Cement & Concrete Composites 16 (1994) 287-298
1994 Elsevier Science Limited
ELSEVIER
Measurement and Prediction of the Strength of
Rubberized Concrete
Neil N. Eldin & Ahmed B. Senouci
Civil Engineering Department, Oregon State University, 108 Apperson Hall, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA
(Received 6 September 1993; accepted 28 April 1994)
Abstract
Illegally discarded piles of automobile tires are
sources of potential hazards. Current disposal
methods are wasteful and costly as they require
either consumption of landfill space or continuous
costly maintenance. A solution to the problem of
scrap-tire disposal is the potential use of tire chips
and crumb rubber as mineral aggregate substitutes
in Portland cement concrete mixes. In this study,
some of the engineering properties of rubberized
concrete were examined and a neural network was
developed to predict its compressive and tensile
strengths. Rubberized concrete was found to pos-
sess good esthetics, acceptable workability, and a
smaller unit weight than normal concrete. How-
ever, rubberized concrete did not perform as well as
normal concrete under repeated freeze-thaw cycles.
It exhibited lower compressive and tensile strength
than that of normal concrete. Unlike normal con-
crete, rubberized concrete had the ability to absorb
a large amount of plastic energy under compressive
and tensile loads. It did not demonstrate the typical
brittle failure, but rather a ductile, plastic failure
mode. Test results were analyzed so that a model
can be developed to predict the strength of rubber-
ized concrete. Two neural network models were
developed to predict the reduction in the compres-
sive and tensile strength as a result of replacing
mineral aggregate with rubber aggregate. A maxi-
mum difference of 9.2% between test results and
model prediction was detected during the testing of
the neural networks.
Keywords: Rubberized concrete, concrete
properties, workability, tensile and compressive
strength, toughness, freeze-thaw resistance,
failure modes, solid waste, construction materials,
scrap tires, neural networks.
287
Printed in Great Britain
0958-9465/94/$7.00
INTRODUCTION
Disposal of worn-out automobile tires has
become a national problem in the United States.
It is estimated that more than two billion used
tires are stockpiled across the nation. These
stockpiles are growing at the rate of approxi-
mately one tire per capita per year J.: Illegal dis-
position of these stockpiles represents potential
fire and health hazards. They are combustible,
and once ignited they produce excessive volumes
of thick black smoke. The melting tires also gene-
rate large quantities of oil that contaminate the
soil and ground water.
In addition to the fire hazard, when tires are
allowed to collect water and organic debris, they
form ideal breeding habitat for four of the most
serious disease-carrying mosquitoes in the US. It
has been concluded that epidemics have resulted
from the artificially enlarged population of
disease-carrying pests due to the ideal environ-
ment created by tire stockpiles. 3,4
Currently, 75-80% of scrap tires are buried in
landfills. Only 25% or fewer are utilized as a fuel
substitute or as raw material for the manufacture
of a number of miscellaneous rubber goods. Bury-
ing scrap tires in landfills is not only wasteful, but
also costly. Disposal of whole tire has been
banned in the majority of landfill operations
because of the bulkiness of the fires and their
tendency to float to the surface with time. Thus,
tires must be shredded before they are accepted in
most landfills. Tire shredding requires specialized
equipment and costs about US S65-85/ton. To
offset added disposal costs and to deter customers
from bringing in tires, many landfills in the mid-
west of states are currently charging US $200 per
ton for accepting whole tires. 5
The objective of the research reported here is
to investigate the use of scrap tires as a raw mate-
288 Neil N. Eldin, A h m e d B. Senouci
rial in the production of conventional as well as
new construction materials. The paper describes
the results of an experimental study to determine
the engineering properties of a concrete mix using
tire chips and crumb rubber as aggregate substi-
tutes. The study focuses on determining the
strength characteristics of the rubberized concrete
mix and their correlation to the size and percen-
tage of tire chips. In addition, a model was deve-
loped using the neural network technique to
predict the compressive and tensile strengths of
the resulting mix.
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
A 5000 psi, non-air-entrained, concrete mix was
designed according to ACI 211.1-81. ASTM
C-150 Type I Portland cement, 1.5 in crushed
stone coarse aggregate, 2.65 specific gravity, sand
of 2.4 fineness modulus, and water-cement ratio
of 0.48 were used. The slump test, ASTM C143,
was used in this study to measure the consistency
of rubberized concrete. Table 1 shows the con-
crete mix design proportions for one cubic yard
( = 0.764 m3).
This mix was used as the control mix and as the
basis for preparing two rubberized concrete
mixes. In the first of these, the coarse aggregate of
the control mix was replaced by rubber aggregate
(referenced as group 1). In the second, the sand in
the control mix was replaced by crumb rubber
(referenced as group 2). From each mix several
batches were made, in which the mineral (fine and
coarse) aggregate was replaced by the rubber
aggregate in increments of 25% by volume.
Two types of tire chips were used as coarse
aggregate substitutes in this study. One type was
obtained by mechanical grinding (called Edger
chips) and the other by cryogenic grinding (called
Preston rubber). The Edger chips were soaked in
water and then thoroughly rinsed using a high
velocity nozzle to remove foreign substances (soil,
organic material, etc.) that may affect the strength
of concrete. Edger chips were then sieved in three
Table 1. Control mix design
Material Quantity
(lb/yard.')
Coarse aggregate 1843
Sand 1025
Cement 752
Water 361
groups of 1.5, 1, and 0.75 in maximum sizes. Pres-
ton rubber particles, 0.25 in size, were free of
foreign materials as cleaning is a part of the
cryogenic grinding process.
The crumb rubber of Standard US sieve No.
10, obtained by cryogenic grinding, was used as
fine aggregate. Figure 1 shows the size and shape
of rubber aggregate. The particle size distribu-
tions of the aggregates are shown in Fig. 2.
Compressive and tensile strengths of rubber-
ized concrete specimens were determined accor-
ding to ASTM C86 and ASTM C496 test
methods, respectively, after 7 and 28 days of
proper curing in a humidity and temperature con-
trolled room according to ASTM C 192 standard
test.
Resistance to rapid freezing and thawing cycles
was determined according to procedure B of
ASTM C666 test (rapid freezing in air and thaw-
ing in water). According to the procedure, the test
is terminated after 300 cycles or when the internal
disintegration of the material causes its dynamic
modules of elasticity to drop to 60% of its initial
value. The dynamic (sonic) modulus of elasticity
for the specimens was determined periodically
during the freeze-thaw test. This non-destructive
test uses an ultrasonic wave and measures the
velocity of the wave transmission in the material
to determine internal cracks and material disinte-
gration. Description of the theory and details of
this technique can be found elsewhere (Refs 6 and
7, and ASTM C597).
To determine the fracture toughness of rubber-
ized concrete specimens, the area under the
plastic portion of the stress-strain curve of con-
crete specimens was computed. Strains and
stresses of concrete specimens were continuously
measured during the compression test (performed
i¸ !:~j
Fig. 1. Typical size and shape of rubber aggregates.
 Measurement of strength of rubberized concrete 289

