Speed Up Your German

Speed Up Your German
Speed Up Your German is a unique and innovative resource that identifies and
explains the errors most commonly made by learners of German, enabling stu-
dents to learn from their mistakes while enhancing their understanding of the
German language.
Each of the twelve chapters focuses on a grammatical category where English

speakers typically make mistakes. Each point is clearly explained and exempli-
fied with a range of exercises to reinforce learning.
Key features:
• An emphasis on the areas where students most commonly make mistakes

makes this an efficient learning and revision tool
• Exercises throughout encourage learners to play an active role in identifying
the rules, allowing learners to internalize the main rules more readily
• A complete answer key to assist with self-study
Suitable both for classroom use or self-study, Speed Up Your German is the ideal
resource for all intermediate learners of German wishing to refine their language
skills.
Annemarie Künzl-Snodgrass and Silke Mentchen are both Senior Language

Teaching Officers at the University of Cambridge, UK.
SPEED UP YOUR LANGUAGE SKILLS
SERIES EDITOR: Javier Muñoz-Basols, University of Oxford, UK
The Speed Up Your Language Skills series publishes innovative, high quality
textbooks focusing on common errors as an effective tool to improve one’s skills
in a foreign language. Such errors are often either driven by linguistic trans-
fer from English or caused by common misperceptions about the grammatical
structure of a foreign language.
The primary objectives of the series are to explain and illustrate in context the
most common errors made by English-speaking students in a foreign language
and to classify them in easy-to-reference categories. Students can thus learn the
appropriate usage of words and expressions and understand the reasons why
they persistently make the same mistakes. The inclusion of exercises, shortcuts,
mnemonic devices and much-needed strategies, not usually seen in conven-
tional grammar books, facilitates vocabulary acquisition and mastery of essen-
tial grammatical elements.
Books in the series are intended as primary or supplementary texts at the

intermediate and advanced levels. Due to its self-explanatory approach and
user-friendly format, the series is also recommended for self-learners who wish
to ‘speed up’ their language skills.
Available Titles in the Series:
Speed Up Your Arabic

Sebastian Maisel
Speed Up Your Chinese

Shin Yong Robson
Speed Up Your French

Margaret Jubb
Speed Up Your Korean

Lucien Brown and Jaehoon Yeon
Speed Up Your Spanish

Javier Muñoz-Basols, Marianne David and Olga Núñez Piñeiro
Speed Up Your German
Strategies to Avoid Common Errors
Annemarie Künzl-Snodgrass and

Silke Mentchen
First published 2017
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2017 Annemarie Künzl-Snodgrass and Silke Mentchen
The right of Annemarie Künzl-Snodgrass and Silke Mentchen to be identified as the

authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and
78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any
form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,
including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered

trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Künzl-Snodgrass, Annemarie, author. | Mentchen, Silke, author.
Title: Speed up your German: strategies to avoid common errors /
Annemarie Künzl-Snodgrass and Silke Mentchen.
Description: New York: Routledge, 2017. | Series: Speed up your language skills |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016034247 | ISBN 9781138831100 (hardback) |
ISBN 9781138831094 (pbk.) | ISBN 9781315736778 (ebk)
Subjects: LCSH: German language—Errors of usage. | German language—
Grammar—Problems, exercises, etc. | German language—Textbooks
for foreign speakers—English.
Classification: LCC PF3460. K86 2017 | DDC 438.2/421—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016034247
ISBN: 978-1-138-83110-0 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-138-83109-4 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-73677-8 (ebk)
Typeset in Swiss and Zapf Calligraphic

by Apex CoVantage, LLC
Contents
Acknowledgementsvii
Introductionviii
1 Nouns: genders, plurals, cases 1
2 Adjectival endings 14
3 Verb forms 29
4 Pronouns 55
5 Word order 70
6 Tenses 98
7 The passive 110
8 Prepositions and cases 123
9 Agreement 145
10 Negation 156
11 False friends 166
12 Spelling and punctuation 178

vi Contents
Answer key to exercises 192

List of abbreviations 218
Bibliography 219
Index221
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Samantha Vale Noya and Javier Muñoz-Basols at Rout-
ledge for inviting us to submit a proposal for this German book for the Speed
Up Your Language Skills series. Their feedback in the later stages of the editing
process was generous and helpful. We would also like to thank our undergradu-
ate students at the University of Cambridge for trying out exercises and giving us
feedback. Their mistakes and questions throughout the years have contributed
to many ideas for this book.
Annemarie’s particular thanks go to her son Thomas and husband Anthony.
Silke would like to thank both her sister Sabine and partner Robert for continu-
ous support and good humour.
Introduction
Speed Up Your German aims to help learners of German at an intermediate

level (A2–B2) to eradicate common errors speedily and efficiently in their use
of the German language, as well as encourage those students at a higher level
wishing to refine further their skills. The chosen grammar and vocabulary points
are those that, in our extensive experience as language teaching professionals,
tend to cause most difficulties for English-speaking learners of German as a
foreign language. Some of these difficulties are caused by interference from the
language structures in the learners’ own native language, others by learners’
knowledge of other foreign languages, their previous experiences with language
learning or their general understanding of language structures, and not least by
the context in and for which the language is being learned.
This book will make the perfect companion for learners who want to improve
their German language skills in those areas where they themselves have iden-
tified frequent errors. It is meant as an accompaniment to German language
course-books or German grammars. German course-books often do not go into
the level of detail we are using to explain those grammatical features which, in
our experience, cause the most persistent errors. It is ideal for revision, can also
be used as a reference book and will help learners overcome typical mistakes
through an accessible, systematized approach. Learners can of course also
work their way through the chapters and use the frequent internal references as
a built-in revision tool.
The book contains specific references to German grammar, to vocabulary
points and to language structures as a means of pointing out the contrasts
between German and English usage. We have aimed to explain these in such a
way that they can also be understood by English-speaking students of German
whose native language is not English.
At the beginning of each section, the key difficulty for each of the grammar
areas selected is clearly identified (“Where’s the difficulty?”). Each chapter
features exercises illustrating the basics (the root cause of the error) as well
Introduction ix
as explanations and exercises that go a little deeper into the grammar, with all
tailor-made exercises checkable in an answer key at the back of the book. Most
chapters also contain easy-to-remember acronyms and other memory aides.
We have covered a broad range of grammatical points because we think
that if you wish to speed up your language learning and make your language
use less prone to errors, then concentrating on known problem points is a more
efficient way to do so, rather than trying to learn everything comprehensively. We
hope this will prove a successful strategy to many learners.
Chapter 1 deals with nouns: genders, plurals and cases. In German sen-
tences, these three factors interplay at every stage. The fact that every noun
has a gender in German seems at first a strange concept for English-speaking
learners. After all, in English only persons and pets and a few exceptions like
ships have gender. The chapter explains gender by meaning and form; it also
deals with the variety of plural forms in German and sums up the most import-
ant principles behind them, so that learners can take informed decisions when
faced with uncertainty. The principles of indicating case through case endings
and determiners are also set out in this chapter, as well as strategies for avoiding
common error sources in the interplay of genders, plurals and cases.
Chapter 2 focuses on adjectival endings. Learners are guided to take a sta-
tistical approach: which are the most frequent adjectival endings? Knowing the
correct adjectival endings, whether weak, strong or mixed, helps reduce mis-
takes drastically. When to use which ending is explained clearly in order to boost
learners’ confidence in this particular area of German grammar. The chapter also
looks at adjectival nouns: knowing these can help to double up the vocabulary
effortlessly. Comparisons, and how to get all endings right, are also addressed.
Chapter 3 looks at verb forms. Verbs are a crucial building block when it
comes to making sentences, and it is important to understand that in German
there are endings for every person in the verb, unlike English, where there is only
one: the ‘-s’ in the third person singular: ‘he sings’. Although this chapter doesn’t
give a comprehensive overview of the verb forms in each tense, it does deal with
specifics and exceptions in regular/non-regular verbs, separable verbs, reflexive
verbs and modal verbs. The auxiliary verbs haben and sein are components of
the perfect and pluperfect tenses in German. Choosing the correct auxiliary verb
depends on which type of verb they go with, for example, transitive verbs (verbs
which take a direct object) use haben, whereas certain intransitive verbs (which
don’t take a direct object) use sein. There are also verbs which take either haben
or sein, depending on their meaning. This chapter explains the relevant catego-
ries and which of the two verbs is the default option.
Chapter 4 deals with a whole range of different types of pronouns; personal
pronouns, reflexive pronouns (including information on the dative and the accu-
sative cases, and reciprocal pronouns), possessive pronouns and relative pro-
nouns. Pronouns are used to replace nouns, mostly to avoid repetition. Knowing
x Introduction
how to use them correctly will also make learners’ writing style more varied, suc-
cinct and ultimately more idiomatic. It is a useful chapter for revising coherence
in German sentences. The chapter’s main objective is to make learners aware of
typical pitfalls in terms of grammatical agreement between nouns and pronouns.
Chapter 5 is a comprehensive chapter on word order in German sentences.
It deals with certain principles: the verb in second position in a main clause, the
verbal bracket, the order of noun and pronoun objects and the order of adverbial
expressions (time – reason – manner – place). It also explains the variety of ele-
ments that can stand in first position, in contrast to English, where the order of
subject – verb – object is more or less fixed. When linking German main clauses
the co-ordinating conjunctions, also sometimes called ADUSO words (aber, denn,
und, sondern, oder) come into play. Main clause word order is explained, and
so are the rules for omitting the subject if it’s the same in both main clauses. The
use of adverbs and adverbial conjunctions in first position as linking words, and
the combination of ADUSO words with such adverbs are also dealt with. Finally,
the principles for linking German main and subordinate (dependent) clauses
are made clear by setting out the rules for word order after subordinating con-
junctions, such as weil, dass, wenn etc. The so-called ‘verb-comma-verb’ rule is
explained, and there are tips on how to avoid word order problems arising from a
‘clash of conjunctions’ (using two subordinating conjunctions straight after each
other, for example, ‘that although’ or ‘because if’).
Chapter 6 focuses on tenses. The chapter’s main learning objective is to
promote the understanding that use of tenses in German is guided by principles
like context, formality and modality. The chapter offers exercises on when to use
the present, past and future tenses in German. The past tenses covered include
the simple past tense, the perfect tense and the pluperfect tense. Special atten-
tion is paid to methods for translating English progressive tense forms and to
the contrasts between English and German usage. The chapter also covers the
German Konjunktiv forms used for conditionals and reported speech. Typical
pitfalls in the use of Konjunktiv forms are highlighted, and there are handy tips
on how to get it right.
Chapter 7 explains the use of the passive. This chapter takes a practical
approach: learners will look at how to form the passive, paying special attention
to the cases for subjects and objects. Learners are made aware through exer-
cises that dative objects in active sentences will remain dative objects in passive
sentences – a grammatical feature of German which leads to many mistakes
by English speakers. The chapter also looks at passive constructions involving
modal verbs. There are sections looking at the so-called sein-passive in contrast
to the werden-passive. As there are verbs which cannot form the passive in Ger-
man, one section is also dedicated to alternative forms for the passive.
Chapter 8 covers prepositions. Prepositions are notoriously difficult to learn,
possibly because they bridge the areas of vocabulary and grammar. For German
Introduction xi
prepositions, it is important to know which cases they take: dative, accusative

or genitive. Some prepositions take two cases. The chapter’s objective is to
demonstrate methods which can help to recall all this information in a step-by-
step approach. How to express where one comes from and where one is going
using prepositions is also explained, as are prepositional adverbs. A contrastive
approach serves as an additional aide for English-speaking learners of German:
focusing on the counter-intuitive use of prepositions will help eliminate hardy
errors. As using the dative case correctly is often seen as particularly difficult, a
whole section is dedicated to this special case. Chapter 8 also works as a revi-
sion tool for the chapters on nouns, the passive and verbs.
Chapter 9 illustrates the importance of agreement in German. This chapter
doubles up as a revision chapter for a number of grammatical features, like
subject and verb agreement, cases after prepositions, adjectives and verbs, and
apposition. Other areas include: personal pronouns, possessive pronouns and
relative pronouns, and in particular how they have to agree in terms of gender.
This is a useful chapter for anybody wanting to brush up on a whole range of
error-prone grammatical features.
Chapter 10 deals with negation. The basic rules for negation in German are
explained, and the manner in which they differ from English convention, as well
as the use of German kein (‘not a’). The chapter also deals with double negation
and the role and effect of the use of specific particles in negation, such as über-
haupt, etwa and nicht einmal. Knowing some of these “little” words will make all
the difference.
Chapter 11 looks at false cognates, also known as ‘false friends’. These
are words that have the same or similar spelling in German and English, but
which have very different meanings, for example, Gift in German means poi-
son, whereas ‘gift’ in English of course is a ‘present’. There are also confusing
word pairs, that is, the same noun can have different genders and consequently
different meanings, for example, die Band is a ‘music band’, but das Band is a
‘ribbon’. And there are words that are both ‘cognates’, words that have similar
spelling and meaning in German and English, and ‘false friends’ at the same
time; for example, arm means ‘poor’, but der Arm is an ‘arm’. This chapter will
help you deal with such complexities.
The final chapter, Chapter 12, focuses on spelling and punctuation. Key
issues here are the differences between English and German conventions, nota-
bly in the capitalization of nouns and adjectives, in the usage of ß versus ss,
and of das and dass. Some important differences are pointed out between the
English and German use of quotation marks and of the comma. Knowing these
simple rules can help avoid common pitfalls and put the finishing touches to
writing in German.
All chapters’ examples and exercises are translated so that an obvious bonus
effect will be the expansion of learners’ passive and active vocabulary.
1 Nouns: genders,
plurals, cases
1 Genders 2
1.1 Gender assignation by meaning and form 2
1.2 Weak masculine nouns 6
2 Plurals 9
3 Cases 10
3.1 Case endings in nouns 11
3.2 Case confusion 12
2 Nouns: genders, plurals, cases
Introduction
In German, genders, plural forms and cases are intricately connected with each
other. You will know that every German noun has a gender (it’s either masculine
or feminine or neuter), that it has a distinct plural form, and that the noun phrase
(= the noun and its determiner, for example, a definite or indefinite article) indi-
cates case, that is, it tells us whether the noun is the subject of the sentence or
an object. Look at the noun declension table and you will see that these three
factors interplay at every stage:
Masculine Weak masculine Feminine Neuter

Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nom. der Mann die der Junge die die Frau die das Kind die
Männer Jungen Frauen Kinder
Acc. den Mann die den die die Frau die das Kind die
Männer Jungen Jungen Frauen Kinder
Gen. des der des der der Frau der des der
Mann(e)s Männer Jungen Jungen Frauen Kind(e)s Kinder
Dat. dem Mann den dem den der Frau den dem Kind den
Männern Jungen Jungen Frauen Kindern
1 Genders
In English, only natural genders occur (for persons or animals) and although there
are a few exceptions (for example, ships are feminine), inanimate objects have no
gender in English. Although genders in German make sense when referring to peo-
ple or animals, it often isn’t obvious at all which gender group an unknown noun
belongs to. Why should ‘der Tisch’ (table) be masculine and ‘das Buch’ (book)
neuter – after all, both are objects! Many minor errors arise from wrong gender
assignation, and although communication isn’t normally hindered, it does make
the language sound wrong in a particular way, so it pays to give this some attention.
There’s no way around it: the best way to avoid gender errors is to learn
new words with their gender (and plural forms) right from the start. But if you
are stuck, the following rules of thumb will help. What follows is not exhaustive
by any standard, but it does include useful pointers that should make grappling
with this challenging part of the German language easier.
1.1 Gender assignation by meaning and form

First of all, there are two categories of gender assignation: gender by meaning
and gender by form. You will find long lists of nouns in each category in any
grammar book, including some exceptions.
Error alert: where’s the difficulty?

Nouns: genders, plurals, cases 3
Quite obviously, many errors arise from learners either using wrong genders
when writing in German, or from wrong gender identification of unknown nouns
in a German text.
Therefore, it makes sense to look at endings indicating gender as well as
gender assignation by meaning.
1.1.1 Gender by form

Endings indicating gender:
Masculine: -ant, -ast, -e, -er, -el, -ent, -ich, - ig, - ismus, -ist, -ling
For example:
‘der Musikant’ (musician), ‘der Kontrast’ (contrast), ‘der Junge’ (boy), ‘der
Lehrer’ (teacher), ‘der Mantel’ (coat), ‘der Student’ (male student), ‘der
Teppich’ (carpet), ‘der Käfig’ (cage) ‘der Kapitalismus’ (capitalism), ‘der
Kommunist’ (communist), ‘der Lehrling’ (apprentice)
Feminine: -a, -anz, -e, -ei, -enz, -heit, -in, -ion, -ik, -keit, -ung, -schaft, -tät
For example:
‘die Kamera’ (camera), ‘die Eleganz’ (elegance), ‘die Blume’ (flower), ‘die Brau-
erei’ (brewery), ‘die Referenz’ (reference), ‘die Freiheit’ (liberty), ‘die Freun-
din’ (female friend), ‘die Nation’ (nation), ‘die Musik’ (music), ‘die Einigkeit’
(unity), ‘die Kreuzung’ (crossroads), ‘die Freundschaft’ (friendship), ‘die
Fakultät’ (faculty)
Neuter: -al, -ar, -at, -ma, -ment, -tel, -um, -chen, -lein, -nis
For example:
‘das Lineal’ (ruler), ‘das Inventar’ (inventory), ‘das Format’ (format), ‘das
Thema’ (theme), ‘das Fundament’ (basis), ‘das Drittel’ (third), ‘das Ref-
erendum’ (referendum), ‘das Blümchen’ (little flower), ‘das Dörflein’ (little
village), ‘das Ereignis’ (event)
Note that these endings can only ever be useful pointers towards the gender
of a noun, but no more. They are not failsafe, as there are always exceptions,
for example, ‘die Finsternis’ (darkness) or ‘die Schachtel’ (box). The following
points are particularly noteworthy:
• A large percentage of nouns ending in -e are feminine, but there’s a group

of them that are masculine (see below, point 1.2), and one noun ending in -e
always causes problems because it is (unexpectedly) neuter: ‘das Interesse’
(interest).
• As we have seen, the endings -chen and -lein indicate neuter. They make a
little thing out of a big one, so to speak: ‘der Tisch’ (table) – ‘das Tischchen’
(little table), ‘das Buch’ (book) – ‘das Büchlein’ (little book), ‘die Kanne’ (jug) –
‘das Kännchen’ (little jug). Famously, these endings change the gender of
what should be naturally feminine nouns: ‘das Fräulein’ (young woman), ‘das
Mädchen’ (girl).
• The ending -in is a classic indicator of feminine gender, for example: ‘die
Lehrerin’, ‘die Tänzerin’ (female dancer), ‘die Polizistin’ (policewoman).
• Some endings in -el can be feminine: ‘die Regel’ (rule) or neuter: ‘das
Segel’ (sail).
• Many nouns ending in -er are masculine if they are derived from verbs:
‘der Lehrer’ (teacher), ‘der Leser’ (reader), ‘der Arbeiter’ (worker). But if you
weren’t aware of this and going by ending only, you would probably be sur-
prised by the genders of the following very common nouns, as they all end
in -er, but are neuter, not masculine: ‘das Wetter’ (weather), ‘das Gewitter’
(thunderstorm), ‘das Fenster’ (window), ‘das Zimmer’ (room), das ‘Unge-
heuer’ (monster), ‘das Abenteuer’ (adventure).
1.1.2 Gender by meaning
Masculine by meaning
• male persons and animals: ‘der Mann’ (man), ‘der Bruder’ (brother), ‘der
Onkel’ (uncle), ‘der Hund’ (dog), ‘der Kater’ (tomcat), ‘der Hahn’ (cockerel)
• days of the week: ‘der Montag’, ‘der Dienstag’ etc. (but: ‘die Woche’ –
‘week’)
• times of the day: ‘der Morgen’ (morning), ‘der Mittag’ (midday), ‘der Abend’
(evening)
• months: ‘der Januar’ (January), ‘der Februar’ (February) etc.
• the weather: ‘der Regen’ (rain), ‘der Sturm’ (storm), ‘der Schnee’ (snow),
‘der Frost’ (frost), (but see above: ‘das Wetter’ – weather)
• the points of the compass: ‘der Norden’ (the North), ‘der Süden’ (the
South) etc.
You could remember these by thinking that these are all nouns that refer to the
basic rhythms of life (but: ‘das Jahr’ – ‘year’).
There is also a group of nouns which are called ‘weak masculine’ nouns or
n-nouns. They can be identified by form (certain endings). More on them later.
Feminine by meaning
• female persons and animals: ‘die Frau’ (woman), ‘die Dame’ (lady), ‘die
Tante’ (aunt), ‘die Kuh’ (cow), ‘die Hündin’ (bitch), ‘die Katze’ (female cat)
• nouns that denote abstract concepts, such as ‘Freiheit, Gleichheit, Brüder-
lichkeit’ (the slogan of the French Revolution: Liberty, Equality, Fraternity) or
‘die Bildung’ (education), ‘die Gesellschaft’ (society), ‘die Realität’ (reality) –
note that these examples also represent nouns with endings indicating fem-
inine nouns.
• names of numerals: ‘die Eins’, ‘die Zwei’, ‘die Drei’, etc.
Neuter by meaning:
• young persons and animals: ‘das Baby’ (baby), ‘das Kind’ (child), ‘das
Küken’ (chick), ‘das Fohlen’ (foal), ‘das Ferkel’ (piglet)
• nouns derived from verbs and adjectives: ‘das Essen’ (food), ‘das Singen’
(singing), ‘das Gute’ (that which is good), ‘das Wunderbare’ (that which is
wonderful)
Exercise 1
Bearing in mind the pointers you have just read, assign gender to the following
nouns:
1. ___ Vater (father), ___ Freundin (friend), ___ Gemeinschaft (community)

2. ___ Universität (university), ___ Westen (the West), ___Wind (wind)
3. ___ Wetter (weather), ___ Mittwoch (Wednesday), ____ Gesundheit (health)
4. ___ Böse (that which is bad), ___ Lehrerin (teacher)____ Stühlchen (little
chair)
5. ___ Richtung (direction), ____ Kind (child), ____ Regen (rain)
6. ___ Osten (the East), ____ Katze (cat), _____ Tante (aunt)
7. ___ Informatiker (IT specialist), ____ Tänzerin (dancer), ___ Einigkeit (unity)
8. ___ Fenster (window), _____ Pluralität (plurality), ___ Einkäufer (buyer)
9. ___ Million (million), ____ Tanzen (dancing), ____ Hagel (hail)
10. ___ Tänzer (male dancer), ____Kalb (calf), ____ Abenteuer (adventure)
Exercise 2
In the following list of 15 nouns, five have been given the wrong gender. Identify
them and write the correct definite article behind them. Leave the other spaces
blank.
1. das Katze (cat): ____

