouring and
mixing the concentrated powder
• Require good and constant agitation (usually
mechanical) in the spray tank and quickly settle out if
agitation is turned off
• Abrasive to many pumps and nozzles, causing them to
wear out quickly
• Difficult to mix in very hard or very alkaline water
• Often clog nozzles and screens
• Residues may be visible
Soluble powders (SP or WSP)
Soluble powder formulations look like wettable
powders. However, when mixed with water, soluble
powders dissolve readily and form a true solution. After
they are mixed thoroughly, no additional agitation is
necessary. The amount of active ingredient in soluble
powders ranges from 15% to 95%; it usually is over 50%.
Soluble powders have all the advantages of wettable
powders and none of the disadvantages except the
inhalation hazard during mixing. Few pesticides are
available in this formulation, because few active
ingredients are soluble in water.
Microencapsulated Pesticides (M)
Microencapsulated formulations are particles of
pesticides (liquid or dry) surrounded by a plastic
coating. The formulated product is mixed with water
and applied as a spray. Once applied, the capsules
slowly releases the pesticide. The encapsulation process
can prolong the active life of the pesticide by providing
a timed release of the active ingredient.
Advantages:
• Increased safety to applicator
• Easy to mix, handle, and apply
• Releases pesticide over a period of time
Disadvantages:
• Constant agitation necessary in tank
• Some bees may pick up the capsules and carry them
back to their hive where the released pesticide may
poison the entire hive.
Water-Dispersible Granules or Dry Flowables (WDG or
DF)
Water-dispersible granular formulations are like
wettable powder formulations, except the active
ingredient is prepared as granule-sized particles. Water-
dispersible granules must be mixed with water to be
applied. Once in water, the granules break apart into
fine powder. The formulation requires constant
agitation to keep it suspended in water. Water-
dispersible granules share the advantages and
disadvantages of wettable powders except that they are
more easily measured and mixed, and they cause less
inhalation hazard to the applicator during pouring and
mixing.
VII. OTHER FORMULATIONS
Fumigants
Fumigants are pesticides that form poisonous gases
when applied. Some active ingredients are liquids when
packaged under high pressure but change to gases
when they are released. Other active ingredients are
volatile liquids when enclosed in an ordinary container
and so are not formulated under pressure. Still others
are solids that release gases when applied under
conditions of high humidity or in the presence of water
vapor. Fumigants are used in food and grain storage
facilities; regulatory pest control at ports of entry and at
state and national borders; in soil, and in greenhouses,
granaries, and grain bins.
Advantages:
• Toxic to a wide range of pests
• Can penetrate tightly packed areas such as soil or
grains
• Single treatment usually will kill most pests in treated
area
Disadvantages:
• The target site must be enclosed or covered to
prevent the gas from escaping
• Highly toxic to humans and all other living organisms
• Require the use of specialized protective equipment,
including respirators
• Require the use of specialized application equipment
Water-Soluble Packaging (WSB or WSP)
More and more pesticide products are available in
water-soluble bags (WSBs). A special film packages a
precise amount of wettable powder, soluble powder, or
gel containing the pesticide active ingredient(s). When
added to water in a spray tank, the bag dissolves and
releases the contents, which then are suspended or
dissolved. This packaging method reduces h a nd ler e x
p o s u re risk. It also simplifies measuring. However,
water-soluble packaging is just that—as a rule, it will
not dissolve in organic solvents or undiluted ECs. As a
result, mixers and loaders must follow label instructions
when preparing a spray mixture. Store water-soluble
products in a dry place, and do not handle them with
damp or wet gloves.
Advantages:
• Accurate premeasured unit doses.
• Increased handler safety; greatly reduced exposure
risk.
• Lower risk of spills.
Disadvantages:
• Package size may not match volume of prepared
solution needed and/or spray tank volume.
• May not be suitable for products applied in pounds or
gallons of active ingredient per acre, due to the size or
number of packets required.
• Must be kept dry—away from water or high humidity
—until ready to use.
Impregnates
Some pesticide products consist of a pesticide active
ingredient incorporated into a solid material, usually
some kind of plastic. The pesticide evaporates or is
released over time, and the vapors control nearby
pests. Common examples include:
• Livestock ear tags.
• Plastic pest strips and adhesive tapes.
• Pet collars.
Fertilizers may also be impregnated with pesticides.
Animal Systemics
Animal systemics are absorbed by, enter the tissues of,
and move within the treated animal. Usually, these
pesticides are applied externally or orally. They can
control fleas and other external bloodfeeding insects as
well as worms and other internal parasites. External
application methods include pour-on liquids, sprays,
and dusts. Oral applications include food additives and
premeasured capsules, pastes, or liquids.
Pesticide-Fertilizer Combinations
Many pesticide products—usually granule and pellet
formulations—are combinations of fertilizers and
pesticides. Such products are convenient because they
allow the applicator to control pests and apply nutrients
at the same time. Some are prepackaged: homeowners
commonly use these for their lawns. Dealers or growers
may custom mix pesticides with fertilizers to meet
specific crop requirements.
VIII. Adjuvants
An adjuvant is a chemical added to a pesticide
formulation or tank mix to increase its effectiveness or
safety. Most pesticide formulations contain at least a