after 1 year of standard curing) using an electronic the relationship between the slump and the per-
data acquisition device and a load cell. centage of tire chips for the specimens of group 1.
More than 200 standard concrete cylinders 6 The figure suggest that increasing the percentage
in x 12 in were prepared, cured, and tested in this of rubber aggregate caused a reduction in the
study. Table 2 presents the test variables and slump values. It also suggests that the size of the
summarizes the experimental design for the rubber aggregate and its shape produced by the
concrete mixes. mechanical grinding (long angular particles)
affected the slump values measured. Examination
of the values for the 1.5, 1, and 0.75 in sizes shows
TEST RESULTS that increasing the rubber aggregate size
decreased the slump. Comparison of these values
Workability with those for the 0.25 in size (cryogenic grinding)
In general, the rubberized concrete batches shows a significant change in the slump and sug-
showed acceptable workability in terms of ease of gests that steel-free rubber aggregate showed
handling, placement, and finishing. Nevertheless, more fluidity. It appears that the tire chips form an
there was a noticeable effect, in group 1, of the interlocking structure resisting the normal flow of
percentage of tire chips on the harshness of the concrete under its own weight; hence these mixes
mix especially for the 1.5 and 1 in sizes. Increasing shows less fluidity. The presence of the steel wires
the size or percentage of rubber aggregate protruding from the tire chips seemed to increase
decreased the mix's workability. Figure 3 shows this resistance. However, the measured slump