2. der Schnee (snow): ____
3. der Tiger (tiger): ____
4. das Osten (the East): ____
5. das Fenster (window): ____
6. der Freund (friend): ____
7. der Gesundheit (health): ____
8. das April (April):___

9. der Glaube (faith): ____
10. die Lampe (lamp): ____
11. das Sieben (seven): ____
12. das Mäuschen (little mouse): ____
13. das Viertel (quarter): ____
14. der Sozialist (socialist): ____
15. der Mittwoch (Wednesday): ____
There are also a number of nouns which have more than one gender, and there-
fore more than one meaning. You will come across this at the end of this book,
in Chapter 11, False friends.
1.2 Weak masculine nouns
As indicated above, there are a number of ‘weak masculine’ nouns. They form
part of the nouns declension table above. Look at the table in the introduction
to this chapter. What can you say about the endings for the weak masculine
nouns? Tick the right answer:
Exercise 3
a) They have different endings for all cases.

b) They have the same endings for all cases.
c) They have the same endings for all cases bar one.
Exercise 4
It’s important to know about weak masculine nouns, as they tend to cause dif-
ficulty. Any grammar book will have a list of them, and it makes sense to famil-
iarize yourself with them – the list isn’t all that long. Naturally, they refer to male
persons and animals, and often have to do with profession, nationality or reli-
gion. Most weak masculine nouns are recognizable by a distinct ending, and
there are a number of different ones. Identify them by analysing this group of
weak masculine nouns:
der Student (student), der Polizist (policeman), der Held (hero), der Fab-
rikant (industrialist), der Affe (monkey), der Graf (Count), der Psychologe
(psychologist), der Dirigent (conductor), der Mensch (human being), der
Diamant (diamond), der Nachbar (neighbour), der Bauer (farmer), der
Jude (Jew), der Fotograf (photographer), der Russe (Russian), der Kom-
ponist (composer), der Christ (Christian), der Franzose (Frenchman), der
Paragraf (paragraph), der Herr (master)
We have already given you two categories of endings (1, 2). Write the others
down together with the nouns that exemplify them.
1. No ending in nom. sing.: der Held, der Graf, der Mensch, der Christ
2. -(e)r : der Nachbar*, der Bauer*, der Herr*
3. _____: ____________________________
4. _____: ____________________________
5. _____: ____________________________
6. _____: ____________________________
7. _____: ____________________________
* Note that these have ‘-n’ endings for the singular, but ‘-en’ endings for the
plural.
There’s a group of nouns which is very closely related to weak masculine
nouns, and it is a good strategy to be aware of them. They are sometimes called
‘almost’ weak masculine nouns.
These nouns look like weak masculine nouns, and they almost are, but for one
ending which singles them out. It pays off to be aware of them, as they are
quite important and much-used words. Below we have listed the eight most
important ones.
Exercise 5
Here is the declension of one of them, ‘der Gedanke’ (thought):
Masculine
Singular Plural
Nom. der Gedanke die Gedanken
Acc. den Gedanken die Gedanken
Gen. des Gedankens der Gedanken
Dat. dem Gedanken den Gedanken
How does this differ from the declension of ‘pure’ weak masculine nouns?
Write your answer here: ____________________ and check your answer in the
answer key.
The other seven almost weak masculine nouns are: ‘der Name’ (name), ‘der
Buchstabe’ (letter), ‘der Wille’ (will), ‘der Friede’ (peace), ‘der Glaube’ (belief),
‘der Funke’ (spark), ‘der Same’ (seed).
You could try and remember them by this memory-aid: the first letters of the
six most important of the eight could make up a (rather funny) name:
Mnemonic device
WilleFriedeNameBuchstabeGedankeGlaube: Wilfried Nabugegla… or
Glabunabu… or Genabugla… or…?
Exercise 6
Here is the German term for ‘heart’. What’s odd about its declension?
Singular Plural
Nom. das Herz die Herzen
Acc. das Herz die Herzen
Gen. des Herzens der Herzen
Dat. dem Herzen den Herzen
Make observations about
1. its gender: _______________

2. its declension in the singular: _______________
3. its declension in the plural: _______________
Check your answers in the answer key and keep this word close to your heart!
Exercise 7
Fill in the endings. Mind that these phrases have a mixture of weak masculine
nouns and ‘almost weak’ masculine nouns in them.
1. um des lieben Frieden____ willen

for the sake of blessed peace
2. “Triumph des Willen ____”
“Triumph of the Will” – title of a Nazi film
3. mit den Worten des Journalist____
in the journalist’s words
4. viele Funke ____, aber kein Feuer

many sparks, but no fire
5. nach den Buchstabe____ des Gesetzes
in the letter of the law
6. in gutem Glaube____
in good faith
7. in deinem guten Name____
in your good name
8. trotz seines Glauben ____
despite his faith
9. “Hab Sonne im Herz____!”
“Have sunshine in your heart!” – beginning of a popular German
children’s poem
10. die Ausstellung des Fotograf ____
the photographer’s exhibition
2 Plurals
As with genders, the best strategy is to learn new nouns together with their plu-
ral forms. All grammar books will give you lists of types of plural, together with
examples and we suggest you consult one of these every time you are unsure.
In English, there is normally just one way to form a plural: you stick an -s at the
end of the word and that’s it. There are some irregular forms (child – children;
mouse – mice; fish – fish), but they are rare. In German, there is a lot of variation
which hinders a systematic approach (just as with gender assignation).
So what’s the best way of avoiding too many errors? Be aware of the
most common ways of forming plurals in German. They can be summed up
like this:
A) A number of nouns don’t have a distinct plural form (masculine and neuter
nouns ending in ‘-el’, ‘-en’, ‘-er’; diminutives ending in ‘-chen’ and ‘-lein’)
B) A number of masculine (and TWO feminine) nouns form the plural just by
adding an umlaut
C) Most feminine nouns add ‘-(e)n’
D) About three quarters of neuter nouns add ‘-e’
E) Foreign words normally just add an ‘-s’
F) There are some unusual forms, for example, nouns ending in ‘-ma’, ‘-mus’
and ‘-um’ add ‘-(m)en’
Exercise 8
Here are some examples. Identify the principle behind their plural forms by put-
ting the relevant capital letter from the list above. Underline the two feminine
nouns which form the plural by adding an umlaut.
Singular Plural Letter

1. der Apfel (apple) die Äpfel ___
2. das Taxi (taxi) die Taxis ___
3. das Museum (museum) die Museen ___
4. der Onkel (uncle) die Onkel ___
5. die Tochter (daughter) die Töchter ___
6. der Zyklus (cycle) die Zyklen ___
7. das Fenster (window) die Fenster ___
8. die Rose (rose) die Rosen ___
9. der Bruder (brother) die Brüder ___
10. das Zimmer (room) die Zimmer ___
11. das Bein (leg) die Beine ___
12. das Hotel (hotel) die Hotels ___
13. das Jahr (year) die Jahre ___
14. das Thema (topic) die Themen ___
15. die Mutter (mother) die Mütter ___
16. der Rhythmus (rhythm) die Rhythmen ___
3 Cases
German is an inflected language, which basically means that case is indicated
through the endings of words. The case it’s in indicates the function of a noun
in a sentence, whether it’s the subject (nominative) or an object (accusative,
dative, genitive). This affects determiners (articles etc.), pronouns and adjec-
tives, and, to a lesser extent, nouns. For reference, see Chapter 1, Nouns, Chap-
ter 2, Adjectival endings and Chapter 4, Pronouns.
In English, there are no endings on nouns which indicate case except for the
genitive apostrophe and ‘-s’ in the singular and the apostrophe in the plural: ‘my
sister’s cat’, ‘my parents’ house’. Case is worked out through context or content
and a fixed word order pattern (subject – verb – object). If I say ‘He gives the
waiter the money’, it’s pretty clear who gives what to whom although there is
no indication of case in the language. In German, you have a clear indication in
the different forms of the ‘determiners’, in this example, the definite articles: ‘Er
gibt dem Kellner das Geld’. In English, case can also be indicated by ‘to’ for the
dative or ‘of’ for the genitive, as in ‘He gives the money to the waiter’, or ‘in the
shadow of the tree’, but generally, German is a language where case indicators
really matter because, by contrast with English, it has a much more flexible word
order (see Chapter 5, Word order).
3.1 Case endings in nouns
It is important that you know the declensions of German nouns in their three
genders – see above. You need to get the articles right to indicate case and for-
mulate meaningful sentences, so make sure you know this backwards.
But even then, errors are likely, and a common source is highlighted in bold
in the noun declension table on page 2.
Exercise 9
Looking at the table on page 2, state for which case in the singular and for which
in the plural an ending is added to the basic form of the noun. Also state the
genders of the nouns affected and the relevant ending.
Case Genders Ending

Singular 1. 2. 3.
Plural 4. 5. 6.
So far, so good – but it’s easy to forget that these endings exist or where
exactly they are added. So here are a couple of memory aids: MaNeSi-s and
MaNePlu-n.
Can you decode them? Try to write down what you think they stand for:
7. MaNeSi-s: ___________________
8. MaNePlu-n: ___________________
Exercise 10
Here are some sentences which involve the use of genitive singular ‘-n(e)s’ and
of dative plural ‘-n’ in the masculine nouns. Weak masculine nouns have an ‘-en’
ending anyway. Your job is to put in the endings where appropriate. Put an x if
no ending is needed. Beware, some feminine nouns have slipped in, and they of
course don’t have a genitive ending.
Der Hund meines Bruder (1) ___ heißt Argos, und der Hund seiner Tochter
(2) ____ heißt Dexter. Beide spielen gern mit Kinder (3) ____, aber sie bellen
auch dauernd. Die Katze meiner Mutter (4) _____ hat Angst und versteckt
sich im Garten des Haus (5) ____. Eines Tag (6) ____ gab es das schwer-
ste Gewitter seit vielen Jahr (7) ___. Dexter und Argos verschwanden und
tauchten erst am späten Abend aus dem Keller unserer Nachbarin (8) ____
wieder auf. Was für Feiglinge!
My brother’s dog is called Argos and his daughter’s dog is called Dexter.
Both like to play with children, but they also keep barking loudly. My
mother’s cat is afraid and hides in the garden of our house. One day, we
had the worst storm in many years. Dexter and Argos disappeared and
emerged only late at night from our neighbour’s cellar. What cowards!
3.2 Case confusion
Now that you have looked at some of the error sources for genders, number and
case, let’s look at the whole picture.
Exercise 11
One obvious error is confusing the first element with the subject, especially
when reading longer and continuous German text. Look at these two sentences:
Sentence 1
Den Kindern, die bei einer Nachbarin gespielt hatten, gab sie einen Kuss, als sie
nach Hause kam.
She gave the children, who had been playing at a neighbour’s, a kiss when
she came back home.
Sentence 2
Die Kinder, die bei einer Nachbarin gespielt hatten, bekamen einen Kuss, als sie
nach Hause kam.
The children, who had been playing at a neighbour’s, got a kiss when she
came back home.
Analyse sentence 1: what stands in first position and in what case?

Answer: 1. _________________
Why is this clear?
Answer: 2. _________________
Analyse sentence 2: what stands in first position and in what case?

Answer 3: _________________
Why is this clear?
Answer 4: _________________
German word order allows such variation, but this needs constant vigilance,
and sometimes only cool analysis with the table in your head will get you there.
2 Adjectival
endings
1 Choosing the right ending 15

2 Adjectival endings after determiners 18
2.1 Plural endings 18
2.2 Strong endings after determiners 19
3 Adjectival nouns 20
4 Comparisons 21
4.1 Comparative forms 21
4.2 Superlative forms 22
4.3 Adjectival endings in comparisons 25
4.4 Choosing the right case in comparisons 27
Adjectival endings 15
Introduction
“I can never remember the correct ending.” “There are so many different endings,
it’s confusing.” “I never know when to use which ending.” Is any of this familiar to
you? Ask any learner of German and the problem of endings will be high on their
list of annoying things to master. However, it is also surprisingly easy to get on top
of these endings, and in this chapter we aim to equip you with enough knowl-
edge – and confidence – to get them right. We are using a statistical approach,
working on those contexts which produce the most frequent errors. When speak-
ing German, it is possible to ‘slur’ endings and let your listeners do the gap filling
for themselves. However, getting adjectival endings right will make your written
German so much more idiomatic and self-assured. It really is worth the effort.
1 Choosing the right ending

To choose the right ending for your expression you will need to have a fair
amount of information. The endings are charged with information about gender,
number and grammatical function within the clause. But first let’s take a prag-
matic overview: some endings are more frequent than others. If you really can’t
work out which to use, and you have to guess, it pays to know the odds. It also
pays to know that there are no endings for adjectives which follow a verb. Take
a look:
‘Das Essen war sehr gut.’ ‘Die Schuhe sind teuer.’ ‘Die Brücke ist sehr hoch.’
(The food was very good.) (The shoes are expensive.) (The bridge is very
high.)
Only adjectives which describe a noun and come in front of the noun need
to have an ending. You will have seen tables of adjectival endings – they can be
found online and in any grammar book. The table below combines weak and
strong endings. The adjectival ending after a der-word (like ‘der’, ‘die’, ‘das’ or
‘dieser’, ‘jener’ etc.) is called weak. The ending of an adjective following a word
without an ending or when the adjective stands alone is called strong. Words in
front of adjectives are also referred to as ‘determiners’.
Masc. Masc. Neuter Neuter Fem. Fem. Plural Plural

strong weak strong weak strong weak strong weak
Nom. er e es e e e e en
Acc. en en es e e e e en
Dat. em en em en er en en en
Gen. en en en en er en er en
16 Adjectival endings
Exercise 1
1. How many different weak endings are there? _________

2. Which is the most frequent ending overall? _________
3. Which are the least frequent ones? _________ and _________
4. Which ending would you use if you had to guess? _________
5. In which 6 slots are strong and weak endings the same? Masculine ____
and _______, neuter ________, feminine _______ and ________ and plural
________.
Exercise 2
Below, fill in the strong ending when the adjective appears on its own and the
weak one when it follows a word which has an ending. Refer to the table above
if you need to.
1. An einem herrlich____ Tag (masc. dat.) im Mai ging Henning mit seiner char-
mant_______ Freundin (fem. dat.) im Park spazieren.
On a wonderful day in May, Henning went for a walk in the park with his
charming girlfriend.
2. In diesem gut sortiert______ Geschäft (n. dat.) gibt es die best______ Sachen
(pl. acc.).
In this well-stocked shop there are the best things.
3. Eines schön_____ Tages (masc. gen.) wirst du meinen groß_____ Bruder
(masc. acc.) kennenlernen.
One fine day you will meet my older brother.
4. Ohne gut__ Grund (masc. acc.) sollte man mit eng_____ Freunden (pl. dat.)
nie streiten.
One should never quarrel with close friends without good reason.
Exercise 3
Of course the exercise above was designed to prove the point about the
frequency of one particular ending. Here is another one, involving more
endings.
1. Der interessant________ Gedanke (masc.) ist, dass dieses erstaunlich___

Buch (n.) schon hundert Jahre alt ist.
The interesting thought here is that this astonishing book is one hundred
years old.
2. Bei schön_____ Wetter (n.) machen wir eine klein_____ Tour (fem.) aufs
Land.
If the weather is nice we will take a trip to the countryside.
3. Wir senden dir dieses hübsch______ Geschenk (n.) mit unseren best_____
Wünschen (pl.).
We are sending you this pretty present with our best wishes.
4. Einem gut_____ Freund (masc.) zu helfen, ist eine wichtig______ Pflicht
(fem.).
Helping a good friend is an important duty.
Exercise 4
The table below gives you the so-called mixed endings. After words like ‘ein’,
‘kein’ and ‘mein’ (with no endings) the adjective will have a strong ending. Other-
wise, it will have a weak one. Remember, strong and weak endings are the same
in 6 slots below! Mark the strong endings in the table below.
Masculine Neuter Feminine Plural

Nom. ein guter Freund ein gutes Buch eine gute Idee keine guten Ideen
Acc. einen guten ein gutes Buch eine gute Idee keine guten Ideen
Freund
Dat. einem guten einem guten einer guten keinen guten
Freund Buch Idee Ideen
Gen. eines guten eines guten einer guten keiner guten
Freundes Buches Idee Ideen
Fill in the gaps below. This time you will need to use your knowledge of all
endings.
1. Mein alt___ Hund (masc.) versteht sich gut mit meiner klein_____ Katze
(fem.).
My old dog is getting on well with my little cat.
2. Der neu____ Student (masc.) sagte kein einzig___ Wort (n.).
The new student didn’t say a single word.
3. Nur mit gut_______ Zutaten (pl.) kann man lecker____ Essen (n.) kochen.
Only with good ingredients can you prepare tasty dishes.
4. Meine älter____ Schwester (fem.) geht gern mit ihren zahlreich_____ Freun-
den (pl.) aus.
My older sister likes going out with her numerous friends.
2 Adjectival endings after determiners

2.1 Plural endings
In the plural, adjectival endings after determiners vary. After the following deter-
miners, the adjective takes the expected weak ending: ‘diese’, ‘jene’, ‘solche’,
‘manche’, ‘welche’, ‘alle’. Remember that determiners with an ending trigger a
weak adjectival ending. The ending of all determiners listed here is -e: the plural
ending. However, there are some determiners which themselves behave like
adjectives. It really pays to know which they are.
Exercise 5
See if you can spot the determiners which behave like adjectives, in that they
take the ending an adjective would have in the same grammatical context.
Together, they make up the following acronym: WAVEM
Mnemonic device
W:
A:
V:
E:
M:
Mehrere junge Leute trafen sich letzten Dienstag auf dem Marktplatz. Mit
wenigen kurzen SMS hatten sie alle interessierten Freunde informiert.
Diese jungen Leute wollten gegen Fremdenhass demonstrieren. Sie hat-
ten auch mit einigen gleichdenkenden Jugendlichen im Ausland gespro-
chen. Diese vielen engagierten Menschen können etwas bewegen, und sie
werden auch noch andere junge Leute für ihre Ideen gewinnen. Ohne sol-
che neuen Initiativen steht die Politik still.
Several young people met on the market square last Tuesday. They had
informed all interested friends with a few short text messages. These
young people intended to protest against xenophobia. They had also
talked to some like-minded youths abroad. These numerous committed
people can make a change and they will persuade other young peo-
ple of their ideas. Without such new initiatives politics would come to
a halt.
Exercise 6
This exercise allows you to brush up on what you have learned so far. Iden-
tify and correct the errors in the text below. You will need to know the WAVEM
words. There are 5 errors in total.
Die viele gute Ideen, die mein Chef hat, können nicht immer realisiert werden.
Es gibt nur wenige verlässlichen Kollegen, die mitarbeiten. Die andere großen
Firmen funktionieren auch so: mehrere guten Initiativen mussten aufgege-
ben werden. Aber ich habe einige guten Freunde, die das verändern wollen.
The many good ideas my boss has can’t always be put into practice.
There are only a few reliable colleagues who cooperate. The other big
companies also work like this: several good initiatives had to be aban-
doned. But I have several good friends who want to change this.
Write the correct expressions here:

1. _____________________________________________
2. _____________________________________________
3. _____________________________________________
4. _____________________________________________
5. _____________________________________________
2.2 Strong endings after determiners
Determiners without an ending require the adjective following them to have a

strong ending. You will already be familiar with this principle from the mixed
endings. Undeclined words like ‘kein’ or ‘ein’, for example, are followed by
adjectives with strong endings. The same is true for expressions like ‘ein paar’,
numbers (‘zwei’ ’15’, etc.) and also ‘viel’, ‘wenig’, ‘etwas’ and ‘nichts’ as they
are not declined in the singular. Errors occur where students think that a weak
ending is necessary because the adjective is preceded by a word.
Exercise 7
Fill in the strong endings below.
1. ein paar wichtig____ Vorschläge (pl.) – (a few important suggestions)

2. fünf eindrucksvoll____ Filme (pl.) – (five impressive films)
3. mit viel neu___ Energie (fem.) – (with a lot of new energy)
4. wenig brauchbar___ Wasser (n.) – (little usable water)
5. mit etwas größer____ Druck (masc.) – (with a bit more pressure)
6. nichts Neu____ (n.) – (nothing new)
Exercise 8
This exercise focuses on slightly unusual adjectival behaviour. Adjectives derived

from names of towns all have an unchanging -er ending. The German word for
Cologne Cathedral is always ‘Kölner Dom’, regardless of case! ‘Der Kölner Dom’
(nom.), ‘Ich sehe den Kölner Dom’ (acc.), ‘Ich bin im Kölner Dom’ (dat.) and ‘Die
Türme des Kölner Doms’ (gen.). Adjectives derived from numbers work in the
same manner.
‘Die sechziger Jahre’ (nom.), ‘Ich studiere die sechziger Jahre’ (acc.), ‘Das Buch
ist aus den sechziger Jahren’ (dat.), ‘Eine Bewegung der sechziger Jahre’ (gen.).
Fill in the gaps below accordingly.
1. Kennst du den London____ Zoo?

Do you know London Zoo?
2. Warst du schon mal im Berlin____ Dom?
Have you been to Berlin cathedral?
3. Ich interessiere mich für die siebzig_____ Jahre.
I am interested in the 70s.
4. Das Haus ist aus den zwanzig____ Jahren.
The house is from the 20s.
3 Adjectival nouns
Adjectival nouns are a bit of a bonus. Once you know your endings you will be
able to use these as well.
Since they are nouns, they need to be spelled using a capital letter. It is also
important to remember that English speakers tend to insert a German equivalent
of ‘one’ or ‘thing’ as this is necessary in English – but not in German!
Exercise 9
Match the following German sentences with their English translations and fill in
the endings.
1. Have you met the new one (masc.) a. Nichts Gut____ kommt dabei raus.
yet?
2. Nothing good will come of this. b. Hast du das Alt____ benutzt?
3. Have you used the old one? c. Das Interessant___ ist, dass…
4. The interesting thing is, that… d. Hast du den Neu___ schon
getroffen?
Exercise 10
How can you distinguish adjectival nouns (which decline exactly like adjectives)
from weak masculine nouns (which only have two endings: one in the nom-
inative singular and -en in all other cases)? This exercise will help. It is ‘der
Freiwillige’, ‘ein Freiwilliger’ (volunteer, an adjectival noun) but ‘der Chinese’,
‘ein Chinese’ (for more information on weak masculine nouns, see Chapter 1,
Nouns). Below we have listed frequently used adjectival nouns, so you can also
use this exercise as a vocabulary booster.
Put AN for adjectival noun or WM for weak masculine in the spaces next to
each word and complete the endings after ‘ein’ in the exercise below.
1. der Angestellte (employee) _____ ein ___________________

2. der Franzose (Frenchman) _____ ein ___________________
3. der Deutsche (German) _____ ein ___________________
4. der Erwachsene (grown up) _____ ein ___________________
5. der Junge (boy) _____ ein ___________________
6. der Fremde (stranger) _____ ein ___________________
7. der Jugendliche (youth) _____ ein ___________________
8. der Mensch (human) _____ ein ___________________
9. der Verwandte (relative) _____ ein ___________________
10. der Bekannte (aquaintance) _____ ein ___________________
4 Comparisons
4.1 Comparative forms
When comparing things, the outcome is either that they are different (‘This
house is nicer than the other one.’) or the same (‘This house is as nice as
the other one.’). This principle is the same in German, where ‘als’ is used
to signal difference, and ‘so … wie’ to signal sameness; ‘Dieses Haus ist
schöner als das andere.’ and ‘Dieses Haus ist so schön wie das andere.’
You will have noticed that two different forms of the adjective are being used:
‘nice’ and ‘nicer’ in English, and ‘schön’ and ‘schöner’ in German. Again,
the principle is the same in both languages: add the ending ‘-er’ to signal
difference.
Exercise 11
Put in the correct forms of the adjectives provided. Remember to use the ‘-er’
ending in sentences with ‘als’ to signal difference.
groß/größer interessant/interessanter anstrengend/anstrengender
1. Die Stadt ist ______________ als das Dorf.