small percentage of adjuvants. Some of the most
common adjuvants are surfactants, surface active
ingredients that alter the dispersing, spreading, and
wetting properties of spray droplets.
Adjuvants include:
• Wetting Agents – allow wettable powders to mix with
water
• Emulsifiers – allow petroleum-based pesticides (ECs)
to mix with water
• Invert Emulsifiers – allow water-based pesticides to
mix with petroleum carrier
• Spreaders – allow pesticide to form a uniform coating
layer over the treated surface
• Stickers – allow pesticide to stay on the treated
surface
• Penetrants – allow the pesticide to get through the
outer surface to the inside of the treated area
• Foaming Agents – reduce drift
• Thickeners – reduce drift by increasing droplet size
• Safeners – reduce the toxicity of a pesticide
formulation to the pesticide handler or to the treated
surface
• Compatibility Agents – aid in combining pesticides
effectively
• Buffers – allow pesticides to be mixed with diluents or
other pesticides of different acidity or alkalinity
• Anti-Foaming Agents – reduce foaming of spray
mixtures that require vigorous agitation
Surfactants
Some of the most common adjuvants are surfactants
(surface active ingredients), which alter the dispersing,
spreading, and wetting properties of spray droplets.
Examples of surfactants are wetting agents and
spreaders. These products physically change the surface
tension of a spray droplet. In order to perform well,
some pesticide sprays must be able to wet treated
foliage thoroughly and evenly. Surfactants that reduce
surface tension enable droplets to spread out instead of
bead up. This results in better coverage and increases
the odds that the pest will contact the pesticide.
Surfactants are particularly helpful when treating plants
with waxy or hairy leaves. Surfactants are classified by
how they split apart into charged atoms or molecules,
called ions.
• Anionic surfactants have a negative charge. They are
most often used with contact pesticides, which control
the pest by direct contact instead of being absorbed
systemically.
• Cationic surfactants have a positive charge. Do not use
them as “stand-alone” surfactants—often, they are
phytotoxic.
• Nonionic surfactants have no electrical charge. They
are often used with systemic products and help sprays
penetrate plant cuticles. They are compatible with most
pesticide products.
A pesticide can behave very differently in the presence
of an anionic, cationic, or nonionic surfactant. For this
reason, you must follow label directions when choosing
one of these additives. Selecting the wrong surfactant
can reduce efficacy and damage treated plants or
surfaces.
The terms used when talking about pesticide additives
can be confusing. People sometimes use the words
“adjuvant” and “surfactant” interchangeably. However,
an adjuvant is ANY substance added to modify
properties of a pesticide formulation or finished spray. A
surfactant is a specific kind of adjuvant—one that
affects the interaction of a spray droplet and a treated
surface. All surfactants are adjuvants, but not all
adjuvants are surfactants. For example, drift control
additives and safeners are not surfactants.
Choosing the Right Adjuvant
Here are some factors to consider when deciding
whether to use an adjuvant and how to choose the right
one for a particular site and situation.
• Read and follow the label. Is an adjuvant
recommended? If so, what type? Do not make
substitutions. Note that some product labels may
recommend an adjuvant for one type of use or site but
prohibit any kind of adjuvant for another labeled use or
site. Many end-use formulated products already have
adjuvants, and adding adjuvants “on the fly” can
decrease efficacy. Suppose, for example, that a certain
product is formulated with a wetting agent. If you add
another wetting agent when you mix and load a foliar-
applied spray, the product may not give better
spreading and coverage. Instead, the extra adjuvant
may increase runoff, reduce deposition, and even
damage the target plant.
• Use only those adjuvants manufactured for
agricultural or horticultural uses. Do not use industrial
products or household detergents in pesticide spray
mixes. • Remember that no adjuvant is a substitute for
good application practices.
• Take adjuvant performance claims “with a grain of
salt.” Be skeptical of claims such as “improves root
uptake” or “keeps spray equipment clean” unless a
reliable source can provide research-based evidence to
support them. Only use adjuvant products that have
been tested and found effective for your intended use.
• Test spray mixes with adjuvants on a small area before
proceeding with full-scale use.
IX. Pesticide Mixtures
Tank Mixing and pH
Pesticides can be tank mixed to reduce application costs
and increase effectiveness while providing broader
control. However, compatibility of the pesticides is
important. Compatibility is the ability of two or more
chemicals to be combined without danger.
Compatibility can be influenced by the pH — the acidity
or alkalinity — of a solution. A neutral solution has a pH
of 7. Various pesticides are unstable in alkaline
solutions (pH greater than 7), but quite stable in
solutions that are slightly acidic (pH of approximately 6).
The best pH for most pesticides is about 6, although a
solution range of 6 to 7 is satisfactory. In addition, tank
mixing can be influenced by various products. For
example, buffers are substances capable of changing
the pH of a water solution to a prescribed level,
maintaining it even though conditions such as water
alkalinity may change. Acidifiers are acids that can be
added to spray mixtures to neutralize alkaline solutions
and lower the pH.
Compatibility: The Jar Test
Pesticides should be mixed in small quantities to test for
compatibility problems. You can check or verify
incompatibility using a jar test. The procedure is as
follows:
A. Wearing label-prescribed protective clothing,
measure a pint of intended spray water into a quart
glass jar;