U.S. S T A N D A R D SIEVE N U M B E R S
11/2" 1" 1/2" 3 4 8 10 16 30 50 60 100 200
100 . . . . .
, , , ,,, ............ il ..... ,. . . . . . . . ,. . . . . . . . 1o
t-,-
-1- 80
U.I
Ii/f-/ . . . . i
\
\
"..I I I I
COARSE
AGGREGATES 4
20 (5
UJ

/ 't I I/RUBBERC.,,'Sl
't// --4
~ 60 t \ EDGAR 4 0 or
ff-
tLl , . . . . f'T"

//X / // TIRERUBBER160
I O
Z
U_
b-
40
Z
U.I
0r r
w 20
////i i
....... t ao SAND

0 '''' ' ~''~ i,,." "°"~' ..... 100

lOO 10 1 0.1 0.01
PARTICLE SIZE (mm)

Fig. 2. Aggregate size distributions.

Table 2. Summary of experimental design

Group code Rubber type % Rubber Rubber size Replicates

(in)
1 Edger 25, 50, 75, 100 1.5 3
Edger 25, 50, 75, 100 1 3
Edger 25, 50, 75, 100 0.75 3
2 Preston 25, 50, 75, 100 0.25 3
Preston 25, 50, 75, 100 No. 10 3
Control -- No tire chips 1-5 3
290 /Veil N. Eldin, Ahmed B. Senouci

values may not accurately represent mix work-
ability, as adding more water to these mixes did
not appear to change the slump significantly.
Perhaps another method needs to be developed
for measuring the slump of rubberized concrete.
Visual inspection of group 2 batches revealed
acceptable workability in terms of cohesiveness,
sandiness and ease of toweling. Figure 4 shows
the relationship between the slump values and the
percentage of crumb rubber for the specimens of
group 2. However, the percentage of crumb
rubber noticeably affected the workability of the
mix. Increasing crumb rubber decreased the mix's
workability, especially at 100% replacement. The
slump test seemed accurately to represent the
consistency for this group.
Unit weight
A reduction in the unit weight, up to 25% of
normal concrete, was realized when mineral
aggregate was replaced by rubber aggregate. The
unit weight reduction is attributable to the lower
unit weight of tire chips compared to mineral
aggregate. This reduction was checked mathema-
tically by considering the unit weight of rubber-
• 11/2"
L ~ • 1"
3
ized concrete as a function of the unit weight of its
components and was found to be in agreement
with the test results. The average dry roded unit
weight for Edger chips is about 60 pcf, and for
Preston rubber 50 pcf. Figure 5 summarizes the
mean values of the unit weights for the tested
specimens of group 1. Preston rubber particles
provided more reduction in the unit weight than
Edger tire chips because of the absence of the
steel wires and beads. Figure 6 presents the unit
weights for the specimens of group 2.
A smaller reduction in unit weight, compared
to that for group 1, was realized when the sand
was replaced by crumb rubber (0"25 in size). This
resulted from the lower volume of sand in the
concrete mix compared to the coarse aggregate.
The volume of sand was equal to 0.56 the volume
of coarse aggregate in these mixes. It is note-
worthy that in both groups the relationship
between the unit weight and percentage of rubber
aggregate is linear, an indication of proper batch-
ing and good quality control.
160 /
• 1 U2"
~, 1 5 0 ~ - - " ~ 1 ~ 1" ,,
l ~""'.~ Edgar ~4
~ 140~ ~ o U4"

z Z 120'
2
110'

100
0 25 50 75 100
TIRE CHIPS (% OF COARSE
0 25 50 75 100 AGGREGATE VOLUME)
TIRE CHIPS (% OF COARSE
AGGREGATE VOLUME) Fig. 5. Mean unit weights for group 1 specimens.

Fig. 3. Slump values for group 1 specimens.

160

150
3

~ 140
2 m
[,-
1 ~ 13o.