The town is bigger than the village.
2. Der Sohn ist so _____________ wie sein Vater.
The son is as tall as his father.
3. Der Film ist so ______________ wie das Buch.
The film is as interesting as the book.
4. Das Buch ist ______________ als das Theaterstück.
The book is more interesting than the play.
5. Arbeiten ist _________________ als Nichtstun.
Working is more strenuous than doing nothing.
6. Vokabellernen ist so ______________ wie Joggen.
Learning vocabulary is as arduous as jogging.
4.2 Superlative forms
You will have noticed that in German you can add endings even to adjectives with
more than two syllables. This is different from the English system and can lead to
errors. Compare, for example, ‘interessanter’ with ‘more interesting’. The forms
used above are called ‘comparatives’. If you want to take this one step further
and express who or what is best, you will need to use ‘superlatives’. In English,
they are formed either by adding ‘-st’ or by using ‘most’: ‘big, bigger, biggest’ or
‘boring, more boring, most boring’. In German, you use: ‘am …-sten’, as in ‘am
langweiligsten’. Try it out:
Exercise 12
1. Diese Information ist am _________________. (interessant)

This piece of information is the most interesting.
2. Einen Marathon laufen ist am ________________. (anstrengend)
Running a marathon is the most arduous.
3. Unser Dorf ist am _______________. (schön)
Our village is the most beautiful.
4. Der Film ist am ________________. (langweilig)
The film is the most boring one.
Exercise 13
As in English, there are a few exceptional forms. Consider ‘good, better, worse’.
Below is a list of German exceptions. Match them with their forms and English
translations.
1. gut a. näher, am nächsten (nearer, the nearest)

2. viel b. größer, am größten (bigger, the biggest)
3. nah c. besser, am besten (better, the best)
4. hoch d. mehr, am meisten (more, the most)
5. groß e. höher, am höchsten (higher, the highest)
There are also a few rules concerning pronunciation. It would be difficult to pro-
nounce ‘ßst’ or ‘tst’, for example, and this is why an ‘e’ is added when an adjec-
tive ends in ‘-d’, ‘-t’, ‘-s’, ‘-ß’ or ‘-z’. Some examples are:
• laut, lauter, am lautesten, (loud, noisy)

• rund, runder, am rundesten, (round)
• süß, süßer, am süßesten (sweet)
• kurz, kürzer, am kürzesten (short)
As can be seen in the examples above, some one-syllable adjectives use an

umlaut in their comparative and superlative forms.
Also, adjectives ending in ‘-el’ and ‘-er’ drop their ‘e’ in the comparative
forms, but retain it for the superlative:
• dunkel, dunkler, am dunkelsten (dark)

• teuer, teurer, am teuersten (expensive)
For the next exercise, write down the correct forms taking into account all the
information above. Use this also as a vocabulary builder as you will need to use
some of these adjectives again in later exercises.
Exercise 14
Example: schwarz (black), schwärzer, am schwärzesten
1. arm (poor), ________________, am ___________________
2. sauer (sour), ________________, am ___________________
3. heiß (hot), ________________, am ___________________

4. dumm (thick, stupid), ________________, am ___________________
5. hart (hard), ________________, am ___________________
6. kalt (cold), ________________, am ___________________
7. locker (lose, relaxed), ________________, am ___________________
8. nett (nice, friendly), ________________, am ___________________
9. jung (young), ________________, am ___________________
10. spät (late), ________________, am ___________________
11. einfach (easy), ________________, am ___________________
12. lang (long), ________________, am ___________________
13. nass (wet), ________________, am ___________________
14. scharf (sharp, spicy), ________________, am ___________________
15. schwach (weak), ________________, am ___________________
16. sauber (clean), ________________, am ___________________
17. stark (strong), ________________, am ___________________
18. alt (old), ________________, am ___________________
19. sanft (gentle), ________________, am ___________________
20. stolz (proud), ________________, am ___________________

4.3 Adjectival endings in comparisons

All the forms we have looked at so far were used after verbs as adverbs. Adjec-
tives can also come before nouns, of course, and then they have to add end-
ings. For example:
• der einfache Test → der einfachere Test → der einfachste Test

the easy test, the easier test, the easiest test
• ein einfacher Test → ein einfacherer Test
an easy test, an easier test
Adding the appropriate adjectival ending ‘-er’ after the indefinite determiner ‘ein’
can give you endings like: ‘-erer’ (‘Das ist ein besserer Plan.’ = ‘This is a bet-
ter plan.’), and sometimes even ‘-ererer’ as in ‘Das ist ein saubererer Wagen
als meiner.’ (‘This is a cleaner car than mine.’), and this can look a bit odd for
English speakers.
Exercise 15
Fill in the gaps in the sentences below. All adjectives used have been introduced
in Exercise 14.
1. Er hat die ____________ Freundin (fem. acc.).

He has the nicest girlfriend.
2. Das war der ____________ Sommer (masc. nom).
This was the hottest summer.
3. Russland hat ein _____________ Klima (fem. acc.) als Deutschland.
Russia has a colder climate than Germany.
4. Dieses Restaurant serviert das _______________ Essen (n. acc.).
This restaurant serves the hottest food.
5. Die _____________ (fem. nom.) der beiden Schwestern lebt in München.
The younger of the two sisters lives in Munich.
6. Wir nehmen einen ________ Zug (masc. acc.).
We are taking a later train.
The next exercise involves the use of adjectives before nouns (as in Exercise
15) and with verbs (as in Exercises 11–14). You will need to find the appropriate
forms. All adjectives used have been introduced in Exercise 14.
Exercise 16
1. Viele Menschen auf der Welt sind ____________ als die Menschen in Europa.
Many people on this earth are poorer than people in Europe.
2. Wo kann ich einen ____________ Kaffee als diesen bekommen?
Where can I get a stronger coffee than this one?
3. Die ____________ Aufgaben sind langweilig.
The easier exercises are boring.
4. Der ____________ Schüler sitzt in der ersten Reihe.
The oldest pupil is sitting in the front row.
5. Die ____________ Tage sind im Sommer.
The longest days are in the summer.
6. Dies ist die ____________ Zitrone!
This is the sourest lemon!
7. Ich fand die erste Aufgabe am ____________.
I found the first task the hardest.
8. Von allen Mädchen ist Marie am ____________.
Of all the girls, Marie is the most gentle.
9. Die Zimmer in diesem Hotel sind viel ____________.
The rooms in this hotel are much cleaner.
10. Das ist der ____________ Moment in meinem Leben.
This is the proudest moment in my life.
How do you express statements like ‘This one is the best of the offers.’? As
this involves adjectives, it also involves adjectival endings, of course. ‘Das ist
das beste der Angebote.’ It is ‘das Angebot’, and the neuter gender has to be
reflected in ‘das beste’. If you are talking about masculine or feminine things you
will need to adapt the article and ending: ‘Das ist der höchste der Berge.’ (‘This
is the highest of the mountains.’); ‘Das ist die nächste der U-Bahn Stationen.’
(‘This is the nearest of the underground stops.’). Note that all endings here are
-e as the examples are all in the nominative singular.
Exercise 17
Fill in the appropriate definite article and adjectival ending. Use the superlative
forms of the adjectives provided.
1. Das ist ________ ________________ (groß) der Schwimmbäder (n. pl).

This is the biggest of the swimming pools.
2. Das ist ________ ________________ (gut) der Teilnehmer (masc. pl.).
This is the best of the participants.
3. Das ist ________ ________________ (schwach) der Ideen (fem. pl.).
This is the weakest of the ideas.
4. Das sind ________ ________________ (viel) der Besucher (masc. pl.).

These are most of the visitors.
4.4 Choosing the right case in comparisons
An area which often causes difficulties is choosing the right case when express-
ing ideas like ‘better than’ or ‘different from’. In English, you can say: ‘He is
better than me at football.’ or ‘They are different from us.’ In German, you need
to use two nominative cases: ‘Er (nominative) ist besser als ich (nominative) im
Fußball.’ or ‘Sie (nominative) sind anders als wir (nominative).’ If you need help
with pronouns see Chapter 4.
Exercise 18
Fill in the missing expressions. Take your cue from the translations.
1. Ich bin besser als ______________.

I am better than him.
2. Wir sind genauso gut wie ______________.
We are just as good as them.
3. Du bist anders als ______________.
You are different from me.
4. Peter ist kleiner als ______________.
Peter is smaller than him.
5. Er ist genauso groß wie ______________.
He is exactly as tall as her.
6. Ihr seid besser informiert als ______________.
You are better informed than us.
In the last two exercises of this chapter you will learn a few more adjectives
expressing positive and negative evaluation. These can be very handy when
you want to say that you find something good – or bad. Fill in the missing forms
of the sets.
Exercise 19
Negative:
1. schlecht, schlechter, am ______________ (bad)

2. minderwertig, minderwertiger, am _______________ (inferior)
3. schwach, ___________________, am schwächsten (weak)
4. böse, böser, am ________________ (bad, evil)

5. übel, __________________, am übelsten (bad, sick, nasty)
6. unangenehm, unangenehmer, am __________________ (disagreeable)
Exercise 20
Positive:
1. gut, besser, am _______________ (good)

2. ausgezeichnet, _____________________, am ausgezeichnetsten (excellent)
3. hervorragend, ___________________, am hervorragendsten (outstanding)
4. positiv, positiver, am ______________________ (positive)
5. angenehm, angenehmer, am ____________________ (nice)
6. erfreulich, erfreulicher, am ___________________ (pleasant, enjoyable)
3 Verb forms
1 Irregularities in regular verbs 30
2 Non-regular verbs 32
2.1 Vowel changes 32
2.2 ‘Mixed’ verbs 33
2.3 Various irregularities 34
3 Separable and non-separable verbs 35
3.1 Categories 35
3.2 Past participles 37
3.3 Separable and non-separable verbs in subordinate clauses 38
3.4 Variable prefixes 39
4 Reflexive verbs 40
4.1 Case 40
4.2 Position 41
4.3 Reflexive verbs and prepositions 42
4.4 Variable verbs 43
5 Modal verbs 44
5.1 Present tense 44
5.2 Past tense 45
5.3 Conditional 46
5.4 Probability 48
5.5 Compound tenses 49
6 ‘Haben’ and ‘sein’ as auxiliary verbs 50
6.1 ‘Haben’ as auxiliary verb 51
6.2 ‘Sein’ as auxiliary verb 51
6.3 ‘Haben’ or ‘sein’ with the same verb 53
30 Verb forms
Introduction
In this chapter on verb forms, we focus on specific difficulties which arise mainly
because of unexpected variation. We’ll pick out specifics in regular/non-regular
verbs and separable verbs, in reflexive verbs and modal verbs. To conclude,
we’ll look at particular features of the auxiliary verbs ‘haben’ and ‘sein’.
You should know the basics of German verb forms: the verb endings (for the
different tenses and verb categories) and the formation of the tenses, as this
chapter is not meant to give a comprehensive overview of all the verb forms and
their endings in all the different tenses.
1 Irregularities in regular verbs
Regular verbs are also sometimes called ‘weak verbs’. In the present tense,
there are four different endings indicating person in German which are added
to the stem of the verb: -e, -st, -t, -en. The stem is the part of the verb with the
infinitive ending (normally -en, but sometimes only -n) taken off.
Here are the forms for kauf-en (to buy): ich kauf-e, du kauf-st, er, sie, es
kauf-t, wir kauf-en, ihr kauf-t, sie kauf-en. In English, there is only one ending
Verb forms 31
indicating person: third person singular ‘-s’ (He buys). But in German there are
some variations in this general pattern.
Exercise 1
Look at the verb forms below and identify which of the following irregularities (a
or b) applies to each by filling in the ‘rule’ column and underlining the irregularity
as in the first example.
a) Verb ends in -n (not -en) in the infinitive, therefore -n (not -en) in the first and
third persons plural
b) Verbs with stem ending in -d, -t, -m and -n add ‘-e’ in the second and third
person singular and in the second person plural
infinitive rule
1. du arbeitest (you work) arbeit-en b
2. sie tun (they do) tu-n ___
3. wandern (to hike) wander-n ___
4. wir opfern (to sacrifice) opfer-n ___
5. du wartest (you wait) wart-en ___
6. ihr öffnet (you open) öffn-en ___
7. er redet (to speak) red-en ___
8. du atmest (you breathe) atm-en ___
9. wir bügeln (we iron) bügel-n ___
10. es findet (it finds) find-en ___
11. wir klingeln (we ring) klingel-n ___
12. er arbeitet (he works) arbeit-en ___
13. wir tun (we do) tu-n ___
Now look at the verb forms in the second list below and identify which of the
following irregularities (c or d) applies to each by filling in the ‘rule’ column and
underlining the irregularity as in the first example. (If the irregularity means a let-
ter is dropped, underline the two letters between which the letter was dropped.)
c) In verbs with stem ending in -el, the ‘e’ in the stem is dropped in the first
person singular.
d) In verbs with stem ending in hissing sound (-s, -ß, -ss, -tz, -z, -x) the ‘s’ in
the ending of the second person singular (-st) is dropped.
32 Verb forms
infinitive rule
14. du küsst (you kiss) küss-en d
15. du reist (you travel) reis-en ___
16. ich bügle (I’m ironing) bügel-n ___
17. du weißt (you know) wiss-en ___
18. ich klingle (I ring) klingel-n ___
19. du sitzt (you sit) sitz-en ___
20. du faxt (you send a fax) fax-en ___
21. du grüßt (you greet) grüß-en ___
2 Non-regular verbs
What are ‘non-regular’ verbs?
A large group of verbs, often known as ‘irregular’ or ‘strong’ verbs, have a
vowel change to indicate simple past and past participle: ‘ich gehe, ich ging,
ich bin gegangen’ (I go, I went, I have gone). Such vowel changes also occur
in English (I sing, I sang, I have sung), but there is no correlation between all
‘strong’ verbs in English and German. For example, English ‘to stay’ has regular
past tense forms (I stay, I stayed, I have stayed), whereas the German verb
changes vowels (bleiben, blieb, geblieben). See Exercise 2 below.
There is also a small group of verbs which show a vowel change in their simple
past tense and past participle forms, but otherwise follow the patterns for regular
verbs (see Exercise 3 below). This group is sometimes referred to as ‘mixed’ verbs.
The auxiliary verbs ‘haben’, ‘sein’, ‘werden’, and two other verbs, ‘wissen’ and
‘tun’, also belong in the group of ‘non-regular’ verbs (see Exercise 4 below). Like-
wise, the modal verbs are in this group, and they will come later in this chapter.
We have put these groups together by calling them ‘non-regular’ verbs. Our
general advice is to be aware of them and learn the recurrent patterns of the
vowel changes with every new verb you encounter. Any good German grammar
book or the internet will help with this. But there are some specific irregularities
in some verb forms with non-regular aspects other than the ones mentioned
above, and we will concentrate on them here.
2.1 Vowel changes

A number of non-regular (strong) verbs with the stem vowel ‘-e’ change this to
‘-i’ or ‘-ie’ in the second and third persons singular. But not all non-regular verbs
with a stem ending in ‘-e’ follow this pattern.
Verb forms 33
Exercise 2
In the following list the verb forms are all in the second person singular (familiar
form). Work out the third person singular forms and choose the appropriate
infinitive for each, as in the first example. Underline the forms which change the
stem vowel.
Infinitives: gehen (to walk, to go) – nehmen (to take) – stehen (to stand) – essen
(to eat) – bewegen (to move) – gehen (to walk, to go) – heben (to lift) – helfen
(to help)
second person singular third person singular infinitive

(familiar form)
1. – du hilfst er, sie es hilft helfen
2. – stehst –
3. – gibst –
4. – nimmst –
5. – bewegst –
6. – isst –
7. – gehst –
8. – hebst –
2.2 ‘Mixed’ verbs
The so-called ‘mixed’ verbs form their past participle with the prefix ‘ge-’ and the
ending ‘-t’. Here is an example: ‘ich denke, ich dachte, ich habe gedacht’ (to
think), but there is also a vowel change, as there is in ‘strong’ verbs which form
their past participle with the prefix ‘-ge’ and the ending ‘-en’: ich gehe, ich ging,
ich bin gegangen (to go, to walk).
Exercise 3
Here are the past participles and past tense forms (all in the first person singular)
of the most important verbs in the ‘mixed’ group. Sort them into the table below
as shown in the example:
brachte – gebrannt – schaffte – gedacht – wusste – geschafft – verbracht –

brannte – gewusst – gerannt – gebracht – dachte – rannte – verbrachte
34 Verb forms
Which verb stands out from the pattern of the vowel change in all the other
verbs? Underline its forms and make a mental note of it.
Infinitive Past Tense Participle Translation

1. kennen kannte gekannt to know
2. denken to think
3. bringen to bring/take
4. schaffen to manage to do sth.
5. wissen to know
6. brennen to burn
7. rennen to run
8. verbringen to spend (time)
2.3 Various irregularities
Exercise 4
The following verbs are also not regular in their verb form patterns. Study this
table and identify the verb forms which don’t follow the regular pattern. ‘Sein’
is completely irregular all the way through, so it’s already been underlined and
you will know it well anyway. Identify the irregularity in each case by putting the
letters a – e in the last row.
a) vowel change in second and third person sing and -d instead of -t in third
person sing.
b) -n instead of -en in infinitive and plural forms
c) irregular all the way through
d) vowel and consonant change in first, second and third person sing., no -t in
third person sing. (very unusual!)
e) second and third person sing.: last letter of stem has been dropped
hab-en sein werd-en wiss-en tu-n

(to have) (to be) (to become) (to know) (to do)
ich habe bin werde weiß tue
du hast bist wirst weißt tust
er, sie, es hat ist wird weiß tut
wir haben sind werden wissen tun
ihr habt seid werdet wisst tut
sie haben sind werden wissen tun
Sie haben sind werden wissen tun
irregularity 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Verb forms 35
This exercise will make it clear that the forms of these very common verbs
need careful attention, so you should make sure you always have them at your
fingertips.
Exercise 5
This exercise practices what you have revised or learned so far. Insert the verb
forms into the text. Take the translation for guidance.
Als wir zusammen auf der Uni waren, sind wir oft ins Kino gegangen. Ich
habe nicht (1) __________ (wissen), dass er auch ein Freund von dir (2)
__________ (sein). Ich habe ihn schon in der Schule (3)__________ (ken-
nen), aber habe es seit Jahren nicht (4)__________ (schaffen), ihn wie-
derzusehen. (5)__________ (sehen) du ihn manchmal? Er (6) __________
(wissen) nicht, wo ich wohne, weil ich nicht auf Facebook (7) __________
(sein). Ich (8) __________ (wissen), das ist ungewöhnlich, aber ich habe
viel zu (9)__________ (tun), und man (10) __________ (arbeiten) so viel
schneller, wenn man nicht dauernd abgelenkt (11) __________ (werden).
Du (12) _________ (finden) das wohl auch seltsam?
When we were at uni together we often went to the cinema. I didn’t know
that he’s also a friend of yours. I knew him already in school, but I hav-
en’t managed to see him again in years. Do you see him sometimes?
He doesn’t know where I live, because I’m not on Facebook. I know it’s
unusual, but I have a lot to do and you work so much more quickly if you
aren’t being continuously distracted. You probably find this strange too?
3 Separable and non-separable verbs

3.1 Categories
Many new verbs can be formed by joining a prefix to a basic verb. For example,
two verbs related to the basic verb ‘machen’ (to make) are ‘aufmachen’ (to open)
and ‘zumachen’ (to close). Adding a prefix gives a verb a more nuanced mean-
ing. Some of the prefixes are separable (which means that they separate from
the verb and go to the end of a main clause), others are not. If you can hear a
verb, you can tell straight away whether it’s separable or not: separable prefixes
carry the stress: ‘aufschließen (to unlock), whereas in verbs with non-separable
prefixes the stress is normally on the second syllable: zer’brechen (to break).
All prefixes carry meaning; the separable prefixes can usually stand alone, for
example, as prepositions (‘an’, ‘auf’, ‘mit’, ‘unter’, ‘um’, ‘zu’ etc.), and of course they
can make a crucial difference to the meaning of the verb, for example: ‘umbringen’
36 Verb forms
is a colloquial term for murdering someone, whereas ‘unterbringen’ is a standard

expression for ‘to put someone up’. Think what confusion here might lead to!
Non-separable prefixes also carry meaning, but can’t stand alone. For exam-
ple, the (very common) non-separable prefix ‘ver-’ has a range of different
meanings: change of state, for example, ‘verlängern’ (to prolong), or the notion
of excess: ‘etwas versalzen’ (to oversalt) etc. It is a very good strategy to be
aware of how a prefix can change the meaning of a verb. You can find lists
of separable and non-separable prefixes and their meanings in most grammar
books and on the internet. In English, there is no comparable group of verbs.
Prefixes are either fixed (e.g. ‘to overlook’) or they are always a separate word
(e.g. ‘to look up’).
Here are lists of the most common separable and non-separable prefixes:
• Separable prefixes:
ab-, an-, auf-, bei-, durch-, ein-, entgegen-, her-, herein-, heraus-, herauf-,
herunter-, mit-, nach-, über-, unter-, vor-, weg-, zu-, zusammen-
• Non-separable prefixes:
be-, emp-, ent-, er-, ge-, ver-, zer-
• Variable prefixes:
durch-, hinter-, über-, unter-, um-
Exercise 6
It’s important to know whether a prefix in a verb is separable or not.

Look at these sentences and then put the verbs in the list below into their
categories by deleting as appropriate:
1. Ich kaufe gern im Supermarkt ein, aber ich vergesse oft etwas.
I like shopping in the supermarket, but often I forget something.
2. Sie machte die Tür auf und fing an zu lachen.
She opened the door and started to laugh.
3. Glas zerbricht, wenn es auf den Boden fällt.
Glass breaks into pieces if it falls on the floor.
4. Die Marktfrau verkauft montags frisches Gemüse.
The woman on the market sells fresh vegetables on Mondays.
5. Einkaufen online erleichtert vieles, aber man gibt mehr Geld aus.
Online shopping makes a lot of things easier, but you spend more money.
6. Ich lese meinen Kindern abends eine Geschichte vor.
In the evenings, I read a story to my children.
Verb forms 37
1. anfangen (to start), reg. sep./non-sep.