B. Add ingredients in the following order and stir well:

1. Surfactant
2. Compatibility agents and activators
3. Wettable powders and dry flowable
formulations
4. Water-soluble concentrations and solutions
5. Emulsifiable concentrations and flowable
formulations
6. Soluble powders
7. Any adjuvants

C. For each ingredient (e.g., wettable power), you add 1

teaspoon per unit (pint or pound) per 100 gallons of
final spray mixture;

D. After mixing, let stand for 15 minutes;

E. Stir and observe the results.

Compatible: Smooth mixture that combines well after

stirring.

Incompatible: Mixture separates out, contains clumps,

and is grainy in appearance. Check label and other
literature for possible solutions to incompatible
mixtures.

X. Chemical Changes
Pesticides may mix properly in solution but the
effectiveness or toxicity of the pesticides in the mixture
can change. These interactive effects are due to the
chemical rather than the physical properties of the
solution. For example, an additive effect occurs when
two or more pesticides mixed together are no more
toxic to the target pest than any of the pesticides used
alone. Potentiation occurs when a pesticide becomes
more toxic because something mixed with it lowers the
pest’s tolerance to the chemical. For example,
impurities in malathion make it more toxic because they
inactivate enzymes produced by the pest that normally
detoxify malathion. Synergism occurs when a chemical
(with or without pesticide properties) increases the
toxicity of a pesticide when mixed with it. For example,
piperonyl butoxide has no insecticidal properties but is
used to increase the toxicity of pyrethrum insecticides.
Deactivation occurs, usually in the spray tank, at the
time the pesticides are combined, as when one alters
the pH or causes hydrolysis.