120
25 50 75 100 25 50 75 100
CRUMB RUBBER (% OF FINE C R U M B R ~ J E R (% OF FINE
AGGREGATE VOLUME) AGGREGATE VOLUME)
Fig. 4. Slump values for group 2 specimens. Fig. 6. Mean unit weights for group 2 specimens.
 Measurement of strength of rubberized concrete 291

Freeze/thaw characteristics Compressive and tensile strength

Specimens from groups 1 and 2 were subjected to
repeated fast freezing and thawing cycles accord-
ing to procedure B of the ASTM C666 test. How-
ever, in view of budget, space, and time
limitations, only qualitative assessment was pos-
sible because of the limited number of specimens
tested. The results were intended to provide only
preliminary assessment. A total of four specimens
in addition to a control specimen were tested.
These were three specimens from group 1 con-
taining 100% rubber aggregate (two using Edger
chips of 1 and 0.75 in sizes, and one containing
Preston rubber particles of 0.25 in size) and one
specimen from group 2.
For group 1, visual inspection showed several
surface cracks and small cavities in the specimens
containing 1 and 0.75 in tire chip sizes. These
cracks and cavities were more noticeable in the
specimen containing the 1 in aggregate size. No
apparent deterioration was observed on the speci-
men containing the 0.25 in Preston rubber. In the
group 2 specimen, there were no surface cracks or
cavities and no apparent deterioration was
observed.
Figure 7 presents the reduction in the dynamic
Figures 8 and 9 present the relationship between
compressive and tensile strengths, respectively,
and the percentage of rubber aggregate used for
group 1 specimens. Considerable loss of strength
was observed when the rubber content in the mix
was increased. Losses of up to 85% of the com-
pressive strength and up to 50% of the tensile
strength, depending on the percentage of rubber
in the mix, were measured. It is of interest to note
that there was almost no increase in the compres-
sive and tensile strengths between the 7th and the
28th days, with the least increase for the 75% and
100% tire chips. The rate of reduction in tensile
strength was smaller than that in compressive
strength.
Smaller reductions in compressive and tensile
strengths were observed when the crumb rubber
content of the mix was increased. Specimens in
group 2 lost up to 65% of their compressive
strength and 50% of their tensile strength. Figures
10 and 11 summarize the compressive and tensile
strengths for group 2 specimens. It appeared that
5,000

modulus of elasticity during the freezing and

thawing cycles. It appeared that rubberized con- 4,000

crete specimens experienced more reduction in

the dynamic modulus of elasticity than plain 3,000

concrete. The results also suggested that the co

IJJ
replacement of coarse aggregate caused more 2,000

reduction than did the replacement of sand and O 7 Day---~ - ~,,,,,~:~:~:~

that the use of larger tire chips caused more 1,000
reduction of the dynamic modulus than the use of
smaller sizes. 0" 1 I I I I
0 25 50 75 100
TIRE CHIPS (% O F C O A R S E A G G R E G A T E VOLUME)

Fig. 8. Compressivestrength of group 1 specimens.

Plain Concrete
1: ~ • r' 5OO
| 3 / 4 I!
114 w! 450
.2 No.lO

701
400

35O
300
i 28 Day

250
z~ 60 co
z 200
w
I.-
0~ 50
150
100
4O 50
0 25 50 75 100 I I I I
0
N U M B E R OF C Y C L E S 25 50 75 700
TIRE CHIPS (% OF COARSE AGGREGATE VOLUME)
Fig. 7. Dynamic modulus of elasticity reduction after
freeze-thaw test. Fig. 9. Tensilestrength of group 1 specimens.
292 Neil N. Eldin, Ahmed B. Senouci

5,000 i0000
H

4,000 v 8000

:z
© 3,000 6000
03
LU
2,000
4000
0©
1,000
2000

-
i i i i i
25 50 75 100
cRuMB RUBBER (% OF FINE AGGREGATE VOLUME) 0
Fig. 10. Compressive strength of g r o u p 2 specimens. 0.0000 0.0005 0.0010 0.0015 0.0020

STRAIN (IN/IN)

Fig. 12. Stress-straincurve~rplainconcrete.

5oo

450400- ~ 2 8 Day
3000
350 a

04
~ 300 v

~3 250 ul
to
zLLI 200 2000
I--
~50
to
100
50 >
I-.4
I I I I m
0 25 50 75 100 to 1000
CRUMB RUBBER (% OF FINE AGGREGATE VOLUME)
Fig. 11. Tensilestrengthof group 2 specimens. o