2. ausgeben (to spend), non-reg. sep./non-sep.
3. aufmachen (to open), reg. sep./non-sep.
4. einkaufen (to go shopping), reg. sep./non-sep.
5. erleichtern (to make things easier), reg. sep./non-sep.
6. verkaufen (to sell), reg. sep./non-sep.
7. vorlesen (to read to), non-reg. sep./non-sep.
8. zerbrechen (to break into pieces), non-reg. sep./non-sep.
3.2 Past participles

There are other distinguishing factors. Here are these sentences from above
again, this time in the perfect tense.
Exercise 7
1. Ich habe gern im Supermarkt eingekauft, aber ich habe oft etwas vergessen.
I used to like shopping in the supermarket, but often I forgot something.
2. Sie hat die Tür aufgemacht und (hat) angefangen zu lachen.
She opened the door and started to laugh.
3. Das Glas ist zerbrochen, als es auf den Boden fiel.
The glass broke into pieces when it fell on the floor.
4. Die Marktfrau hat montags frisches Gemüse ____________.
The woman on the market sold fresh vegetables on Mondays.
5. Einkaufen online hat vieles ____________, aber man gibt mehr Geld aus.
Online shopping has made a lot of things easier, but you spend more money.
6. Ich habe meinen Kindern abends eine Geschichte ____________.
In the evenings I read a story to my children.
What can you say about the formation of the past participle in separable and
non-separable verbs? Look at sentences 1, 2 and 3 and tick the right option:
a) Separable verbs form their past participle

i) by putting ‘ge-’ between prefix and stem.
ii) by putting ‘ge-’ at the beginning of the verb and ‘-t’ at the end.
b) Non-separable verbs form their past participle
i) by putting ‘ge-’ between prefix and stem
ii) without ‘ge-’.
Now fill in the verb forms in examples 4, 5 and 6.

38 Verb forms
3.3 Separable and non-separable verbs in

subordinate clauses
Exercise 8
The sentences from the previous task are slightly different now in that they all
have a subordinate clause:
1. Ich kaufe nicht gern im Supermarkt ein, weil ich immer etwas vergesse.
I don’t like shopping in the supermarket because I always forget something.
2. Sie fing an zu lachen, als sie die Tür aufmachte.
She started to laugh when she opened the door.
3. Sie war erschrocken, als das Glas zerbrach.
She got a fright when the glass broke.
4. Ich muss auf den Markt, weil die Marktfrau frisches Gemüse _____________.
I have to go to the market, because the woman there is selling fresh
vegetables.
5. Ich habe mehr Zeit, wenn ich online _____________.
I have more time if I shop online.
6. Meine Kinder schlafen schnell ein, wenn ich ihnen eine Geschichte
_____________.
My children fall asleep quickly when I read them a story.
What can you say now about the principles of separation of prefix from verb in
subordinate clauses? Look at sentence 2 and delete as appropriate:
In sub-clauses separable verbs separate/don’t separate.
Fill in the verb forms in sentences 4, 5 and 6.
Exercise 9
Put the verb forms in the following text. Make sure you are clear whether the verbs
are separable or not. If in doubt, consult the lists of separable/non-separable
prefixes in 3.1. above.
Meine Freundin hat mich neulich (1. besuchen) ______________. Sie ist
mit dem Zug (2. ankommen) ______________. Als ich sie am Bahnhof
(3. abholen) ______________ habe, war es schon spät, aber wir sind trotz
dem noch (4. ausgehen) ______________. Wir haben auch den nächsten
Tag zusammen (5. verbringen) ______________. Ich hatte fast (6. verges-
sen) ______________, dass sie bald Geburtstag hat. Wenn ich morgen
(7. einkaufen) ______________, suche ich ein Geschenk. Aber sie hat schon
alles!
Verb forms 39
The other day my friend came to see me. She arrived by train. When
I picked her up from the station, it was already late, but we still went
out. We also spent the next day together. I almost forgot that it’s her
birthday soon. When I go shopping tomorrow, I’ll be looking for a pres-
ent. But she has already got everything!
3.4 Variable prefixes

There are some prefixes which are both separable and non-separable. You can
hear the difference in the spoken language: unstressed prefixes are not separa-
ble, stressed ones are. But if that’s not an option, then you should watch out for
this when you look verbs up. Be aware of the most important prefixes in this cat-
egory: ‘durch-’, ‘hinter-’, ‘über-’, ‘unter-’ and ‘um-’. For example, many verbs
with the prefix ‘um-’ are separable, for example, ‘umsteigen’: ‘Er stieg in Frank-
furt um’. (He changed trains in Frankfurt.), but many are also non-separable:
‘Ich umarme dich herzlich.’ (I embrace you cordially.). This is a fascinating, but
quite complicated area and we suggest you familiarize yourself gradually with
this group.
Sometimes the same verb has different meanings according to whether the pre-
fix is stressed or not.
Look at this example:
‘umgehen (to have to do with, to deal with):
Sie geht gern mit kleinen Kindern um.

She likes dealing with small children.
umgehen (to circumvent, evade):
Wir umgehen die Schwierigkeiten.

We are evading the difficulties.
Exercise 10
Here are other pairs: Match the sentences with their right translation and deter-
mine the status of the underlined verbs as separable/non-separable.
translation separable/non-separable
1. Der Lehrer hat das a) We store our
neue Verb mit anderen furniture at my
Worten umschrieben. parents’.
40 Verb forms
2. Wir stellen unsere b) She alleged a

Möbel bei meinen conspiracy.
Eltern unter.
3. Ich habe meinen c) The teacher
Essay umgeschrieben. paraphrased the new
verb in other words.
4. Sie unterstellte eine d) I have rewritten my
Verschwörung. essay.
So far, we have looked at specifics in regular/non-regular verbs and separable

verbs. In the following, we will deal with reflexive verbs and modal verbs.
4 Reflexive verbs
Reflexive verbs are verbs which indicate an action that reflects back on the sub-
ject. A reflexive pronoun (see Chapter 4, Pronouns) is added to the verb, for
example: ‘Ich trockne mich’, ‘I’m drying myself’, but a similar idea could also
be expressed by ‘Ich trockne mir die Haare’, ‘I’m drying my hair’. Most reflexive
verbs can also be used in a non-reflexive form, for example, ‘kämmen’: ‘Ich
kämme die Haare des Kindes’, ‘I’m combing the child’s hair’.
4.1 Case
Exercise 11
Look at these two sentences:
1. Ich wasche mich.

I wash myself.
2. Ich wasche mir die Hände.
I’m washing my hands.
The reflexive pronouns differ. Why? Look up a table of reflexive pronouns and
determine the case of the reflexive pronoun for sentences 1 and 2, and choose
as appropriate:
a. dative
b. accusative
3. Can you think of a reason why they are different?

Write it down here: ____________________________________________ and
check your answers in the answer key.
Verb forms 41
Exercise 12
Apply this rule to the following sentences by putting in the reflexive pronoun in
the correct case. Note down the case (acc. or dat.) in the empty space between
the brackets. Remember that ‘sich’ for the third person sing. is the same for
dative and accusative. Note that many reflexive verbs are not reflexive in English.
1. Ich ziehe ___________ ( ) einen Mantel an.

I’m putting on a coat.
2. Er ruht ___________ ( ) nach dem langen Spaziergang aus.
He’s resting after the long walk.
3. Sie täuscht ___________ ( ) in ihm.
She’s mistaken about him.
4. Jan zieht ___________ ( ) die Jacke aus.
Jan is taking off his jacket.
5. Ihr seht ___________ ( ) das neue Haus morgen an.
You’ll (pl. fam.) view the new house tomorrow.
6. Du kaufst ___________ ( ) ein neues Kleid.
You’re buying yourself a new dress.
7. Wir verabschieden ___________ ( ) von den Eltern.
We are saying good-bye to our parents.
8. Du hast ___________ ( ) im Urlaub gut erholt.
You’ve recovered well in the holiday.
4.2 Position
Exercise 13
Look at the position of the reflexive pronoun in these sentences. Some of

them contain sub-clauses (with a subordinating conjunction, such as ‘dass’,
‘weil’, ‘wenn’):
1. Er äußerte sich negativ zu diesem Thema.

He commented negatively on this topic.
2. Er sagte, dass sein Sohn sich geändert hat.
He said that his son had changed.
3. Wir beeilten uns, um noch rechtzeitig zu kommen.
We hurried up to get there in time.
4. Es war schon so spät, dass ihr euch schnell verabschieden musstet.
It was already so late that you had to say goodbye quickly.
5. Das Haus befindet sich an der Hauptstraße.
The house is situated on the main street.
42 Verb forms
6. Du gehst einkaufen, weil du dir ein Paar Schuhe kaufen willst.

You are going shopping because you want to buy a pair of shoes.
Delete as appropriate:
a) In main clauses, the reflexive pronoun comes after the finite verb/after the
subject.
b) In sub-clauses, the reflexive pronoun comes after the conjunction/finite
verb.
4.3 Reflexive verbs and prepositions
There is a large group of verbs which are reflexive in German and not reflexive
in English. These tend to be verbs which also combine with a preposition (with
case) to complete meaning, so some of them also appear in Chapter 8, Prepo-
sitions and cases.
The main point here is that they are not recognizable in English as reflex-
ive verbs. Most of these verbs express actions or personal attitudes. It pays to
familiarize yourself with the most common ones. Note that the case following the
preposition must be learned as well.
Exercise 14
Look at the sentences below and choose the correct answer a) or b):
If a reflexive verb combines with a preposition to complete its meaning, the
reflexive pronoun:
a) must always be in the accusative

b) is either in the accusative or the dative.
1. Ich habe mich zu dem Plan entschlossen.

I have decided on this plan.
2. Er freut sich sehr über deinen Erfolg.
He is very glad about your success.
3. Ihr interessiert euch nicht für dieses Projekt.
You (pl. fam.) are not interested in this project.
4. Du freust dich sehr auf den Urlaub.
You are very much looking forward to the holiday.
5. Ich entschuldige mich bei meinem Chef.
I’m apologizing to my boss.
Verb forms 43
6. Wir konzentrieren uns auf die Arbeit.

We’re concentrating on work.
Put the German verb (with reflexive) after the English version as in the example.
The case for the relevant preposition is already given.
1. to look forward to – sich freuen auf (with acc.)

2. to be glad about – (with acc.)
3. to apologize to – (with dat.)
4. to be interested in – (with acc.)
5. to concentrate on – (with acc.)
6. to decide on – (with dat.)
4.4 Variable verbs
There is also a group of verbs which have reflexive and non-reflexive forms. Here
is a selection:
• etwas (acc.) verändern – sich verändern (to change sth. – to change)

• jemanden (acc.) erinnern an (acc.) – sich erinnern an (acc.) (to remind so. –
to remember sth./sb.)
• etwas (acc.) öffnen – sich öffnen (to open sth. – to open)
• etwas (acc.) versprechen – sich versprechen (to promise sth. – to make a slip
of the tongue)
• etwas ausziehen – sich ausziehen (to take sth. off – to get undressed)
• etwas anziehen – sich anziehen (to put sth. on – to get dressed)
• etwas (hin-)legen – sich (hin-)legen (to put sth. down – to lie down)
• etwas äußern – sich äußern (to express sth. – to express yourself)
• etwas entwickeln – sich entwickeln – (to develop sth. – to develop)
Exercise 15
Using the list of verbs above and the translations for guidance, put in reflexive
pronouns where appropriate. Put an ‘x’ if none is required.
1. Die Lage hat ________ geändert, weil du ________ deinen Plan geändert hast.
The situation has changed because you changed your plan.
2. Ich habe ________ ihn daran erinnert, dass er heute einkaufen gehen muss,
aber er hat ________ trotzdem nicht erinnert.
I reminded him that he has to go shopping today, but he still didn’t remember.
3. Die Tür öffnete ________ und er trat aus dem Haus.
The door opened and he stepped out of the house.
44 Verb forms
4. Leider habe ich ________ versprochen: ich wollte ________ nicht so viel
versprechen.
I’m afraid this was a slip of the tongue: I didn’t want to promise so much.
5. Du musst ________ einen Mantel anziehen – du kannst ________ ihn wieder
ausziehen, wenn es zu warm ist.
You need to put on a coat – you can take it off again if it’s too warm.
6. Morgens zieht ________ das Kind nicht gerne an.
In the mornings, the child doesn’t like to get dressed.
7. Die Katze legt ________ gern auf das Sofa, besonders, wenn ich ________ ein
neues Kissen hingelegt habe!
The cat likes to lie down on the sofa, especially when I have put down a new
cushion!
8. Wir haben ________ unsere Pläne geäußert, aber er hat ________ nicht
geäußert.
We expressed our plans, but he didn’t say anything.
9. Wir haben unsere Strategie ________ entwickelt, aber jetzt müssen wir
abwarten, wie ________ die Dinge generell entwickeln.
We have developed our strategy, but now we must wait and see how things
generally develop.
5 Modal verbs
5.1 Present tense
Modal verbs are verbs which give nuance to another verb. They relate to pos-
sibility, permission, wishes, obligation and preference. Here’s a table with the
forms of the modal verbs in the present tense:
Modal verbs – present tense

dürfen (to be können (to mögen (to müssen (to sollen wollen (to
allowed to) be able to) like to) have to) (should/ want to)
ought)
ich darf kann mag muss soll will
du darfst kannst magst musst sollst willst
er, sie, es darf kann mag muss soll will
wir dürfen können mögen müssen sollen wollen
ihr dürft könnt mögt müsst sollt wollt
sie dürfen können mögen müssen sollen wollen
Sie dürfen können mögen müssen sollen wollen

Verb forms 45
Exercise 16
Look at the forms in the table above and compare them with the conjugation of
a regular verb, such as ‘kaufen’ (see p. 30, point 1). It is clear that modal verbs
have non-regular patterns. You will see that all modal verbs but one change the
vowel in their infinitive form in the singular forms. Which of the six modals is the
exception?
1. _______________
Now look at the first and third persons singular. What is different from the forms
of a regular verb?
2. first person: _______________; 3. third person: _______________
5.2 Past tense
There are other differences. Here is a table with the past tense forms of the
modal verbs:
Modal verbs – past tense

dürfen (to be können (to mögen (to müssen (to sollen wollen (to
allowed to) be able to) like to) have to) (should/ want to)
ought)
ich durfte konnte mochte musste sollte wollte
du durftest konntest mochtest musstest solltest wolltest
er, sie, es konnte mochte musste sollte wollte
durfte
wir durften konnten mochten mussten sollten wollten
ihr durftet konntet mochtet musstet solltet wolltet
sie durften konnten mochten mussten sollten wollten
Sie durften konnten mochten mussten sollten wollten
Exercise 17
Four of the modal verbs change the vowel in their infinitive forms for their past
tense forms, two don’t. Identify and note them down:
1. change: ____________, ___________, ____________, ____________

2. no change: ___________, ___________
There is one verb which changes more than only the vowel. Identify the verb and
the change:
3. modal verb: ___________, change: ____________

46 Verb forms
Exercise 18
Now let’s practice this. Put the appropriate forms of the modal verbs into the text.
Use the translation for guidance and consult the tables if necessary.
A Ich (1) ____________ heute Abend nicht kommen, weil ich arbeiten (2)
____________. Ich (3) ____________ die Übersetzung morgen abliefern. (4)
____________ du zu dem Treffen gehen, denn es soll jemand da sein, der
uns repräsentieren (5)____________. (6) ____________ ihr im Büro ein biss-
chen früher mit der Arbeit Schluss machen? Bei uns (7)____________ man
das nicht. Das (8) ____________ wir alle nicht, aber was (9)____________
man machen? Also, was ist? (10)____________ du helfen oder nicht?
I can’t come tonight because I have to work. I am to hand in the transla-
tion tomorrow. Can you go to the meeting, for someone should be there
who wants to represent us. Can you leave work a little earlier? We are
not allowed to do that. None of us like it, but what can you do? What
about it, then? Do you want to help, or not?
Now put in the past tense forms of the modal verbs. Use the translation for guid-
ance and consult the tables if necessary.
B Ich (11) ____________ gestern Abend nicht kommen, weil ich arbeiten
(12) ____________. Ich (13) ____________ die Übersetzung am nächsten
Tag abliefern. Meine Freundin (14) ____________ zu dem Treffen gehen,
denn es (15) ____________ jemand da sein, der uns repräsentieren (16)
____________. Sie und ihre Kollegen (17) ____________ im Büro ein biss-
chen früher mit der Arbeit Schluss machen. Es war gut, dass sie uns helfen
(18) ____________.
I wasn’t able to come last night, because I had to work. I was to hand in
the translation the next day. My friend was able to go to the meeting,
for someone had to be there who wanted to represent us. She and her
colleagues were able to leave work a little earlier. It was good that they
wanted to help us.
5.3 Conditional
In English and in German, modal verbs in the conditional are often used to
express probability or politeness, for example: ‘Wenn du das machen könntest,
wäre das gut.’ (If you could do this, that would be good.).

Verb forms 47
The conditional is formed by putting the ‘Konjunktiv’ (subjunctive) endings on

the past tense stem of the modal verbs, but umlauts also play a part. For more
about the subjunctive, see Chapter 6, Tenses.
Here is a table with the forms of the modal verbs in the conditional:
Modal verbs – conditional

dürfen (to können (to mögen (to müssen (to sollen wollen (to Konj.
be allowed be able to) like to) have to) (should/ want to) endings
to) ought)
simple past
ich durfte konnte mochte musste sollte wollte
conditional
ich dürfte könnte möchte müsste sollte wollte -e
du dürftest könntest möchtest müsstest solltest wolltest -est
er, sie, es könnte möchte müsste sollte wollte -e
dürfte
wir dürften könnten möchten müssten sollten wollten -en
ihr dürftet könntet möchtet müsstet solltet wolltet -et
sie dürften könnten möchten müssten sollten wollten -en
Sie dürften könnten möchten müssten sollten wollten -en
Exercise 19
Look at the forms in the table above and identify the four verbs which have an
umlaut in all persons in the conditional forms and the two which don’t:
1. umlaut: _____________, _____________,_____________,_____________

2. no umlaut: _____________, _____________
Now look at the German and English versions of the following sentences:
• Ich konnte kommen, weil ich das Auto hatte.

I was able to come because I had the car.
• Ich könnte kommen, wenn ich das Auto hätte.
I could come if I had the car.
• Er sollte kommen, aber er hat keine Lust.
He should come, but he isn’t in the mood.
• Er sollte kommen, aber er hatte kein Geld.
He was supposed to come, but he had no money.
48 Verb forms
It is clear that the same forms (in English and in German) can have different
meanings depending on context and tense.
Put down the two possible translations for English ‘could’ and German ‘sollte’:
3. could =
=
4. sollte =
=
Exercise 20
Put in the modal verbs:
Ich (1) ____ sofort anfangen, ein neues Projekt zu planen, wenn du das
auch (2) ____. Wir (3)____ immer zusammen arbeiten und wir (4) ____ das
auch weiterhin tun. Aber wenn es nichts werden (5) _____, (6) ____ ich mir
einen neuen Partner suchen. Ich (7) ____ schon vor drei Monaten einen
Plan für ein neues Projekt vorlegen, aber ich (8) ____ warten, bis du wieder
Zeit hast.
I could start at once to plan a new project, if you can also do this. We
were always able to collaborate and we should continue to do so. But if
nothing should come of it, I would have to look for a new partner. I was
supposed to present a plan for a new project already three months ago,
but I wanted to wait until you have some time again.
5.4 Probability
Modal verbs can express different levels of probability. For example, ‘dürfen’,
apart from expressing permission, can, in its conditional form, also express
probability.
Exercise 21
Match the translations with the German sentences. The modal verbs are each in
a different person, which will help with this task.
1. Das dürfte wahr sein. a) They could have said this.

2. Er dürfte das gesagt haben. b) They claim to have said this.
Verb forms 49
3. Sie soll das getan haben. c) You must have done this.
4. Sie könnten das gesagt haben. d) That is probably true.
5. Du musst das getan haben. e) She supposedly did this.
6. Sie wollen das gesagt haben. f) He is likely to have said this.
5.5 Compound tenses

We have looked at the present and past tenses, and also the conditional. What
about the compound tenses: perfect, pluperfect and future? They are formed by
an auxiliary verb and past participle, or, for the future, an infinitive. See below for
auxiliary verbs.
Modal verbs can stand as full verbs, in which case they have regular verb forms,
for example, ‘können’ (note the past participle in particular):
ich kann – ich konnte – ich habe gekonnt
• Kannst du das?
Are you able to?
• Ja, ich habe das immer gekonnt.
Yes, I’ve always been able to.
Such dialogues need context, however, and modal verbs normally do what they
are designed to do: they ‘modify’ the meaning of another verb.
Look at this example, with ‘können’ in the perfect tense:
• Ich habe das machen können.

I’ve been able to do this.
Exercise 22
Something seems not quite right here. According to the normal rules, the per-
fect should be formed with the regular past participle form of ‘können’. What
should it be? Note it down here and also put down the form which has replaced
it: _____________ _____________
Exercise 23
1. Du wirst das machen _________, denn er _________ es nicht tun.

You will have to do this, for he didn’t want to do it.
2. Hast du das sagen _________, oder _________ du es nicht sagen?
Were you able to say this or were you not allowed to say it?
50 Verb forms
3. Wir hatten ihn besuchen _________, aber er _________ uns nicht erkennen.
We had been allowed to visit him, but he wasn’t able to recognize us.
4. Er hat sie nicht anrufen _________, aber er _________es tun.
He hadn’t wanted to ring her up, but he had to do it.
Last, but not least, we will take this one step further.
Look at these example sentences, with sub-clauses in each of the compound

tenses (future, perfect and pluperfect):
• Er muss nicht da sein, weil du wirst kommen müssen.

He doesn’t have to be there, because you will have to come.
• Sie hat gesagt, dass die Freunde das Haus haben verkaufen können.
She said that the friends have been able to sell the house.
• Sie fand ein neues Kleid, obwohl sie einen Mantel hatte kaufen wollen.
She found a new dress, although she had wanted to buy a coat.
Exercise 24
Again, something seems to go against the rules here, this time to do with word order
in subordinate clauses. Look closely at the position of the finite verb. It should nor-
mally come at the end of the sub-clause, but it doesn’t. Complete the rule:
In sub-clauses using compound tenses and modal verbs, the finite verb
comes _______________________ the modal verb and the infinitive; this is
the same position as in a main clause.
Exercise 25
Complete these sentences, bearing in mind the rule you have just learned.
1. Er sagt, dass sie das Auto ______ ______ ______ (verkaufen).

He says that they will have to sell the car.
2. Ich bin froh, dass du ihn ______ ______ ______ (sehen).
I am glad that you have been able to see him.
3. Sie kam wieder, nachdem er sie ______ ______ ______ (vergessen).
She returned, after he had wanted to forget her.
6 ‘Haben’ and ‘sein’ as auxiliary verbs

In order to form the perfect or pluperfect tenses, you need an auxiliary (= help-
ing) verb. In English, this is ‘to have’; for example: ‘I have done my work.’, ‘Has
she gone?’, ‘He had read the novel before he saw the film.’
Verb forms 51
In German, you have a choice of two auxiliaries, as in French: ‘haben’ (to have)
and ‘sein’ (to be).
The dictionary tells you which auxiliary verb each verb takes. If you can’t look
this up, how do you know which to use?
6.1 ‘Haben’ as auxiliary verb

‘Haben’ has regular forms: ‘ich habe – hatte – gehabt’. For the forms, see above
point 2.3. ‘Haben’ itself takes ‘haben’ as auxiliary verb.
Exercise 26
The types of verb that use ‘haben’ as auxiliary for the perfect/pluperfect are listed
here. Identify them for each sentence by choosing from this list:
reflexive verb – modal verb – verb denoting continuous action – transitive

verb – impersonal verb
1. Ich habe/hatte die Katze gefüttert. _______________

I have/had fed the cat.
2. Er hat/hatte sich angezogen. _______________
He has/had got dressed.
3. Sie hat/hatte lange gearbeitet. _______________
She has/had worked for a long time.
4. Es hat/hatte geschneit. _______________
It has/had snowed.
5. Wir haben/hatten ihn sehen können. _______________
We have/had been able to see him.
6.2 ‘Sein’ as auxiliary verb

‘Sein’ has irregular forms ‘ich bin – war – gewesen’. For the forms, see above
point 2.3. ‘Sein’ itself takes ‘sein’ as auxiliary verb.
Exercise 27
Identify the types of verb that use ‘sein’ as auxiliary for the perfect/pluperfect by
looking at the sentences below and choosing a), b), c) or d) from this list:
a) intransitive verbs indicating change of state

b) the verbs ‘sein’ (to be), ‘bleiben’ (to stay, remain) and ‘werden’ (to become)
c) intransitive verbs of motion
d) verbs meaning to happen (also in the sense of ‘to succeed’, ‘to fail’, ‘to occur’)
52 Verb forms
1. Er ist/war nach Paris gefahren. _______________

He has/had gone to Paris.
2. Sie ist/war sofort eingeschlafen. _______________
She has/had gone to sleep at once.
3. Es ist/war in London passiert. _______________
It has/had happened in London.
4. Das Projekt ist/war fehlgeschlagen. _______________
The project has/had failed.
5. Das ist/war oft vorgekommen. _______________
This has/had occurred often.
6. Du bist/warst immer rücksichtsvoll gewesen. _______________
You have/had always been considerate.
7. Wir sind/waren zu Hause geblieben. _______________
We have/had stayed at home.
8. Sie ist/war Lehrerin geworden. _______________
She has/had become a teacher.
It is up to you how you learn this, but it is helpful to bear in mind that the majority
of German verbs take ‘haben’ as auxiliary, so this is the default option if you are
at a loss.
Exercise 28
This text is a (free) retelling of parts of a popular Grimm fairy tale, ‘Hänsel und
Gretel’. Put in the auxiliary verbs. Take the translation as guidance and mind
the tenses (perfect or pluperfect). Identify the principle behind your decision by
underlining the past participle of the verb on which you base your decision – as
already been done in the first sentence.
You may have to consult a dictionary or list of strong verbs if you have diffi-
culty with the past participle forms.
Es war Winter, und er (1) ___________ schon viel Schnee gebracht. Hän-
sel und Gretel gingen allein durch den Wald. Die böse Stiefmutter (2)
___________ sie fortgeschickt, obwohl der Vater sehr traurig gewesen (3)
___________. Gretel weinte: „Aber wir (4) ___________ den Weg schon ver-
loren“. „Mach dir keine Sorgen“, sagte Hänsel, „ich (5) ___________ Kiesel-
steine auf den Pfad geworfen, und die zeigen uns den Weg nach Hause“.
Nachdem sie eine Weile gegangen (6) ___________, kamen sie zum Haus
der bösen Hexe. Die Hexe sagte: „Es (7) ___________ lange gedauert, bis
ihr gekommen (8) ___________. Wo (9) ___________ ihr denn gewesen? Ich
(10) ___________ mich sehr auf euch gefreut.“ Das war eine Lüge. Die Hexe
(11) ___________ nicht wissen können, dass Hänsel und Gretel kommen
Verb forms 53
würden, aber sie (12) ___________ schon immer böse Pläne gemacht. Sie
sperrte Hänsel ein, und Gretel musste für sie arbeiten. Aber Gretel (13)
___________ sich insgeheim auch einen Plan ausgedacht, und sie über
listete die Hexe. Der Schnee (14) ___________ schon geschmolzen, als Hän-
sel und Gretel nach vielen schrecklichen Wochen wieder frei waren. Das
Projekt der Hexe (15) ___________ misslungen!
It was winter, and it had already brought lots of snow. Hansel and Gre-
tel were walking through the forest alone. Their wicked stepmother
had sent them away, although their father had been very sad. Gretel
sobbed: “But we have already lost the way.” “Don’t worry”, said, Han-
sel, “I have thrown some pebbles onto the path, and they will show us
the way home.” After they had walked for a while, they came to the
house of the wicked witch. The witch said: “It’s taken a long time for
you to arrive. Where have you been, then? I have been looking forward
to seeing you.” This was a lie. The witch had not been able to know that
Hansel and Gretel would come, but, as always, she had made wicked
plans. She locked Hansel up and Gretel had to work for her. But Gretel
too had secretly thought up a plan and she tricked the witch. The snow
had already melted when Hansel and Gretel were free again after many
horrible weeks. The witch’s project had failed!
6.3 ‘Haben’ or ‘sein’ with the same verb
The decision of whether to use ‘haben’ or ‘sein’ as auxiliary is not a formalistic

one. It depends on which aspect of the verb you would like to express:
Here’s an example:
• Ich habe meinen VW Käfer immer gern gefahren.

I have always liked to drive my VW beetle.
• Ich bin mit meinem VW Käfer nach Italien gefahren.
I drove to Italy in my VW beetle.
In the first sentence, the verb is transitive (the car is the acc. object), so the
auxiliary is ‘haben’, and the emphasis is on the fact that it’s your VW beetle you
liked to drive. The emphasis in the second sentence is on ‘motion’ (you drove to
Italy), so ‘sein’ must be used.
There are other verbs like this, and many have to do with moving, or motion.
Here’s a selection. A comprehensive list would be much longer, so when you
look up such verbs, watch out for an indication of the auxiliary verb.
• fliegen (to fly)
• reiten (to ride)
54 Verb forms
• rudern (to row)
• folgen (to follow, obey)
• ziehen (to pull, to move across)
• stoßen (auf) (to push, run into)
Exercise 29
Using the principles explained above, choose the right auxiliary for the following
pairs of sentences. Take the translation for guidance, but note that sometimes
the most natural translation for the German perfect tense is the simple past in
English.
1. a) Wir _______ immer gern geflogen, weil es schnell geht.

We have always liked flying because it’s so fast.
1. b) Er _______ im 2. Weltkrieg eine Spitfire geflogen.
In World War II, he had flown a Spitfire.
2. a) _______ du als Kind gern geritten?
Did you like riding when you were a child?
2. b) Ja, ich _______ ein Pony geritten.
Yes, I rode a pony.
3. a) Sie _______ flussaufwärts gerudert.
They had rowed upstream.
3. b) Er _______ das Boot sicher über den Fluss gerudert.
He rowed the boat safely across the river.
4. a) _______ ihr eurer Mutter jemals gefolgt?
Did you (pl.) ever obey your mother?
4. b) Der Hund _______ der Katze ins Haus gefolgt.
The dog followed the cat into the house.
5. a) Viele Schwalben _______ über den Garten gezogen.
Many swallows had flown across the garden.
5. b) Er _______ heftig am Türgriff gezogen.
He had pulled violently at the door-handle.
6. a) Ich _______ in der Stadt auf eine alte Freundin gestoßen.
I ran into an old friend in town.
6. b) Er _______ ihn zur Seite gestoßen und ist durch die Tür verschwunden.
He pushed him aside and disappeared through the door.
4 Pronouns
1 Personal pronouns 56
2 Reflexive pronouns 59
2.1 Pronouns used to refer to the subject 59
2.2 Reflexive pronouns in the accusative 60
2.3 Reflexive pronouns in the dative 61
2.4 Reciprocal pronouns 61
3 Possessive pronouns 62
4 Relative pronouns 64
56 Pronouns
Introduction
Pronouns are very useful parts of speech. They can help you avoid repetition
and will make a text more coherent. As their name suggests they stand in for
nouns, and there are different categories of them, depending on their function
within a sentence. This chapter will deal with four categories: personal, reflexive,
possessive and relative pronouns.
1 Personal pronouns
Standing in for nouns, personal pronouns must be able to express the same
grammatical features as nouns: gender, number and case. What’s strange
to English speakers is that gendered objects (‘der Tisch’, ‘das Buch’, ‘die
Tasche’ = ‘the table’, ‘the book’, ‘the bag’) are referred to by the appropriately
gendered pronoun (‘er’, ‘es’, ‘sie’) whereas in English ‘it’ is the only pronoun
referring to objects.
Exercise 1
Read the two texts below and underline all personal pronouns.
Ich habe einen neuen Computer. Er steht auf meinem Schreibtisch, und
ich finde ihn wunderbar. Ich hole dich gleich ab, und dann können wir ihn
gemeinsam ausprobieren. Dir wird er sicher auch gefallen.
Die Kinder haben eine Pflanze in den Garten gebracht. Sie graben ein
Loch für sie, stecken sie hinein, und dann geben sie ihr viel Pflanzendünger.
Der Gärtner hat ihnen dabei geholfen. Wir haben auch eine kleine Pflanze
für euch – nun könnt ihr auch im Garten arbeiten!
I have a new computer. It’s on my desk and I think it’s wonderful. I am
going to pick you up and then we can try it out together. You will like
it too.
The children have brought a plant into the garden. They are digging
a hole for it, putting it into the hole and then they’ll apply a lot of fer-
tilizer. The gardener helped them with it. We also have a little plant for
you – now you can also work in the garden!
Pronouns 57
Exercise 2
Using the pronouns from the previous task, complete the table below.
Pronoun Nominative Accusative Dative

I 1. _______ mich mir
you du 7. _______ 10. _______
he 2. _______ 8. _______ ihm
she 3. _______ sie 11. _______
it es es ihm
we 4. _______ uns uns
you 5. _______ 9. _______ euch
they 6. _______ sie 12. _______
The genitive forms of the personal pronouns are very rarely used. The next exer-
cises deal with the genitive and are slightly more advanced.
Exercise 3
The genitive forms of the personal pronouns are:
‘meiner’, ‘deiner’, ‘seiner’, ‘ihrer’, ‘seiner’, ‘unser’, ‘euer’ and ‘ihrer’/‘Ihrer’
Only a few verbs of a very high register are combined with the genitive, for exam-
ple: ‘gedenken’ (to remember), ‘bedürfen’ (to need), ‘sich erinnern’ (to remem-
ber), ‘sich schämen’ (to be ashamed of).
Fill in the genitive forms of the pronouns provided in brackets. You will notice
that the English translations don’t feature genitive pronouns.
1. Wir gedenken _______________ (sie).

We remember her.
2. Ich bedarf _________________ (ihr) nicht.
I do not need you (pl.).
3. Sie hat sich ___________________ (er) erinnert.
She remembered him.
4. Du schämst dich _______________ (wir).
You are ashamed of us.
Note that all the above expressions are very formal.

58 Pronouns
Exercise 4
When pronouns are used with prepositions taking the genitive, for example,
‘statt’ (instead of), ‘trotz’ (in spite of), ‘wegen’ (because of), the dative forms are
used instead. Fill in the dative forms of the relevant pronouns.
1. Because of you (pl. fam.): wegen _______________

2. Instead of you (sing. fam.): statt _____________
3. In spite of me: trotz ______________
4. Instead of him: statt ________________
5. In spite of her: trotz ________________
6. Because of them: wegen _________________
Exercise 5
To practise using pronouns, replace the underlined noun phrases with the
appropriate pronoun. ‘Helfen’, ‘geben’ and ‘danken’ all require dative objects.
1. Ich sehe den Mann. Ich sehe ______________.

I see the man.
2. Ich helfe dem Mann. Ich helfe ______________.
I help the man.
3. Ich gebe dem Kind ein Buch. Ich gebe ___________ ein Buch.
I give a book to the child.
4. Ich kenne das Kind im Garten. Ich kenne _____________.
I know the child in the garden.
5. Ich liebe meine Frau. Ich liebe ____________.
I love my wife.
6. Ich danke meiner Frau. Ich danke ______________.
I thank my wife.
Exercise 6
In the previous exercise you had to replace nouns which referred to persons by
using pronouns. However, gender has to be observed even when referring to
objects, and this can seem strange to English speakers. Fill in the gaps below.
Note that the English translation has to be ‘it’ in all examples.
Hier ist ein neuer Stift für dich.

Here is a new pen for you.
1. ________ war teuer.
It was expensive.
2. Ich lege ____________ auf den Schreibtisch.
I am putting it on the desk.
Pronouns 59
Das ist eine schöne Tasche.

This is a nice bag.
3. Wo hast du ___________ gekauft?
Where did you buy it?
4. Ist _________ aus Frankreich?
Is it from France?
5. Das ist das neue Buch.
This is the new book.
6. Wo ist ________ erschienen?
Where was it published?
7. Ich kenne ________ nicht.
I don’t know it.
2 Reflexive pronouns
2.1 Pronouns used to refer to the subject
Reflexive pronouns are used to ‘reflect back’ on the subject: ‘Ich wasche mich’
means that I am washing myself, ‘Du wäschst dich’ means that you are washing
yourself. For first and second persons in singular and plural, the forms are the
same as the accusative personal pronouns. If the subject of a sentence is also
the object of an action, we are dealing with ‘reflexive’ activities.
There is no real equivalent in English for the way reflexive pronouns are used in
German. Translations using ‘myself’ aren’t always possible, as often the English
equivalent doesn’t use the idea of reflexivity.
Exercise 7
Use the reflexive pronouns in the new sentences.
1. Ich wasche mich. Ihr wascht _________. (to wash)

2. Wir ziehen uns um. Du ziehst ___________ um. (to get changed)
3. Du ziehst dich an. Ich ziehe _________ an. (to dress)
4. Ihr zieht euch aus. Wir ziehen ___________ aus. (to undress)
Exercise 8
For the third persons, the reflexive pronoun is ‘sich’, both in the accusative and
in the dative. For example, ‘Er hatte die Prüfungen noch vor sich.’ means that,
60 Pronouns
for him, the exams were still ahead, were still to come. ‘Er hatte die Prüfungen
endlich hinter sich.’ means that they were now behind him.
Fill in the table of reflexive pronouns.
Nominative Accusative Dative

ich mich mir
du 1. _________ 2. _________
er 3. _________ 4. _________
sie 5. _________ 6. _________
es 7. _________ 8. _________
wir 9. _________ 10. _________
ihr 11. _________ 12. _________
sie 13. _________ 14. _________
2.2 Reflexive pronouns in the accusative
Again, there is no equivalent for some German reflexive constructions in English.

The pronoun part is not translated and can easily be forgotten when forming
German sentences.
Exercise 9
Here are a few commonly used verbs which feature an accusative reflexive pro-
noun: ‘sich anpassen’, ‘sich entwickeln’, ‘sich erholen’, ‘sich erinnern’, ‘sich
erkälten’, ‘sich integrieren’, ‘sich irren’, ‘sich setzen’, ‘sich verabschieden’, ‘sich
verändern’ and ‘sich vorstellen’. Match the expressions with the English transla-
tions to further build up your vocabulary.
1. Ihr habt euch erkältet. a. We would like to say goodbye.

2. Im Urlaub kann man sich erholen. b. I would like to introduce myself.
3. Setzen Sie sich bitte! c. Please take a seat!
4. Du musst dich geirrt haben! d. You caught a cold.
5. Wir wollen uns verabschieden. e. She can’t remember.
6. Sie kann sich nicht erinnern. f. You must have made a mistake!
7. Ich möchte mich vorstellen. g. You can recover on holiday.
8. Sie haben sich gut integriert. h. You have changed.
9. Ihr müsst euch anpassen! i. They have integrated well.
10. Das Kind entwickelt sich gut. j. You have to adapt!
11. Du hast dich verändert. k. The child is developing well.
Pronouns 61
2.3 Reflexive pronouns in the dative

There are fewer verbs with a reflexive pronoun in the dative. Here are three: ‘sich
einbilden’ (to imagine wrongly), ‘sich vorstellen’ (to imagine), ‘sich vornehmen’
(to intend).
Exercise 10
Fill in the forms of the dative reflexive pronouns below.
1. Er bildet _________ ein, der beste Schüler zu sein.

He mistakenly thinks that he is the best student.
2. Ich stelle ____________ eine Welt ohne Hunger vor.
I imagine a world without hunger.
3. Wir haben __________ vorgenommen, mehr Sport zu machen.
We intend to do more sports.
4. Habt ihr ___________ schon mal vorgestellt, was ihr in zehn Jahren macht?
Have you ever thought about what you will be doing in 10 years’ time?
5. Das bildest du ____________ nur ein!
You are only imagining this!
6. Sie nimmt ________ vor, nicht mehr zu rauchen.
She intends not to smoke anymore.
Exercise 11
The dative reflexive pronoun can also be used to indicate that an action is per-
formed for the benefit of the subject. This is hard to translate into English but
worth noting. In the expressions below, delete those pronouns which are not in
the dative and which cannot be used therefore.
1. Ich kaufe mir/mich ein neues Kleid. (I am buying a new dress for myself.)
2. Du kämmst dir/dich die Haare. (You are brushing your hair.)
3. Ich wasche mir/mich die Haare. (I am washing my hair.)
4. Du kaufst dir/dich neue Schuhe. (You are buying new shoes for yourself.)
2.4 Reciprocal pronouns

These are reflexive pronouns but they link at least two subjects. The English
equivalent is ‘each other’, and ‘einander’ can be used in German too. ‘Einander’
must be used when the verb involved is combined with a preposition, for exam-
ple: ‘sich gewöhnen an’ is ‘Sie sind aneinander gewöhnt.’ ‘They are used to
each other.’
62 Pronouns
Exercise 12
Match the German expressions with the English sentences.
1. They get along well. a. Sie haben sich aneinander angepasst.

2. We love each other. b. Wir sehen uns/einander nächste
Woche.
3. We rely on each other. c. Sie verstehen sich/einander gut.
4. We’ll meet next week. d. Wir verlassen uns aufeinander.
5. They have adapted to each other. e. Wir lieben uns/einander.
3 Possessive pronouns
The function of German possessive pronouns is very similar to their English

equivalents like ‘my’, ‘your’, ‘his’ etc. However, just like German adjectives, they
have endings to reflect gender, number and case.
There are a few points to note: English speakers tend to confuse the German
forms for ‘his’ and ‘her’. It may help to remember that at least two letters of the
English word have to be present in the German: the ‘i’ and ‘s’ from ‘his’ are in
‘sein’; and the ‘h’ and ‘r’ from ‘her’ are in ‘ihr’:
Mnemonic device
his → sein her → ihr
‘Sein’ is also used to mean ‘one’s’. Also, ‘unser’ and ‘euer’ look as if they already
have endings, but the ‘-er’ at the end of both words is part of the word, not an
ending. At the end of this section there will be an exercise to practise just those
four forms.
Exercise 13
For this exercise, fill in the German equivalents of the English forms to test your
memory. Use the masculine nominative forms of the possessive pronouns.
English German
my 1. _________
your (sg.) 2. _________
your (formal) 3. _________
Pronouns 63
his 4. _________
her 5. _________
one’s 6. _________
our 7. _________
your (pl.) 8. _________
their 9. _________
Exercise 14
With this exercise, you can practise adding endings to possessive pronouns.
Make sure you know the adjectival endings before completing this exercise. You
can look them up in Chapter 2, Adjectival endings.
Possessive pronouns behave exactly like indefinite determiners, sometimes
referred to as ‘ein-words’. Fill in the endings below.
1. Die Kinder haben ihr____ Fahrräder (acc. pl.) abgeschlossen.

The children have locked their bikes.
2. Ich gehe mit mein____ Familie (dat. fem.) ins Restaurant.
I am going to the restaurant with my family.
3. Ohne dein______ Hilfe (acc. fem.) hätte ich es nicht geschafft.
I wouldn’t have managed without your help.
4. Wir übernachten bei unser_______ Freunden (dat. pl.).
We are staying with our friends.
5. Eur______ Geschenke (nom. pl.) waren sehr schön.
Your gifts were very nice.
6. Man muss auf sein _____ Gesundheit (acc. fem.) achten.
One has to look after one’s health.
7. Das haben wir ihr_____ Ideen (dat. pl.) zu verdanken.
We have her ideas to thank for this.
8. Haben Sie Ihr______ Sohn (acc. masc.) abgeholt?
Did you pick up your son?
Exercise 15
Select the correct pronoun from the list provided to translate the English expres-
sions below.
unsere sein deinen ihre meine meiner meinen ihren
1. nom pl.: ___________ Eltern (my parents)

2. acc. sing.: für ____________ Bruder (for your brother)
64 Pronouns
3. dat. sing.: mit _____________ Schwester (with my sister)

4. acc. sing.: ohne _____________ Vater (without my father)
5. nom. pl.: _____________ Väter (our fathers)
6. nom. sing.: __________ Tochter (their daughter)
7. dat. pl.: mit ____________ Töchtern (with her daughters)
8. nom. sing.: __________ Bruder (his brother)
Exercise 16
‘Unser’, ‘sein’ and ‘ihr’ simply add endings in the same way as adjectives. ‘Euer’
also does this and changes shape slightly: it is ‘eure’, ‘euren’ and ‘eurem’. Fill
in the forms below.
Nominative
1. _______ Familie 2. _______ Haus 3. _______ Hund 4. _______ Kinder

our family your (pl. fam.) his dog her children
house
Accusative – für…
5. _______ Familie 6. _______ Haus 7. _______ Hund 8. _______ Kinder

his family her house your (pl. fam.) dog our children
Dative – mit…
9. _______ Familie 10. _______ Haus 11. _______ Hund 12. _______ Kindern
your (pl. fam.) our house her dog his children
family
Genitive – wegen…
13. _______ Familie 14. _______ Hauses 15. _______ Hundes 16. _______ Kinder
her family his house our dog your (pl. fam.)
children
4 Relative pronouns
Relative pronouns work exactly like pronouns in that they represent a noun they
are replacing. This means they also have to reflect the noun’s features, that
is, gender, number and case. They are also like conjunctions in that they glue
two parts of a sentence together. They introduce a relative clause, which is a
Pronouns 65
subordinate clause with the finite verb at the end. You can read up on this in
Chapter 5, Word order.
In English, the relative pronouns are ‘that/which’ for objects and ‘who, whose,
whom’ for people. In German, the relative pronoun has to agree with the noun
it refers to in gender and number, and it reflects its grammatical function in the
relative clause through its case. There are at least three different bits of informa-
tion to consider.
Exercise 17
Knowing the forms of the definite articles ‘der, die, das’ will help as the forms
of the relative pronouns are almost identical. Look at the sentences below and
identify the relative pronouns and underline them. You will notice that some are
different from the forms of the definite articles.
1. Der Mann, der mein Auto gekauft hat, heißt Müller.