maturating had some effect on the tensile strength 0

0. 00 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004
of group 2 specimens, 28-day results showing
higher values than 7-day results (Fig. 11 ). STRAIN (IN/IN)
Fig. 13. Stress-strain curve for group 2 specimens.
Toughness
To determine the fracture toughness of concrete
specimens, the area under the plastic portion of fracture is elastic. The total energy (A) was deter-
the stress-strain curve was computed. Strains and mined for the tested specimens by computing the
stresses of concrete specimens were continuously area under the stress-strain curve (Fig. 15). The
measured during the compression test (performed best fit polynomial equation representing the
after 1 year of moist curing) using an electronic experimental data was determined and an analy-
data acquisition device and a load cell. Figures 12, tical integration was performed to compute the
13, and 14 show the stress-strain curves for the area under the stress-strain curve. Table 3
control specimens and for the specimens contain- summarizes the values of A1, A2, and A for the
ing 100% rubber aggregate in groups 1 and 2, concrete specimens. The results show that
respectively. rubberized concrete specimens possess high
The plastic energy per unit volume (A1) toughness since most of the total energy generated
absorbed by a concrete specimen was determined is plastic.
by subtracting the elastic energy per unit volume
(A2) released upon fracture from the total energy
per unit volume (A) (Fig. 15). For a tough mate- FAILURE MODES
rial, most of the total energy generated upon
fracture is plastic energy, while most of the total The failure of rubberized concrete specimens
energy generated by a brittle material upon under compression loading did not exhibit the
 Measurement of strength of rubberized concrete 293

5.00 Stress,o (A)= (A1)+(A2) A, Fracture

H
%
v

400

300 / (A1) / (A2) ElasticStrain

a~ / / ~ "RecoveredUpon
co

> 200
///
H
Irrccov'~erable rff'(~ra~uar~¢r rff~ Strain,~-
Energy
i00
~h Fig. 15. Stress-strain diagram for determination of
o toughness.
o

0.0005 0.0010 0.0015

Table 3. Values of A, A1, and A2
STRAIN (IN/IN)
(a) Group code % Rubber Rubber size A A1 A2
(in) (psi) (psi) (psi)
500
1 100 1 0"60 0-55 0"05
H 100 0-75 0"60 0"50 0"10
400 100 0-25 0"60 0"52 0"08
v
2 100 No. 10 3"00 2-42 0"60
U~
Control -- -- 7"20 1"10 6"1
300

> 200 typical brittle failure of normal concrete. The

failure observed was more of a gradual failure of
m
i00
either a splitting or a shearing mode depending on
the type of rubber aggregate used. Figure 16
o shows a series of typical photographs taken
o
during a compression test for group 1 specimens
0.0005 0.0010 0.0015
containing Edger tire chips. The photographs
STRAIN (IN/IN) show the specimens' capability of resisting a
(b)
portion of the ultimate compressive stress for 2-3
min after failure and undergoing significant dis-
500 placement without full disintegration. The
H
w~tQ
observed large displacement and deformation
were partially recoverable upon unloading.
400
v
Likewise, the failure of rubberized concrete
specimens (groups 1 and 2) in tension was not the
300 typical brittle failure of normal concrete. As
manifested in the series of photos taken during the
test (Fig. 17); the specimen experienced a more
200 ductile mode of failure and exhibited high capabil-
ity of absorbing plastic energy. The failed speci-
I00
mens were capable of withstanding a portion of
the ultimate load (approximately 40%) for 2-3
min after failure and of undergoing significant
displacement which was partially recoverable. In
0.0005 0.0010 0.0015
fact, the specimens never physically split into two
STRAIN (IN/IN) halves under split tension loading. Figure 18
(c) shows two specimens after completing the split
Fig. 14. Stress-strain curve for group 1 specimen. (a) 1 in; tension test and recovering some of the post-
(b) 0"75 in; (e) 0.25 in. failure displacement observed in Fig. 17.
 294 Neil N. Eldin, Ahmed B. Senouci

Fig. 16. Failure of group 1 specimens under compression (typical for Edger chips all sizes).

Fig. 17. Tensile failure of group 1 specimens containing Edger chips.

Fig. 18. Shape of group 1 specimens containing Edger chips after split-tension test.