The man who bought my car is called Müller.
2. Ein Wagen, dessen Bremsen kaputt sind, muss repariert werden.
A car whose brakes do not work must be repaired.
3. Nur eine Person, mit der man lachen kann, sollte ein Freund werden.
Only a person with whom one can have a laugh should become a friend.
4. Die Kinder, mit denen ich im Park war, sind sehr nett.
The children with whom I was at the park are very nice.
5. Mein Bruder, den ich gestern besuchte, wohnt in München.
My brother, whom I visited yesterday, lives in Munich.
6. Meine Schwester, deren Söhne gern essen, ist eine gute Köchin.
My sister, whose sons like eating, is a good cook.
7. Das Haus, dessen Dach repariert wurde, liegt an einem Fluss.
The house whose roof was repaired is by a river.
8. Die Frau, die ich gestern getroffen habe, ist 40 Jahre alt.
The woman I saw yesterday is 40 years old.
Exercise 18
Complete the table and underline those words in the table which are different
from the articles ‘der’, ‘das’, ‘die’.

Nominative das die die
Accusative das die
66 Pronouns
Dative dem dem

Genitive deren
Also, a relative pronoun can be omitted in an English clause, for example, ‘The
woman who is standing over there.’ can also be: ‘The woman standing over
there’, omitting the ‘who’. Relative pronouns cannot be omitted in German.
Exercise 19
In the English sentences below, identify those where you would need to use a
relative clause in German.
1. The car I bought today is fantastic.

2. The information you gave me is not correct.
3. The man in the trench coat is a detective.
4. The girl sitting on her own is my sister.
5. My sister lives in Bonn and has two sons.
6. The bird with yellow feathers is a finch.
Exercise 20
Relative clauses are perfect for definitions (‘A crocodile is an animal that can swim
very fast.’) or qualifications (‘These are men I don’t ever want to see again.’). ‘Das
Tier’ (the animal) is neuter and singular, so the relative pronoun can only be ‘das’,
‘dem’ or ‘dessen’. ‘Die Männer’ (the men) is plural, so the relative plural can only
be ‘die’, ‘denen’ or ‘deren’. How do you select the correct form? The ‘that’ in the
phrase ‘an animal that’ is the subject of ‘can swim’, so you need to choose ‘das’,
the nominative case. In the second example, ‘the men’ are the object of ‘see
again’, so you need to choose the accusative. The German sentences are:
‘Ein Krokodil ist ein Tier, das sehr schnell schwimmen kann.’ and ‘Das sind Män-
ner, die ich nie wieder sehen möchte.’
The relative pronoun contains information from both parts of the sentence: the
noun it stands in for determines its gender and number, the function within the
relative clause or a preceding preposition determines its case.
Fill in the correct pronouns below.
1. Das Kind, mit ________ ich im Park war, ist heute krank.
The child I went to the park with is ill today.
2. Der Professor, ________ du kennst, hält morgen einen Vortrag.
The professor you know is giving a talk tomorrow.
Pronouns 67
3. Ein Mann, _________________ Namen ich vergessen habe, hat angerufen.

A man whose name I forgot called today.
4. Seine Schwester, mit _________ ich zur Schule gegangen bin, kommt heute.
His sister, with whom I went to school, is coming today.
5. Die Häuser, _____________ Gärten sehr groß sind, werden verkauft.
The houses whose gardens are very big are for sale.
6. Alle Autos, mit ____________ ich gefahren bin, gefallen mir.
I like all cars I have driven.
The following exercises are at a slightly more advanced level of difficulty. Master-
ing them will mean that you can write at a very good level of German.
Exercise 21
Relative pronouns in the genitive are not affected by their grammatical environ-
ment. That is to say, neither their function in the relative clause nor any preced-
ing prepositions have any influence on them. For example, the preposition ‘in’ in
the sentence ‘Das Haus, in dessen Keller die alten Spielzeuge sind, wird abge-
rissen.’ (The house in whose basement the old toys are will be torn down.) has
no effect on the relative pronoun ‘dessen’. It has to be in the genitive to establish
the relationship between ‘Haus’ and ‘Keller’.
Fill in the genitive relative pronouns below.
1. Die Häuser, in _____________ Kellern wir oft gespielt haben, wurden

verkauft.
The houses in whose basements we used to play are being sold.
2. Das Auto, für ______________ Reparatur ich bezahlt habe, kann abgeholt
werden.
The car for whose repair I paid can be picked up.
3. Die Kollegin, ohne ______________ Hilfe wir das Projekt nicht beenden kön-
nen, ist in Urlaub.
The colleague without whose help we can’t finish the project is on holiday.
4. Der Freund, mit ______________ Hilfe ich rechne, heißt Max.
The friend on whose help I am counting is called Max.
Exercise 22
When referring to the whole idea of the main clause, the relative pronoun is
‘was’. For example, ‘Spring has come earlier this year which delights me.’ is ‘Der
Frühling ist dieses Jahr früher gekommen, was mich sehr freut.’. It is the whole
idea about spring coming earlier which is further qualified by the relative clause.
68 Pronouns
From the English sentences below, select those which would need to have
the relative pronoun ‘was’ in German. You will find those sentences translated
into German in the answers section.
1. He told me he was going to be late, which annoyed me.

2. Which of these cars is yours?
3. He passed his driving test, which astonishes me.
4. The car which I bought on the internet is fantastic.
5. I was invited to the party for which I made all the cakes.
6. I am invited to the party, which surprises me.
Exercise 23
Whenever a relative clause is linked to one of the following categories of words

(printed in bold below), you will also need to use ‘was’ as the pronoun.
• Neuter adjectival nouns: ‘Das Schöne’, ‘das Bessere’, ‘das Interessanteste’

• The following determiners, usually referred to as ‘indefinites’: ‘alles’ (every-
thing), ‘einiges’ (some things), ‘etwas’ (something), ‘manches’ (some things),
‘nichts’ (nothing), ‘vieles’ (many things), and ‘weniges’ (few things).
• The demonstrative ‘das’ and ‘dasselbe’: ‘Das ist das, was ich gestern gesagt
habe.’ ‘That is the thing I said yesterday.’
Using ‘was’ is quite easy as it is the same for nominative, accusative and dative.
From the English sentences below, spot those where you would use ‘was’ in
German. You will find translations of those sentences in the answers section.
1. This is the same thing you explained last week.

2. I need to buy something I need for the holiday.
3. All objects which are less than one kilogram are in this box.
4. Everything I need is here.
5. The best thing I ever did was go abroad.
6. The first woman who comes through this door is the winner.
7. Many things you said are true.
8. The first film I ever watched was Snow White.
Exercise 24
Only complete this exercise once you have checked your answers for the pre-
vious exercise. Here are some of the sentences in German but altered slightly.
Pronouns 69
1. Das ist dasselbe, was du letzte Woche erklärt hast.

Das ist dasselbe, worüber du letzte Woche geredet hast.
2. Ich muss etwas kaufen, was ich für den Urlaub brauche.
Ich muss etwas kaufen, womit ich in Urlaub fahren kann.
4. Alles, was ich brauche, ist hier.
Alles, worauf ich gehofft habe, ist hier.
5. Das Beste, was ich je gemacht habe, ist ins Ausland zu gehen.
Das Beste, wozu ich mich je entschlossen habe, ist ins Ausland zu gehen.
7. Vieles, was du gesagt hast, ist wahr.
Vieles, wovon du gesprochen hast, ist wahr.
This time, there are prepositions involved: ‘über’, ‘mit’, ‘auf’, ‘zu’ and ‘von’ are
the examples used here. Complete the rules below.
1. When the relative pronoun ‘was’ is combined with a preposition, it turns

into _________.
2. An ‘-r’ is added when the preposition starts with a _______________.
5 Word order
1 The order of elements in main clauses 72

1.1 Noun and pronoun objects 72
1.2 Complements to the verb 74
1.3 First position 75
2 The order of adverbials in main clauses 76
2.1 Conventions 76
2.2 Emphasis through word order 77
3 Linking main clauses 78
3.1 Coordinating conjunctions 79
3.2 Adverbs used as conjunctions 83
3.3 Coordinating conjunctions combined with adverbs 86
4 Subordinating conjunctions 88
4.1 Subordinate word order 89
4.2 Subordinate clauses in first position 91
4.3 Clash of conjunctions 93
4.4 Combining coordinating and subordinating conjunctions 95
Word order 71
Introduction
In this chapter, we will focus on how you can avoid word order errors when
building German sentences. If you are not familiar with terms such as ‘subject’,
‘object’, ‘finite verb’, ‘clause’ etc., you will find such terms explained in most
grammar books or on the internet.
Let’s first look at what main clauses are. A basic main clause needs nothing
but a subject and a finite verb, but elements can be added as you go along, and
nouns can be replaced by pronouns (a short word that stands in for a noun and
fits its gender, case and number, see Chapter 4):
• Ella backt. (Basic main clause: subject and verb)

Ella is baking.
• Ella backt einen Kuchen. (and direct object)
Ella is baking a cake.
• Ella backt ihrer Schwester einen Kuchen. (and indirect object)
Ella is baking a cake for her sister.
• Heute Nachmittag backt sie ihrer Schwester einen Kuchen. (and time phrase)
This afternoon she’s baking a cake for her sister.
• Ella backt ihr heute Nachmittag einen Kuchen zum Geburtstag. (and prepo-
sitional phrase)
This afternoon Ella is baking her a cake for her birthday.
You will be familiar with the rule that the finite verb is firmly fixed in second
position, but that the other elements (subject, objects, adverbs etc.) can move
around and also stand in first position. It’s important to realize that ‘second posi-
tion’ doesn’t necessarily mean ‘second word’!
There’s a marked contrast here with English where in main clause statements
the subject must normally come first and the general pattern of the word order
remains fixed: subject – verb – object.
You will probably also know that in German there is something called a ‘ver-
bal bracket’. This is relevant for the perfect, pluperfect and future tenses, as
well as for constructions with modal verbs and separable verbs. The finite verb
(either the auxiliary or the modal or the separable verb without its prefix) is firmly
in second position, the non-finite part of the verb (either the past participle or
the infinitive) stands at the end of the clause, and all the other elements normally
stand within the bracket.
• Sie hat einen Kuchen gebacken. (verbal bracket = auxiliary verb and past
participle)
She has baked a cake.
• Sie hatte einen Kuchen gebacken. (verbal bracket = auxiliary verb and past
participle)
She had baked a cake.
72 Word order
• Sie wird einen Kuchen backen. (verbal bracket = auxiliary verb and infinitive)
She will bake a cake.
• Sie muss einen Kuchen backen. (verbal bracket = modal verb and infinitive)
She has to bake a cake.
• Sie kauft die Zutaten für den Kuchen im Supermarkt ein. (verbal
bracket = separable verb and its separated prefix)
She is shopping for the cake ingredients in the supermarket.
1 The order of elements in

main clauses
1.1 Noun and pronoun objects

You need to be aware of certain rules which determine the order of elements in
a main clause in German. In the following examples the subject comes first, but
you will see that there is some variation in the position of the direct (accusative)
and indirect (dative) objects, depending on whether they are nouns or pronouns.
In German, direct and indirect objects are easily distinguishable by their
determiners (‘der’, ‘ein’ etc.), whereas in English this is not so. The determiners
in English (‘the’, ‘a’) give no indication of case. Sometimes case is indicated in
another way, for example, the dative with ‘to’: ‘She gives the book to her sister’.
But you could also say: ‘She gives her sister the book’, and the meaning is clear
only through content or context.
1. Ella gibt ihrer Schwester das Geschenk.

Ella gives her sister the present.
2. Ella gibt es ihrer Schwester.
Ella gives it to her sister.
3. Ella gibt ihr das Geschenk.
Ella gives her the present.
4. Ella gibt es ihr.
Ella gives it to her.
Exercise 1
First, match the rules below with the examples above. (There is one rule which
fits two examples.) If you need help with determining cases look up the tables in
Chapter 1, Nouns, and Chapter 4, Pronouns.
Word order 73
a) Two pronoun objects: accusative before dative

b) Two noun objects: dative before accusative
c) Pronoun object before noun object
Mnemonic device
Now, if P = pronoun, N = noun, A = accusative and D = dative, think
which memory-aids below fit the above rules. (One of them fits two rules.)
• short word before long word

• PAD
• DAN
Exercise 2
Make sentences out of the following elements so that they match the transla-
tions. If necessary, consult the tables in Chapters 1 and 4.
• ihr – ihr – ihn – ihn
• einen Regenschirm – einen Regenschirm
• meiner Tochter – meiner Tochter
1. Ich gebe _________________
I give her an umbrella.
2. Ich gebe _________________
I give my daughter an umbrella.
3. Ich gebe _________________
I give it to her.
4. Ich gebe _________________
I give it to my daughter.
Exercise 3
These sentences are not in the right word order, so you have to correct them. If
necessary, consult the tables in Chapters 1 and 4.
1. Er schreibt eine Mail seinem Bruder.
He is writing a mail to his brother.
2. Er schreibt eine Mail ihm.
He is writing him a mail.
74 Word order
3. Er schreibt ihm sie.
He is writing it to him.
4. Er schreibt seinem Bruder sie.
He is writing it to his brother.
1.2 Complements to the verb

Now let’s look at how other elements fit in, such as complements to the verb
involving a preposition. You will see at a glance that prepositional phrases nor-
mally come at the end of the sentence. They are printed in bold.
1. Er schenkt seiner Freundin Blumen zum Geburtstag.

He gives his girlfriend flowers for her birthday.
2. Sie gibt ihm keine Antwort auf seine Frage.
She is not answering his question.
3. Wir danken euch für das Geschenk.
We thank you for the present.
4. Ich kaufe mir ein Kleid für die Party.
I’m buying myself a dress for the party.
Exercise 4
Now look again: this time, an adverb has been added to each of the sen-
tences. Identify them by underlining in each example and then check in the
answer key.
1. Er schenkt seiner Freundin heute Blumen zum Geburtstag.

Today, he gives his girlfriend flowers for her birthday.
2. Sie gibt ihm leider keine Antwort auf seine Frage.
She is unfortunately not answering his question.
3. Wir danken euch herzlich für das Geschenk.
We thank you cordially for the present.
4. Ich kaufe mir schnell ein Kleid für die Party.
I’m quickly buying myself a dress for the party.
Exercise 5
Now work out the pattern for the position of the adverb and choose the right option:
a) The adverb comes after objects.

b) The adverb comes either between objects or before prepositional phrases.
c) The adverb comes before the subject.
Word order 75
1.3 First position
Exercise 6
In English, word order is normally fixed to subject – verb – object(s). In German,

the subject does not have to come first, provided the verb is in second position.
Here are our example sentences again, this time with different elements in first
position. They are printed in bold.
1. Heute schenkt er seiner Freundin Blumen zum Geburtstag.

2. Leider gibt sie ihm keine Antwort auf seine Frage.
3. Für das Geschenk danken wir euch herzlich.
4. Ein Kleid für die Party kaufe ich mir in der Stadt.
Identify what’s in first position and match it with the number(s) of the sentence.
Beware: there are two choices which don’t fit the examples.
a) adverb (time)
b) adverb (attitude)
c) prepositional phrase
d) direct object
e) indirect object
f) adverb (place)
Exercise 7
Now rearrange the sentences below so that the elements in bold stand in
first position. Make sure that the finite verb remains in second position. Note
that adverbial phrases can come first in English also (as demonstrated in the
English translations), but the clause then follows the subject – verb – object
pattern.
1. Er kann dir morgen eine Telefonnummer geben.

Tomorrow, he can give you a telephone number.
2. Sie kauft dem Kind wegen des schlechten Wetters einen Anorak.
Because of the bad weather she is buying the child an anorak.
3. Ich rufe meine Mutter morgen Abend an.
Tomorrow evening I’ll call my mother.
4. Wir können dem späten Bewerber kein Interview anbieten.
We can’t offer an interview to the late applicant.
76 Word order
2 The order of adverbials in

main clauses
2.1 Conventions
Adverbs or adverbial phrases give additional information in a sentence. They

tell us where things happen or happened, why they do, and how and when. In
German, they tend to come in a particular order (although this can be broken if
special emphasis is desired). In English, there is no particular pattern for this, so
long as the subject – verb – object rule is observed.
Exercise 8
Look at the following sentences and identify the adverbs or adverbial phrases in
them. They give an indication of time, reason, manner and place, but not all are
represented in each sentence. Mark them by putting brackets round them and a
‘t’, ‘r’, ‘m’ and ‘p’ above them.
1. Mein Bruder kommt morgen um 19.00 Uhr wegen des schlechten Wetters
mit dem Zug am Bahnhof an.
Because of the bad weather my brother is arriving by train at the station
tomorrow at 7 pm.
2. Ich fahre nächste Woche aus Zeitmangel mit dem Auto nach Berlin.
Because of lack of time I’ll drive to Berlin by car next week.
3. Sie ist gestern fröhlich in die Stadt einkaufen gegangen.
She cheerfully went shopping into town yesterday.
4. Sie ist seit ihrem Umzug nach Deutschland viel glücklicher.
She’s been much happier since her move to Germany.
Exercise 9
When you have done this, a pattern for the order of adverbials should emerge. If
all the additional information given through the adverbials is of equal importance,
then this pattern is usually followed. Can you identify it? Check in the answer key.
Exercise 10
Complete the sentences out of the jumbled up elements, following the pattern
you have just identified. Make sure you put the adverbials in the right order and
use the translations for orientation. Remember that in English the order of adver-
bials doesn’t follow a particular set pattern.
Word order 77
1. Ich fahre – zum Bahnhof – wegen des schlechten Wetters – mit dem
Taxi – heute
___________________________________________________________
Today, I’m going to the station by taxi because of the bad weather.
2. Ich nehme – einen ICE – nach München – am Mittag

___________________________________________________________
At lunchtime I’m taking an ICE to Munich.
3. Ich treffe – im Hotel – meine alte Schulfreundin – heute Abend

___________________________________________________________
This evening, I’ll meet my old schoolfriend in the hotel.
4. Wir gehen – in ein Restaurant – dann – zum Abendessen – zusammen

___________________________________________________________
Then we’ll go together to a restaurant for dinner.
5. Ich komme – morgen – zurück nach Berlin – aufgrund des günstigen Fahr-
plans – ohne Zeitdruck
___________________________________________________________
Tomorrow, I’ll come back to Berlin without time pressure because of the
favourable timetable.
2.2 Emphasis through word order

As already stated (see above Exercise 7), the order of elements in a German
sentence follows a certain pattern, but this pattern doesn’t constitute a cast-iron
rule. As long as the verb is in second position and the verbal bracket (if appropri-
ate) is in place, the order of elements can be changed if certain elements are to
be emphasized. It is also a convention to put known elements before unknown
ones, but for that it is necessary to have a context.
Exercise 11
Look at the sentences from Exercise 10 again. Rewrite them emphasizing the
elements in bold by putting them first. (You will observe that up to a point this is
also possible in English.)
1. Ich fahre heute wegen des schlechten Wetters mit dem Taxi zum Bahnhof.
2. Ich nehme am Mittag einen ICE nach München.
3. Ich treffe meine alte Schulfreundin heute Abend im Hotel.
4. Wir gehen dann zusammen zum Abendessen in ein Restaurant.
5. Ich komme morgen aufgrund des günstigen Fahrplans ohne Zeitdruck
zurück nach Berlin.
78 Word order
Exercise 12
Sometimes elements in a sentence can stand outside the verbal bracket. In

order to make sense of this, as a first step, look at the following sentences and
identify the verbal bracket by underlining:
1. Du bist beim Marathon noch nie so schnell gelaufen wie gestern.

You’ve never run as fast in the marathon as yesterday.
2. Was hast du denn anders gemacht als sonst?
What did you do differently compared to other times?
3. Ich habe nicht so sehr auf die anderen geachtet wie zuvor.
I didn’t pay as much attention to the others as I used to.
4. Du hast auch eine viel bessere Zeit erreicht als beim Training.
You’ve also achieved a much better time than at training sessions.
Exercise 13
Now look at the elements at the end of the sentences, outside the verbal bracket.
Can you identify their function? Choose from the following options:
a) They have nothing in common.

b) They all have to do with comparison.
c) They all have to do with emphasis.
Note that the position of negative elements such as ‘nicht or ‘nie’ is of course
also part of word order. This is dealt with separately in Chapter 10, Negation.
3 Linking main clauses

In this part, we will concentrate on how you can avoid errors that have to do with
word order when linking up main clauses.
Let’s first recapitulate the basics of word order in main clauses. You will be
familiar with the rule that the finite verb is firmly fixed in second position, but
that the other elements (the subject, objects, adverbs etc.) can move around.
There’s a marked contrast here to English where in main clause statements the
subject must normally come first.
It’s important to realize that ‘second position’ doesn’t necessarily mean ‘sec-
ond word’! Here are a few examples, with different elements in first position (in
brackets) and the verb in bold:
• Subject in first position, finite verb in second:

(Die Katze) hasst den Hund.
The cat hates the dog.
Word order 79
• Time phrase in first position, finite verb in second:

(Gestern) war die Katze im Garten.
Yesterday, the cat was in the garden.
• Dependent (or subordinate) clause in first position, finite verb in second
(Wenn die Katze den Hund sieht), rennt sie immer in den Garten.
When the cat sees the dog she always runs into the garden.
It’s important to realize that there are elements other than the subject that can
stand at the beginning of a German sentence (object, adverbs etc.).
3.1 Coordinating conjunctions
Conjunctions are linking words between two clauses, adding logical connection
(reason, contrast, alternative etc.). Problems often creep in when clauses are
connected to each other, as some linking words affect word order, others don’t.
Let’s start with the latter group. Look at these examples, where the linking words
are underlined, the subjects in italics and the finite verbs in bold:
a) Der Hund sieht die Katze im Garten und er bellt laut.

The dog sees the cat in the garden and he barks loudly.
b) Der Hund rennt in den Garten, aber er rennt nicht schnell genug, um die
Katze zu fangen.
The dog runs into the garden, but he doesn’t run fast enough to catch
the cat.
c) Die Katze faucht, denn sie mag den Hund nicht.
The cat hisses, for she doesn’t like the dog.
d) Die Katze bleibt nicht sitzen, sondern sie klettert auf einen Baum.
The cat doesn’t stay sitting but she climbs up a tree.
e) Der Hund kann nun aufgeben oder er kann lange warten.
The dog can give up now or he can wait a long time.
What is clear is that the linking words have no influence on the word order in
the two main clauses they connect: they stand in Zero position, in the mid-
dle between the two clauses which follow regular word order: the subjects
(which are either the same or different in each clause) are followed by the
verbs in second position. These linking words are also called coordinating
conjunctions.
The pattern that emerges for the example sentences is symmetrical:
1 2 ZERO 1 2
coordinating
subject – verb – other elements subject – verb – other elements
conjunction
80 Word order
Note that any other element (for example, ‘gestern’), could stand in position 1 in
each clause – in which case the subject would come later in the clause, but the
verb remains in position 2:
1 2 ZERO 1 2
Gestern sah der Hund die Katze und dann bellte er laut.
There are a number of such linking words, but the five used in the example sen-
tences are very common. You probably know them already, but if you don’t or
find it hard to remember them there is an acronym which can help you.
Exercise 14
Use the sentences a) – d) above for guidance and fill in the German versions of
the linking words, then use their first letters to make an acronym. Check imme-
diately in the answer key to make sure you have got this right.
Co-ordinating In German Acronym Function

conjunction
but 1. 2. contrast
for, since 3. 4 reason
and 5. 6. addition
but* 7. 8. contradiction
or 9. 10. alternative
* contradicts preceding negative (‘on the contrary’)
Linking main clauses together by putting a coordinating conjunction in Zero

position between the two clauses and by observing the word order patterns as
above will normally produce a correct sentence, so this is really all you need to
know. Here’s some practice to make sure:
Exercise 15
Link the following main clauses together by using an ADUSO word and the
English translations as a guide. Choose a matching second main clause from
the right hand column. For some there is more than one match.
First main clause ADUSO word Second main clause

1. Ich kann nicht a) ich verliere die
kommen Geduld.
I can’t come I’m losing patience.
Word order 81
2. Er ist glücklich b) er ist zufrieden

He is happy he is content.
3. Sie liebt ihn c) ich bin krank.
She loves him I am ill.
4. Du musst jetzt d) sie bleibt lieber zu
kommen Hause.
You have to she prefers to stay
come now at home.
5. Sie geht nicht e) seine Schwester
gern aus hat Probleme.
She doesn’t his sister has
like to go out problems.
Exercise 16
Now let’s try out putting ADUSO words into a continuous text. Here is a short
piece, relating to a well-known fairy tale by the Brothers Grimm, ‘Rotkäppchen’
(‘Little Red Riding Hood’). Put the appropriate conjunctions from the list into the
text to link up the clauses. (Note: The translation is of the main clauses only,
without the conjunctions linking them up.)
ADUSO words: sondern, oder, denn, aber, aber, aber, und, und, und, und
Rotkäppchen wohnte mit ihrer Mutter in einem Dorf. Sie hatte keinen
Vater mehr, (1) ____ sie hatte eine liebe Großmutter. Rotkäppchen war
glücklich, (2) ____ die Großmutter liebte sie sehr. Eines Tages sagte die Mut-
ter zu Rotkäppchen: „Die Großmutter ist krank, (3) ____ sie braucht unsere
Hilfe. Du musst zu ihr gehen, (4) ____ du musst ihr Wein und Kuchen brin-
gen, (5) ____ du darfst im Wald nicht stehen bleiben, (6) ____ du musst
immer schnell weiter gehen!“ Das Mädchen kam zum Haus der Großmut-
ter. Alles war still, (7) ___ alles war anders als sonst. Sie hatte Angst, (8) ___
sie dachte: Ich kann wieder nach Hause gehen (9) ___ ich kann hineinge-
hen (10) ___ ich kann der Großmutter helfen.
Little Red Riding Hood lived with her mother in a village. She didn’t
have a father any more. She had a lovely grandmother. Little Red Rid-
ing Hood was happy. Her grandmother loved her very much. One day
the mother said to Little Red Riding Hood: “Grandmother is ill. She
needs our help. You have to go to her. You have to bring her wine and
cake. You must not stop in the forest. You always have to keep walking
quickly.” The girl came to her grandmother’s house. Everything was
quiet. Everything was different from usual. She was afraid. She thought:
I can go home again. I can go in. I can help grandmother.
82 Word order
We all know what happened next…

Let’s take this a stage further.
When two main clauses are joined together it is sometimes possible to omit
some elements (such as the subject or the verb) in the second clause. The
difficulty is getting the word order in the second main clause right when this
happens. The regularity of the pattern is still intact, but it’s not so visible. Let’s
look at our example sentences again. Some subtle changes have been made
and it looks as though the linking words have shifted into first position in some of
the second main clauses. That would be against the rules, so what’s happened?
a) Der Hund sieht die Katze im Garten und bellt laut.

The dog sees the cat in the garden and barks loudly.
b) Der Hund rennt in den Garten, aber nicht schnell genug, um die Katze zu
fangen.
The dog runs into the garden, but doesn’t run fast enough to catch the cat.
c) Die Katze faucht, denn sie mag den Hund nicht.
The cat hisses, for she doesn’t like the dog.
d) Die Katze bleibt nicht sitzen, sondern klettert auf einen Baum.
The cat doesn’t stay sitting but climbs up a tree.
e) Der Hund kann nun aufgeben oder lange warten.
The dog can give up now or he can wait a long time.
Exercise 17
Identify why the sentences are different from before. Put in the letters for the
sentences to match the rule and put in the relevant linking word.
Rule Letter for sentence Linking word

1. If sentence elements
(subject or verb or both)
are the same in the two
main clauses they can be
omitted.
With one particular
2.
linking word between
two clauses no element
can be omitted. The
linking word is one that
gives a reason.
Word order 83
3. In main clauses connected

with a linking word which
expresses contrast both
subject and verb have to
be the same in both main
clauses if they are to be
omitted in the second one.
Exercise 18
Connect the following sentences by using suitable linking words as suggested

in the English translation. Apply the rules explained above: indicate which ele-
ment/s in the second clause can be left out by putting a bracket round it/them.
1. Wir müssen jetzt losfahren, ____________ wir müssen die Party verpassen.
We must go now or we have to miss the party.
2. Ich habe viele Freundinnen, ____________ ich habe nur eine beste Freundin.
I have many female friends but I have only one best friend.
3. Ich trinke jeden Abend eine heiße Schokolade, ____________ ich gehe um 23
Uhr ins Bett.
I drink a cup of hot chocolate every night and I go to bed at 11 o’clock.
4. Er hat nicht viel Zeit, ____________ seine Frau hat vor einer Woche ein Baby
bekommen.
He doesn’t have much time for his wife had a baby a week ago.
5. Wir fahren nicht nach Frankreich in Urlaub, ____________ wir fahren in die
Schweiz.
We are not going to France on holiday but we are going to Switzerland.
Exercise 19
Now let’s go back to the text about Little Red Riding Hood which you already
know (Exercise 16). Put brackets round the words in the text which can be omit-
ted according to the rules you have learned in Exercise 17.
3.2 Adverbs used as conjunctions

There’s another group of linking words which add logical connection to sen-
tences: certain adverbs. For example: ‘trotzdem’ (despite, nevertheless, in spite
of) and ‘deswegen’ (therefore, that’s why, for that reason).

84 Word order
In contrast to the ADUSO words discussed above these adverbs don’t stand in
Zero position.
Exercise 20
Identify the positions of ‘trotzdem’ and ‘deswegen’ in these two example sen-
tences. Are they in position 1, 2 or 3?
1. a) Die Katze sieht den Hund, sie rennt trotzdem nicht weg.
1. b) Die Katze sieht den Hund, trotzdem rennt sie nicht weg.
The cat sees the dog, despite that she doesn’t run away.
2. a) Die Katze hasst den Hund, deswegen klettert sie auf den Baum.
2. b) Die Katze hasst den Hund, sie klettert deswegen auf den Baum.
The cat hates the dog, therefore she climbs up the tree.
Answer: _________ _________
There are a number of other such linking adverbs which function in the same
manner. They are also called ‘conjunctional adverbs’. Here are more examples
of common ones:
• außerdem (furthermore/moreover/also)
• dadurch (thereby/through that)
• dann (then)
• dennoch (despite/nevertheless/in spite of) – synonymous with trotzdem
• deshalb (therefore/that’s why/for that reason) – synonymous with deswegen
• jedoch (but/however)
• sonst (otherwise)
Exercise 21
Here are some example sentences. Put the conjunctional adverb in either the
first or the third position in the alternative versions. Remember, the verb must
stay in second position!
1. Ich komme morgen, sonst bist du traurig.

Ich komme morgen, _____________________________________.
I’m coming tomorrow, otherwise you’ll be sad.
2. Wir haben meine Eltern besucht, wir sind außerdem einkaufen gegangen.
Wir haben meine Eltern besucht, ____________________________________.
We visited my parents, we also went shopping.
3. Er geht gerne ins Kino, er hat dadurch auch neue Leute kennengelernt.
Er geht gerne ins Kino, _____________________________________.
He likes to go to the cinema, through that he also has got to know new
people.
Word order 85
4. Morgen wird es regnen, dann kann ich nicht im Garten arbeiten.

Morgen wird es regnen, _____________________________________.
It’s going to rain tomorrow, then I can’t work in the garden.
5. Sie sind reich, jedoch haben sie viele Probleme.
Sie sind reich, _____________________________________.
They are rich, but they’ve got a lot of problems.
Exercise 22
Some of these linking adverbs contain words you may have come across before.
For example, ‘dadurch’ contains the word ‘durch’. It can help you remember
their meaning and enable you to use them correctly if you make use of such
meaning associations. Here is a list of all nine adverbs from above in alphabet-
ical order:
‘außerdem’, ‘dadurch’, ‘dann’, ‘deshalb’, ‘deswegen’, ‘dennoch’, ‘jedoch’,

‘sonst’, ‘trotzdem’.
Your task is to write them into the appropriate space below to show these
associations by underlining (as shown in the example).
example of associated word adverb

Durch die Medizin wurde er geheilt.
1. dadurch
He was cured through the medicine.
Wegen des Sturms wurde das Picknick
2. _______
abgesagt.
Because of the storm, the picnic was cancelled.
3. Er war arm, doch er war glücklich. _______
He was poor but happy.
Außer der großen Tasche habe ich auch einen
4. _______
Koffer dabei.
Apart from the big bag, I also brought my suitcase.
Trotz der vielen Probleme machen wir weiter.
5. _______
In spite of many problems we carry on.
6. Bei sonstigen Fragen… _______
For any other questions…
7. Er hat zwar viel gegessen, aber er hat noch _______
Hunger.
He has eaten quite a lot but he is still hungry.
8. adverb left over _______
9. adverb left over _______
86 Word order
Exercise 23
Below are descriptions in English of various scenarios. Your task is to choose

the linking adverb/s from the list which would fit.
List, in alphabetical order:
außerdem – dadurch – dann – deshalb – deswegen – dennoch – jedoch –

sonst – trotzdem
1. Giving reasons
There is a storm, that’s why there won’t be a picnic.
Possible adverb(s): _____________________________________________
2. Naming the cause
The medicine cured the patient.
3. Stating a contrast/contradicting expectations
One can be poor and happy. It is possible to carry on even though there are
problems.
He has eaten a lot but is still hungry.
4. Giving additional information
I have a big bag and a suitcase.
5. Explaining alternatives
Is there any more? (other, otherwise)
6. Referring to a time line
A happens first, then comes B.
3.3 Coordinating conjunctions combined with adverbs

It is natural in German to combine coordinating conjunctions (‘ADUSO’ words)
and conjunctional adverbs: for example, ‘und dann’ (and then), ‘aber trotzdem’/
‘aber dennoch’ (but despite that); ‘denn dadurch’ (for that way); ‘und deswegen’
(and therefore) are common combinations.
This time, try and identify for yourself why things can get tricky here.
Exercise 24
Compare the word order in the two alternative sentences below. Each consists
of two conjoined main clauses. What can you observe about the position of
Word order 87
the co-ordinating conjunction (‘ADUSO’ word) between the two clauses and the
position of the verb in the second main clause? This will be easier if you put
numbers (0, 1, 2) above the relevant elements in both clauses.
a) Mein Bruder kam gestern, und dann haben wir in einem Restaurant
gegessen.
My brother came yesterday and then we ate in a restaurant.
b) Mein Bruder kam gestern, und wir haben dann in einem Restaurant
gegessen.
My brother came yesterday and then we ate in a restaurant.
Exercise 25
Connect the pairs of main clauses selecting from the following combinations of
linking words:
• und dann (and then),

• und deswegen (and therefore),
• denn dadurch (for this way),
• aber trotzdem (but despite that)
Employ the two different word order models from above.
1. Ich bin krank. Ich komme morgen nicht.

I am ill. I’m not coming tomorrow.
a) _____________________________________________________
b) _____________________________________________________
2. Sie hat wenig Zeit. Sie kommt heute Abend.
She has little time. She is coming tonight.
a) _____________________________________________________
b) _____________________________________________________
3. Du musst mehr auf Deutsch lesen. Du lernst viele neue Wörter.
You have to read more in German. You’ll learn many new words.
a) _____________________________________________________
b) _____________________________________________________
4. Ich muss bis drei Uhr arbeiten. Du kannst kommen.
I have to work till 3 pm. You can come.
a) _____________________________________________________
b) _____________________________________________________
Exercise 26
Here’s the text about ‘Little Red Riding Hood’ from Exercise 16 again, in a
slightly different form. Now you have to put in combinations of linking words
88 Word order
together with the subject and verb – and you need to put them in the right
order.
(1) sie – aber – dennoch – war

(2) deswegen – musst – und – du
(3) sonst – denn – kommt – der große böse Wolf
(4) ging – sie – trotzdem – aber
(5) dann – aber – sie – hörte
Rotkäppchen wohnte mit ihrer Mutter in einem Dorf. Sie hatte keinen Vater
mehr, (1) _____________________________ nicht unglücklich, denn sie hatte
eine liebe Großmutter. Eines Tages sagte die Mutter zu Rotkäppchen: „Die
Großmutter ist krank, (2) _____________________________ zu ihr gehen und
ihr Wein und Kuchen bringen. Du darfst im Wald nicht stehen bleiben, (3)
_____________________________.“ Das Mädchen ging durch den Wald und
sie hatte große Angst, (4) _____________________________ weiter. Bald kam sie
zum Haus der Großmutter. Alles war still, (5) _____________________________
etwas. Im Haus schnarchte jemand ganz laut!
Little Red Riding Hood lived with her mother in a village. She didn’t
have a father any more, but despite that she wasn’t unhappy for she
had a lovely grandmother. One day, her mother said to Little Red Rid-
ing Hood: “Grandmother is ill and therefore you have to go to her and
bring her wine and cake. You mustn’t stop in the woods, for otherwise
the big bad wolf will come.” The girl went through the woods and she
was very afraid, but she went on nevertheless. Soon she came to her
grandmother’s house. Everything was quiet, but then she heard some-
thing. In the house, someone was snoring terribly loudly!
4 Subordinating conjunctions
Subordinate clauses are sometimes also called dependent clauses. This is
because unlike main clauses they can’t stand on their own: they are dependent
on a main clause. They are always introduced by a subordinating conjunction
such as, ‘dass’, ‘weil’, ‘wenn’ etc. These conjunctions express a logical con-
nection between the main clause and the subordinate clause in terms of time,
reason, condition etc. Below follows a list of the most common ones.
conjunction function
• als (when) time
• bevor (before) time
• bis (until) time
Word order 89
• nachdem (after) time

• seit (since) time
• während (whilst) time
• wenn (when) time
• falls (in case) possibility
• wenn (if) conditional
• da (since) reason
• damit (so that) purpose
• weil (because) reason
• obwohl (although) contrary to expectation/contrast
• dass (that) complementing main clause
• ob (whether) complementing main clause/indirect question
4.1 Subordinate word order

The most important rule when using subordinating conjunctions is that the finite
verb must go to the end of the clause. In the following examples, the finite verb
is underlined:
• Du hast gesagt, dass du morgen kommst.

You said that you’ll come tomorrow.
• Wir konnten nicht spazieren gehen, weil es geregnet hat.
We couldn’t go for a walk because it rained.
• Wenn du kommst, backe ich einen Kuchen.
When you come I’ll bake a cake.
Knowing the most important subordinating conjunctions and not forgetting that
the finite verb must go to the end of the clause is important. Bear in mind that in
English subordinate clauses, the normal word order (subject followed by verb)
doesn’t change.
Exercise 27
Join the following clauses with the given main clause by using the provided
subordinating conjunction.
Example:
• Ihre große Schwester war am Abend da. (before)

Her big sister was there in the evening.
90 Word order
• Britta hatte Angst, bevor ihre große Schwester am Abend da war.

Britta was afraid before her big sister was there in the evening.
1. Ihre große Schwester war am Abend nicht da. (because)

Her big sister wasn’t there in the evening.
Britta hatte Angst, __________________________________________________.
Britta was afraid, …
2. Ihre große Schwester war am Abend nicht da. (although)
Britta hatte keine Angst, ____________________________________________.
Britta wasn’t afraid, …
3. Ihre große Schwester war am Abend nicht da. (when)
4. Ihre große Schwester war am Abend da. (until)
5. Ihre große Schwester war am Abend da. (whilst)
Britta hatte keine Angst, ____________________________________________.
Britta wasn’t afraid, …
Exercise 28
Here is a list of the subordinating conjunctions we are using in this chapter. They
are in alphabetical order – but it makes much more sense to sort them according
to their semantic functions, which is your task below. There can be more than
one conjunction for one category.
• als (when)
• bevor (before)
• bis (until)
• da (since) (cause)
• damit (so that)
• dass (that)
• falls (in case)
• nachdem (after)
• ob (whether)
• obwohl (although)
• seit (since) (from the time when)
• während (whilst)
Word order 91
• weil (because)
• wenn (when)
• wenn (if)
semantic function German conjunction/s

1. reason __________________
2. time __________________
3. condition __________________
4. possibility __________________
5. purpose __________________
6. contrary to expectation/contrast __________________
7. complementing a main clause __________________
Some of these conjunctions can be easily confused, in different ways. For exam-
ple, ‘when’ can have three different meanings in German, or the conjunction
‘während’ can be mixed up with the preposition ‘während’.
4.2 Subordinate clauses in first position
German sentences don’t have to start off with the subject. Subordinate clauses
can function as first element in a German sentence.
The example in Exercise 27 (above) could be rewritten as follows:
Bevor ihre große Schwester am Abend da war, hatte Britta Angst.
Before her big sister was there in the evening, Britta was afraid.
The subordinate clause with the finite verb at the end is in position 1, followed by
the main clause with the main clause verb in position 2 after the comma.
Note that there is an inversion in the main clause: the subject must come after
the verb which must be in second position.
This rule is sometimes called the ‘verb-comma-verb’ rule:
verb-comma-verb
Bevor ihre große Schwester am Abend da war, hatte Britta Angst.
Exercise 29
Rewrite the practice sentences from Exercise 27, starting off with the subordi-
nate clause and observing the verb-comma-verb rule. The first one has been
started as an example:
1. Britta hatte Angst, weil ihre große Schwester am Abend nicht da war.
Weil ihre große Schwester am Abend nicht da war,_____________________.
92 Word order
2. Britta hatte keine Angst, obwohl ihre große Schwester am Abend nicht
da war.
__________________________________________________________________
3. Britta hatte Angst, wenn ihre große Schwester am Abend nicht da war.
__________________________________________________________________
4. Britta hatte Angst, bis ihre große Schwester am Abend da war.
__________________________________________________________________
5. Britta hatte keine Angst, während ihre große Schwester am Abend da war.
__________________________________________________________________
Exercise 30
Here’s another variation of the text about ‘Little Red Riding Hood’. Take marker
pens in three different colours and mark
• the main clause verb in second position

• the subordinating conjunctions
• the finite verb at the end of the subordinate clause
If necessary, consult the list of subordinating conjunctions in the introduction

to 4 above.
Rotkäppchen wohnte mit ihrer Mutter in einem Dorf. Weil sie keinen
Vater mehr hatte, ging sie oft ihre liebe Großmutter besuchen. Eines Tages
sagte die Mutter zu Rotkäppchen: „Du musst die Großmutter besuchen,
weil sie krank ist. Sie braucht guten Wein und süßen Kuchen, dass sie wie-
der gesund wird.“ Rotkäppchen antwortete: „Ich gehe gern, obwohl ich
Angst vor dem großen, bösen Wolf im Wald habe.“ Während sie schnell
durch den Wald lief, klopfte ihr Herz laut. Als sie am Haus der Großmutter
ankam, war alles still. Bevor sie hineinging, hörte sie drinnen ein lautes
Schnarchen ...
Little Red Riding Hood lived with her mother in a village. Since she had
no father any more she often went to visit her dear grandmother. One
day her mother said to Little Red Riding Hood: “You have to visit grand-
mother because she is ill. She needs good wine and sweet cake so that
she will get better again.” Little Red Riding Hood answered: “I’m happy
to go, although I’m afraid of the big bad wolf in the forest.” Whilst she
was walking quickly through the woods, her heart was beating loudly.
When she arrived at her grandmother’s house, everything was quiet.
Before she went in, she heard a loud snoring inside…
Word order 93
Exercise 31
What happens next in the story? Put the subordinating conjunctions and the
verbs that must go at the end of the subordinate clause into this text, taking the
translation as a guide:
nachdem – war – war – als – aussah – bis – sagte – dass – war – weil –
da – aufwachte
(1) ____________ Rotkäppchen ins Haus getreten (2) ____________,

ging sie ins Schlafzimmer der Großmutter. Die Großmutter lag im
Bett, (3) ____________ sie krank (4) ____________. (5) ____________ sie
(6)____________, kam Rotkäppchen näher ans Bett. Sie hatte Angst,
(7) ____________ die Großmutter nicht wie immer ____________ (8).
Die Großmutter wartete, (9) ____________ Rotkäppchen etwas (10)
____________. Es war klar, (11) ____________ etwas Schreckliches passiert
(12) ____________: Der böse Wolf hatte die Großmutter gefressen!
After Little Red Riding Hood had entered the house, she went into her
grandmother’s bedroom. Her grandmother lay in bed because she was
ill. When she woke up, Little Red Riding Hood came nearer to the bed.
She was afraid, since her grandmother didn’t look like she usually did.
Her grandmother waited until Little Red Riding Hood said something.
It was clear that something terrible had happened: the big bad wolf had
eaten her grandmother!
4.3 Clash of conjunctions