STRENGTH PREDICTION externally applied loads. Thus, the compressive

and tensile strengths of rubberized concrete
Because of its low modulus of elasticity and rigi- depend on the volume of rubber aggregates (large
dity, rubber aggregate acts as a large pore and pores) in the concrete mass. In group 1 specimens,
does not have a significant role in the resistance to the coarse aggregate was replaced by Edger chips
 Measurement of strength of rubberized concrete 295

or Preston rubber, while in group 2 specimens, the between input factors and establishing the degree
fine aggregate was replaced by crumb rubber. of importance of each. It is, therefore, capable of
Table 4 shows the means values of the compres- developing its own model that is suitable for the
sive and the tensile strengths of group 1 and 2 processed data. The user trains a neural network
specimens with the percentage in volume of by placing appropriate values on the neuron input
rubber aggregates in the concrete mass. Table 4 lines. The network will then produce a reaction to
also shows the relative values of rubberized con- this input by setting the values of the output lines.
crete compressive and tensile strengths with By knowing the correct output and comparing it
respect to those of plain concrete. to the network response, one determines the
If the reduction in strength has been solely due network error. By repeating this training process,
to the reduction in the amount of solid load-carry- the network changes its connection weights to
ing material in the concrete specimens, the rela- generate the right answer. Because of its numer-
tionship between the strength and volume of ous modifiable connections, the network learns to
rubber aggregates in the concrete mass would associate. It can do this in such a way that rule-like
have been linear. Figures 8-11 show a non-linear behavior emerges, despite the lack of any explicit
relationship. Eldin and Senouci s-l° developed two formulation or storage of rules.
mathematical models to describe and predict the Figure 19 shows a basic processing element
compressive and tensile strengths of rubberized (neuron) which is receiving four distinct inputs
concrete. To generalize such models and to from other neurons and is sending a single output
account for additional variables (e.g. rubber type, to the rest of the network. With the knowledge of
shape, size, and stress concentrations around the connection weights between neurons, inputs
aggregate), a neural network model was deve- are combined into a signed single value. This
loped. value represents the total input received by the
neuron. The total input is then processed by the
Neural network overview 'neuron transfer function' which produces the
A neural network is defined as a computer system neuron's output. In this study, a back-propagation
consisting of a number of simple, highly inter- network was developed. Figure 20 shows a typical
connected processing elements (neurons) that back-propagation neural network with one
process information by their dynamic state hidden layer. A hidden layer is where the network
response to external inputs, l~ Neural network creates its internal representation of the problem.
prediction models were found to be more advan- In fact, it recodes the input into a form that
tageous than other methods for two main reasons: captures the correlations in the training set. This
(1) neural networks do not require a predeter- allows the network to generalize pattern associa-
mined mathematical model for their computa- tions based on previously learned facts, and
tions; and (2) experimental noise (inaccuracies) enables it to differentiate between new and noisy
are tolerated by neural networks far better than in inputs. Further details on neural network tech-
other forecast methods. niques can be found elsewhere. 12-14
A neural network is capable of learning and
storing associations and hidden relationships
Neural network development
The neural networks for this study were deve-
loped by accomplishing the following six tasks: (1)
Table 4. Compressive and tensile strengths of concrete
specimens identifying the input/output, (2) preparing the
training and testing examples, (3) determining the
Group % Rubber % Vol. rubber in Compressive Tensile detailed neural network architecture, (4) training
code aggregate concrete mass strength strength
(psi) (psi)
the network, and (5) validating (testing) the
network.
25 10-25 2749 311
50 20"50 1662 215
75 30-75 1166 168 (1) Input/output identification
100 41"00 849 121 The factors that may affect the strength of rubber-
25 5"75 3336 407 ized concrete were identified as: the rubber type
50 11"50 2741 342 (shape), size, percentage, and concrete age (curing
75 17"25 2098 292
100 23-00 1768 237 time). The output components were identified as"
the compressive and tensile strengths of rubber-
 296 Neil N. Eldin, A h m e d B. Senouci

ized concrete specimens as a fraction of that of network. The remaining 12 examples were used
plain concrete. to validate the networks prediction.

(2) Preparation of training sets (3) Neural network architecture

A total of 60 examples were compiled from the The network's architecture has four input nodes
experimental strength data. A set of 48 examples to accommodate the four input variables, one
was randomly selected to train each neural hidden layer, and one output node. The number

Input 1

Input 2
r Signed
Weighted Total _ I Transfer Output
Input 3
Sum of
Input 4 Inputs Input Function

Input 5

Fig19.
. Basic neuron representation.

Output Layer

Connection

Hidden Layer

° ~ 08

Input Layer

"rhr~sholds 01 02 03 Processing Element

Fig. 20. Typical back-propagation neural network with one hidden layer.

Tabl5.
e Neural network input components

Input element Attribute Range of Range of

no. continuous values discrete values

1" Rubber type (mechanical and cryogenic NA 0-1

processing)
2 t~ Rubber size ( 1.5 in corresponds to 1; 0-1 NA
No. 10 corresponds to 0)
3' Rubber percentage (%/100) 0-1 NA
4 '/ Concrete age (7, 28 days) 0-1

"This factor is equal to 0 for Edger chips and 1 Preston rubber.

t'This factor is allowed continuous values from 0 to 1. A value of 1 corresponds to a size of 1.5 in, and a value of 0 to No. 10 size.
Any size between these two limits is assigned a normalized value between 0 and 1 (e.g. a size of 1 in corresponds to a value of
O'8).
'This factor is allowed continuous values from 0 to 1.
aA value of 0 corresponds to 7 days and a value of 1 to 28 days.
 Measurement o f strength o f rubberized concrete
of hidden neurons were determined, by trial-and-
error, to be five. The authors started with two
initial hidden neurons and increased the number
by one each time the network did not converge to
the desired level of accuracy.
(4) Training of neural networks
Table 5 summarizes the input variables used in
training the networks. The training process con-
tinued until there was no improvement in the
error between the desired and computed values
(i.e. experimental versus computed). The training
time for each neural network was around 5 h on a
486/33 personal computer. Table 6 summarizes
the mean, standard deviation, and maximum error
for each network. The results show that each
neural network was capable of learning the train-
ing examples adequately. The difference between
the mean erorr between the computed and
desired values is less 1.3%, and the maximum
network errors are fairly small.
(5) Neural network testing
The 12 testing examples were unknown to the
neural networks since they were not used during
the training phase. Table 7 summarizes, for each
neural network, the mean, standard deviation, and
maximum value of the network errors over all the
testing examples. The results show that the gener-
alization of each neural network was good. The
difference between the mean error between the
computed and desired values is less 3.7%, and the
maximum network errors are fairly small.
Table 6. Neural network training results
Neural Mean Standard Maximum
network error deviation
no. (%) (%)
1 1"0 0"03
2 1.3 9.04
Table 7. Neural network testing results
Neural Mean Standard Maximum
network error deviation
no. (%) (%) value
1 3"7 0"09
2 3.4 0-08
297
CONCLUSIONS
The following points were concluded on the basis
of experimental tests performed in this study:
(1) Workability of rubberized concrete was
adequate.
(2) Unit weight of rubberized concrete is
measurably less than that of plain con-
crete.
(3) Rubberized concrete did not perform as
well as normal concrete in the freeze-
thaw test.
(4) Reduction of up to 85% of compressive
strength and up to 50% of splitting-tensile
strength resulted when coarse aggregate
was replaced by rubber.
(5) Reduction of up to 65% of compressive
strength resulted when sand was replaced
by crumb rubber.
(6) Rubberized concrete showed an ability to
absorb a large amount of plastic energy,
and did not show brittle failure under
compression or split-tension loading. It
also exhibited an ability to withstand
measurable post-peak loading and post-
failure displacement.
(7) Strength of rubberized concrete can be
predicted using neural network models.
The developed networks showed good
generalization features and determined
the compressive and tensile strength
within 9% accuracy.
(8) Based on the properties measured,
rubberized concrete is suitable for: archi-
tectural applications (e.g. nailing concrete,
false facades, stone backing, and interior
construction because of its light unit
weight), low-strength-concrete applica-
error
tions (e.g. sidewalks, driveways and
value selected road construction applications),
(%) and crash barriers around bridges (high
plastic energy absorption).
2"0
2-6 (9) It is speculated that the material can be
used in sound barriers and vibration
control applications because of its appa-
rent high sound attenuation and vibration
absorbency.
(10) More research is needed before one can
error draw sound conclusions regarding recom-
(%) mended applications. Other properties
such as sound attenuation, vibration con-
9'2 trol, thermal insulation, liberation of heat
8"4
during hydration, permeability, shrinkage,
298 Neil N. Eldin, A h m e d B. Senouci
creep, fatigue resistance, fire resistance,
and environmental impact must be
examined for a comprehensive evaluation
of rubberized concrete. Finally, examina-
tion of the available standard test
methods suitable for determining the
properties of rubberized concrete as well
as the development of more suitable tests
are recommended.
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