Look at this sentence: ‘He said that if I didn’t give in he would phone my friend.’
Does anything strike you as odd? Probably not. In English, combinations of
conjunctions such as ‘although if’, ‘that when’, ‘because if’, ‘that if’, ‘because
when’, ‘that because’, are quite common, if not very good style, but if you use
these combinations in German they tend to sound both clumsy and, what’s
worse, cause problems with word order.
In German, the translation of the combinations of conjunctions listed above

would be: ‘obwohl, wenn’ (although if), ‘dass, wenn’ (that when/if), ‘weil, wenn’
(because if), ‘weil, als’ (because when), ‘dass, weil’ (that because), but if you use
them in German sentences combined in this manner you are almost guaranteed
to run into problems because you need to observe subordinate word order for
both conjunctions. Look at this example – which in English sounds quite natural:
94 Word order
We saw that when the cat climbed up the tree the dog was furious.
The word order stays as it always does in English: both subjects in the subordi-
nate clauses (cat, dog) come before the verb (climbed up, was).
In the translation that follows, the word order is correct, but it is stylistically
quite clumsy, if not actually grammatically wrong in German to put two subordi-
nating conjunctions straight after each other. English learners are often tempted
to do this, because it follows the English pattern:
• Wir sahen, dass, als die Katze auf den Baum kletterte, der Hund wütend war.
‘… dass, als…’: dodgy!
A better (if still a little clumsy) version because it separates the conjunctions by
bringing the subject of the second clause forward would be this:
• Wir sahen, dass der Hund, als die Katze auf den Baum kletterte, wütend war.
There are two subordinate clauses, one contained within the other. The word
order is correct: each finite verb is at the end of each subordinate clause. But
often students forget that when they have constructed one subordinate clause
(here: ‘als die Katze auf den Baum kletterte’) they have the word order in the
other subordinate clause to worry about (here: ‘dass der Hund wütend war’), so
they forget to put the finite verb at the end of it. This is one of the commonest
sources of error for English learners of German.
There is only one sure way of avoiding these problems and to write clear sen-
tences: separate the subordinate clauses out and put one after the other! Aim
for this structure: ‘We saw that the dog was furious when the cat climbed up the
tree.’, starting with the first conjunction (here ‘dass’) and completing this clause
before embarking on the next conjunction (here: ‘als’) plus clause:
Wir sahen, dass der Hund wütend war, als die Katze auf den Baum kletterte.
Exercise 32
These sentences are awkward but grammatically correct. First, underline the
pairs of conjunctions. Then rewrite the sentences in a less clumsy manner by
applying the above structure.
1. The children know that if the weather is bad they can’t play in the garden.
Die Kinder wissen, dass sie, wenn das Wetter schlecht ist, nicht im Garten
spielen können.
Die Kinder wissen, ________________________________________________.
2. Please be honest, because if you don’t love me anymore, I will go.
Bitte sei ehrlich, weil ich, wenn du mich nicht mehr liebst, gehen werde.
Bitte sei ehrlich,__________________________________________________.
Word order 95
3. We’ll have to decide this straight away, although if he rings now, you’ll have
to talk to him.
Wir müssen das jetzt entscheiden, obwohl du, wenn er jetzt anruft, mit ihm
sprechen musst.
Wir müssen das jetzt entscheiden, ___________________________________.
4. I know he’s happy, because when I saw him he smiled the whole time.
Ich weiß, er ist glücklich, weil er, als ich ihn sah, die ganze Zeit lächelte.
Ich weiß, er ist glücklich,___________________________________________.
5. Don’t believe that because you are here now your relationship will be easier.
Glaub’ nicht, dass eure Beziehung, weil du jetzt hier bist, einfacher sein wird.
Glaub’ nicht, ___________________________________________________.
4.4 Combining coordinating and subordinating

conjunctions
Looking back over the sections on word order it’s important to remember the
rules for both coordinating and subordinating conjunctions because they can
also be used in combination with each other.
These combinations are natural in German and in English: ‘aber wenn’ (but if),
‘und wenn’ (and if), ‘und als’ (and when), ‘und obwohl’ (and although), ‘oder
bevor’ (or before) and so on. But the word order rules for both coordination and
subordination still hold.
In the following example, there’s a first main clause, ‘Der Hund ist meistens
brav’, and an ADUSO word in Zero position (‘aber’) which connects it with the
second main clause: ‘er wird wütend’. There is also a subordinate clause: ‘wenn
die Katze auf den Baum klettert’, which functions as the first element of the sec-
ond main clause: ‘er wird wütend’.The verb in the second main clause (wird)
must then come in second position:
Der Hund ist meistens brav, aber wenn die Katze auf den Baum klettert, wird
er wütend.
Exercise 33
Take marker pens of two different colours and identify the coordinating and subor-
dinating conjunctions and the verbs that go with them in the following sentences.
1. Er hat hart gearbeitet, und wenn alles klappt, bekommt er eine Eins.

He has worked hard and if everything goes well, he’ll get a top mark.
2. Sie hat mich betrogen, und obwohl ich sie liebe, werde ich sie verlassen.
She betrayed me and although I love her, I will leave her.
96 Word order
3. Heute Nachmittag oder bevor du morgen weg musst, können wir einkaufen
gehen.
This afternoon or before you have to leave tomorrow, we can go shopping.
4. Der Hund bellte, und als die Katze auf dem Baum blieb, wurde er immer
wütender.
The dog barked and when the cat stayed put in the tree, he became more
and more enraged.
5. Ich bin heute zu Hause, aber wenn du erst morgen kommst, gehe ich ins
Kino.
I’m at home today, but if you don’t come until tomorrow, I’ll go to the cinema.
The next exercises are on a little higher level, so attempt them only when you
have digested everything above and are ready.
Exercise 34
Now do the same in this text, only note that the sentences follow various different
word order patterns:
Als ich angefangen habe, Deutsch zu lernen, war ich sehr begeistert, und
obwohl die Wortstellung manchmal sehr schwer ist, finde ich die Sprache
noch immer faszinierend, denn ich weiß, dass die Grammatik nicht immer
einfach ist. Aber wenn man etwas lernen will, ist das alles gar kein Prob-
lem. Man muss nur geduldig sein, und wenn es schwierig wird, muss man
darauf vertrauen, dass man bald Deutsch sprechen können wird.
When I started learning German I was very enthusiastic and although

word order sometimes is very hard I still find the language fascinat-
ing, for I know that the grammar isn’t always easy. But if you want to
learn, all that is not a problem. You only have to be patient, and if things
get difficult you have to trust that soon enough you’ll be able to speak
German.
Exercise 35
Put appropriate conjunctions into the text. Consult the lists of conjunctions
above if you need help with finding a conjunction that works. The translation will
also help.
(1) _____________ Rotkäppchen den Wolf gefragt hatte: „Aber Großmut-

ter, warum hast du denn so einen großen Mund?“, sprang der Wolf aus
dem Bett (2) _____________ fraß das arme Mädchen auf. Dann legte er sich
Word order 97
wieder ins Bett (3) _____________ schlief ein, (4) _____________ bald kam
ein Jäger. Er wusste, (5) _____________ der Wolf etwas Schlimmes getan
hatte, (6) _____________ sein Bauch so dick war. Der Jäger nahm ein Messer
und (7) _____________ er große Angst hatte, schnitt er den Bauch des
Wolfes auf. (8) _____________ er das getan hatte, kletterten die Großmut-
ter und Rotkäppchen heraus. Der große böse Wolf war tot! Alle drei tran-
ken den guten Wein (9)_____________ aßen den süßen Kuchen. Und (10)
_____________ sie nicht gestorben sind, leben sie noch heute!*
* traditional ending of fairy tales in German
After Little Red Riding Hood had asked the wolf: “But grandmother,
why do you have such a big mouth?“, the wolf leapt out of bed and
ate the poor girl up. Then he went back to bed and fell asleep, but
soon a huntsman arrived. He knew that the wolf had done something
bad, because his stomach was so fat. The huntsman took a knife and
although he was very afraid cut open the wolf ’s stomach. When he had
done this, the grandmother and Little Red Riding Hood climbed out.
The big bad wolf was dead! All three drank the good wine and ate the
sweet cake. And if they haven’t died yet, they will still be alive today!
6 Tenses
1 When to use the present tense 99

2 When to use the past tenses 100
2.1 When to use the perfect tense 100
2.2 When to use the simple past tense 101
2.3 When to use the pluperfect tense 102
3 Talking about the future 103
4 German equivalents of English progressive tenses 104
5 Use of the Konjunktiv forms 105
5.1 Konjunktiv 1 in reported speech 105
5.2 Use of Konjunktiv 2 107
Tenses 99
Introduction
The use of German tenses is quite similar to the use of English tenses. The verb
forms can be found in Chapters 3 and 7. In this chapter, you will concentrate
on the contrasts between the English and German tense systems. This chapter
also serves as a chapter on translation: errors often occur when students want
to find a 1:1 translation of a particular construction, even though sometimes a
German tense is best translated using a different tense in English, or the other
way round. In addition, you can use this chapter to revise what you have learned
in the chapter on verb forms.
1 When to use the present tense

The German present tense stretches a good bit further than the English one. It is
used to cover events which started in the past but are still relevant now and for
things which have yet to happen. For the first situation, English uses a perfect
tense: ‘I have been living here for 20 years.’ The action started in the past and is
still relevant today. For the second, English uses a future tense: ‘I am going to
finish this tonight’ or ‘I will finish this tonight’. The action is located in the future. It
is tempting to use the equivalent tenses in German when, in fact, both examples
have to be translated using the present tense: ‘Ich lebe hier seit 20 Jahren.’ and
‘Ich mache das heute Abend fertig.’ In a way, the present tense in German can
be stretched to cover more ground.
Exercise 1
Identify those English sentences for which you would need to use the present
tense in a German translation.
1. I have worked for this company for four years.

2. I have had a good childhood.
3. He is leaving tonight.
4. We will spend the next year in Hamburg.
5. They have done the shopping already.
6. They went to the supermarket.
7. She has been staying with her aunt since last year.
8. I have to apologize.
100 Tenses
Exercise 2
Only attempt this task once you have checked your answers for the previous
exercise in the answer key. Here are the four sentences which feature the pres-
ent tense in German. Fill in the correct verb forms.
1. Ich _________________ seit vier Jahren bei dieser Firma. (arbeiten)

2. Er _______________ heute Abend ab. (abfahren)
3. Wir ______________ das nächste Jahr in Hamburg. (verbringen)
4. Sie ________________ bei ihrer Tante. (wohnen)
Exercise 3
From the following German sentences translate into English only those for which
you would use a tense other than the present tense.
1. Ich lebe schon seit zwei Jahren alleine.

2. Ich bin glücklich.
3. Er schläft jetzt schon drei Stunden lang.
4. Wir wollen jetzt nach Hause fahren.
5. Sie hält den Vortrag nächste Woche.
6. Das kann ich noch nicht versprechen.
7. Ich mache das sofort.
8. Nach dem Frühling kommt der Sommer.
Exercise 4
Complete this exercise after you have checked your answers for the previous
exercise in the answer key. German uses different words and expressions from
English to express that something has been going on for a while or will be hap-
pening in the future. Can you spot them in sentences 1, 3, 5 and 7 above?
1. To indicate that something started in the past and is still going on now:
________ and ________
2. To indicate that something will happen in future: _____________ and
________
2 When to use the past tenses

2.1 When to use the perfect tense
When to use the different past tenses in German depends on questions of con-
text, style and register rather than grammar. It is possible to use either the simple
Tenses 101
past tense or the perfect tense, for example, depending on the circumstances. In
English, the use of these tenses is much more restricted and marks a difference
in meaning. ‘I wrote this essay.’ means that this may have happened several
years in the past. ‘I have written this essay.’, on the other hand, suggests that the
essay was written very recently. In German, either sentence can be translated by
either ‘Ich schrieb den Essay.’ or ‘Ich habe den Essay geschrieben.’, depending
on the context. In this section you can explore this further.
Exercise 5
In spoken German, the perfect tense is the preferred tense for talking about the
past. Your task therefore is to translate the conversation below into German by
using perfect tense forms of the verbs provided. This is a revision for verb forms
and when to use ‘haben’ and ‘sein’ (see Chapter 3).
1. Ich _____________ gestern zum Supermarkt ___________________. (gehen)

I went to the supermarket yesterday.
2. _____________ du viel ___________________? (kaufen)
Did you buy a lot?
3. Ich ___________ mehr ___________ (kaufen) 4. als du mir _____________
______________. (sagen)
I bought more than you told me to.
5. Das _______________ ich _________________! (wissen)
I knew it!
6. Ich _____________ deine Freundin Anne ________________. (treffen)
I met your friend Anne.
7. _______________ du mit ihr _________________? (sprechen)
Did you talk to her?
8. Nein, sie _______ einfach ____________________. (vorbeigehen, sep. verb)
No, she just walked past me.
2.2 When to use the simple past tense
Exercise 6
Imagine you had to write a short report on what happened in the supermarket.
For written accounts (newspaper articles, reports, stories, for example) German
uses the simple past. Here is half of the conversation from the previous task
again. Fill in the correct simple past forms.
1. Ich _____________ gestern zum Supermarkt. (gehen)

2. Ich ___________ mehr (kaufen)
3. als du mir _____________. (sagen)
4. Ich _____________ deine Freundin Anne. (treffen)
5. Sie ________________ ________________. (vorbeigehen)
102 Tenses
Exercise 7
There are also a few, easy to remember verbs which are used in the simple past
even in spoken German. They are the auxiliary verbs ‘haben’ and ‘sein’ and all
modal verbs. Spot their simple past tense forms in the account below. There are
five verbs in total, underline them.
Ich habe gestern deine Freundin Anne getroffen. Ich wollte sie etwas fra-
gen, aber sie war zu beschäftigt. Sie hat mich nur kurz angelächelt. Das
war im Supermarkt, ich hatte meinen Einkauf schon erledigt. Dann bin ich
nach Hause gefahren, denn ich musste ja noch arbeiten. Ich habe dann mit
Peter darüber gesprochen. Er war erstaunt.
I met your friend Anne yesterday. I wanted to ask her something but
she was too busy. She only smiled at me briefly. That was at the super-
market, I had already finished my shopping. I then went home because
I still had to do some work. I talked to Peter about it afterwards. He was
surprised.
2.3 When to use the pluperfect tense

The use of the pluperfect is almost identical to that in English. The pluperfect
establishes that something happened before something else in the past. For
example: ‘After I had fed the cat I went to work.’ What this expresses is that the
speaker fed the cat first and then went to work. The use of the pluperfect form
‘had fed’ makes this chronology clear.
Exercise 8
Fill in the verb forms in the gaps below, using either the pluperfect or the simple
past. This task will help you revise verb forms and when to take ‘haben’ or ‘sein’.
1. Nachdem ich drei Monate __________________ ____________________

(trainieren), ________________ (sein) es endlich soweit!
After I had trained for three months it was finally happening!
2. Nachdem ich mit dem Team zum Sportstadion __________________
____________________ (fahren), __________________ (begrüßen) uns der
Trainer.
After I had gone to the sports stadium with the team the coach welcomed us.
3. Wir ___________________(treffen) uns auf der Rennbahn, nachdem wir eine
kurze Pause __________________ ____________________. (machen)
We met at the running track after we had taken a short break.
In the following exercise, you can do some more work on pluperfect forms.
Tenses 103
Exercise 9
Decide which event happened first and then fill in the appropriate forms of the
verbs provided. For example:
zur Arbeit fahren/die Katze füttern

Nachdem Monika die Katze gefüttert hatte, fuhr sie zur Arbeit.
Note that ‘nachdem’ introduces a subordinate clause, the finite verb in the plu-
perfect goes to the end and the following main clause starts with the finite verb
in the simple past. (See Chapter 5 on Word order if you need help with this.)
1. Monika/to buy a ticket/to take the bus

Nachdem Monika/das Ticket kaufen/den Bus nehmen
__________________________________________________________________.
2. to switch on the computer/to arrive at work
Nachdem sie/den Computer anschalten/bei der Arbeit ankommen
__________________________________________________________________.
3. to take a break/to read her e-mails
Nachdem sie/eine Pause machen/ihre E-Mails lesen
__________________________________________________________________.
4. to talk to her colleague/to go home
Nachdem sie/mit einem Kollegen sprechen/nach Hause fahren
__________________________________________________________________.
3 Talking about the future

If you want to talk about future events in English, you have to use one of the
forms reserved for this: ‘will’ and infinitive (I will leave tomorrow), ‘to be going to’
and infinitive (I am going to leave tomorrow) or a progressive form (I am leaving
tomorrow). In German the present tense is used to express neutral statements
about future events. For example, in an English bus you can see the display ‘Bus
stopping’ which is ‘Bus hält’ in German. This use of the present tense has been
dealt with in section 1 of this chapter.
The form ‘werden’ and infinitive, which is often called the future tense in German,
is usually used to express non-neutral statements about the future. For example,
promises, speculations, warnings and threats can be expressed in this way. This
differs from the English usage. When translating an English future construction,
think first whether it would be best to use the simple present tense in German
rather than the ‘werden’ and infinitive construction.
104 Tenses
Exercise 10
From the list of English sentences below, pick those which should be trans-
lated using the ‘werden’ and infinitive construction in German because they are
non-neutral statements about future events. You will find translations of all the
sentences in the answer key.
1. I will definitely be back before 5 pm.

2. He will come along, I am sure.
3. I am going to Dresden tonight.
4. Perhaps I will bring back a souvenir from Dresden for you, we’ll see.
5. She will be able to stay at ours next week.
6. This will probably not end well.
7. There is a small chance that he may be able to do it.
8. She will return to Munich tonight.
9. I presume that she will stay for a month.
Exercise 11
When looking at the translations of the sentences in the previous task, you may
have noticed the use of adverbs such as ‘sicher’ and ‘bestimmt’. These are use-
ful words for expressing a degree of certainty or probability. Below is a list of
them: sort them in order of certainty. This is not an exact science but rather a
useful vocabulary exercise!
vielleicht, bestimmt, ganz sicher, vermutlich, wahrscheinlich, eventuell
100% certain ← → not very

certain
1. _________ 2. _________ 3. _________ 4. _________ 5. _________ 6. _________
4 German equivalents of English

progressive tenses
The English progressive forms express the idea that something is or was in the
process of happening (‘She is reading a book.’, ‘I was checking my e-mails
when you rang.’). There is no equivalent form in German, but of course it is pos-
sible to express the same idea using different means.
Tenses 105
Exercise 12
Below are German translations of English progressive forms in the present and
past tense. Underline the German words which convey the idea that ‘something
is/was happening at that moment’.
1. She is reading a book.

Sie liest gerade ein Buch.
2. I was checking my e-mails when you rang.
Ich war gerade dabei, meine E-Mails zu lesen, als du anriefst.
3. We were doing the shopping when the police arrived.
Wir waren beim Einkaufen, als die Polizei ankam.
4. He can’t come right now, he is taking a shower.
Er kann jetzt nicht kommen, er duscht gerade.
Exercise 13
From the list of German sentences below, identify those which describe a contin-
uous action. You will find translations of those in the answer key.
1. Er ist gestern erst um halb neun aufgestanden.

2. Ich bin im Januar geboren.
3. Wir machen gerade eine Stadttour in Berlin.
4. Sie fuhr genau in dem Moment am Supermarkt vorbei, als die Polizei kam.
5. Er zieht sich gerade an.
6. Sie waren gerade dabei, das Haus zu verlassen, als er anrief.
5 Use of the Konjunktiv forms

There are two Konjunktiv forms in German, referred to as Konjunktiv 1 and Kon-
junktiv 2. You can look up their forms in most grammar books. They are usually
called ‘moods’ rather than tenses as their usage is not determined by when
something happened but how the speaker is thinking about what happened or
whether the speaker is reporting what someone else said. In this section, you
will look at the use of Konjunktiv 1 for reported speech and the use of Konjunktiv
2 for conditions, wishes, polite requests and speculations.
5.1 Konjunktiv 1 in reported speech

In Chapter 12 you can find out about the conventions for indicating direct
speech. In this section you will learn about reported speech.

106 Tenses
In English, the past tenses double up as forms which are used to make clear that
the speaker is reporting from a source. For example, in ‘He said that he went to
the shops.’, ‘went’ is used in this way. In German, however, you need to use the
Konjunktiv. It is tempting for English speakers to translate a sentence like the
example by using the simple past tense.
Exercise 14
Statistically, it is the third person singular that is most frequently used in reported
speech. It is rare to report on what you have said yourself, or what a person or
persons you are addressing directly has or have just said. Therefore, first and
second persons singular and plural (‘ich’, ‘du’, ‘wir’, ‘ihr’ and ‘Sie’) will not be
dealt with here. Most grammar books will give you an overview of these forms.
Here are the forms of frequently used verbs:
for third person singular er/sie/es/man
haben → habe; sein → sei; werden → werde; geben → gebe; gehen → gehe;
kommen → komme; machen → mache; wissen → wisse
for third person plural sie/Sie
haben → haben; sein → seien; werden → werden; geben → geben; gehen

→ gehen; kommen → kommen; machen → machen; wissen → wissen
Complete the statements below. Delete as appropriate.
1. In the third person singular, the forms of Konjunktiv 1 are the same as/differ-
ent from the indicative forms.
2. In the third person singular, the forms of Konjunktiv 1 have/have no vowel
changes.
3. In the third person plural, the forms of Konjunktiv 1 differ from the indicative
forms only for the verb: ________________.
Exercise 15
Considering that Konjunktiv 1 in reported speech is usually only used in written

German, transform the statements in direct speech below into a written report,
using Konjunktiv 1 forms.
Politiker Schmitt: „Die nächste Wahl wird über unsere Zukunft entscheiden.“
The next election will determine our future.
1. Politiker Schmitt sagt/sagte, die nächste Wahl __________über unsere

Zukunft entscheiden.
„Die anderen Parteien sind nicht ehrlich mit den Wählern.“
The other parties are not honest with the public.
Tenses 107
2. Die anderen Parteien ____________ nicht ehrlich mit den Wählern.

„Ich gebe hier und heute ein klares Versprechen.“
I am making an explicit promise here and now.
3. Er ___________ hier und heute ein klares Versprechen.
„Ich weiß, was für das Land wichtig ist.“
I know what is important for this country.
4. Er ________________, was für das Land wichtig ___________.
„Es kommt darauf an, die richtige Partei zu wählen.“
It is important to elect the right party.
5. Es __________________ darauf an, die richtige Partei zu wählen.
„Ich bin Politiker geworden, um für Rechte zu kämpfen.“
I have become a politician to fight for rights.
6. Er _______________ Politiker geworden, um für Rechte zu kämpfen.
„Ich habe gerade erst begonnen, für mein Land zu arbeiten.“
I have only just started to work for my country.
7. Er ________ gerade erst begonnen, für sein Land zu arbeiten.
Exercise 16
Note that it is also possible to use ‘dass’ and ‘indicative’ to report what someone
has said, as in the parallel English usage. Transform the first four sentences from
Exercise 15 using ‘dass’ and ‘indicative’. Note that using a ‘dass’ clause means
that the verb is moved to the end of the subordinate clause.
1. Politiker Schmitt sagt/sagte, dass die nächste Wahl über unsere Zukunft
entscheiden __________.
2. Er sagt, dass die anderen Parteien nicht ehrlich mit den Wählern
____________.
3. Er sagte, dass er hier und heute ein klares Versprechen ___________.
4. Er sagt, dass er ________________, was für das Land wichtig ___________.
Because in German the third person plural forms of Konjunktiv 1 are not distinct
from the indicative, you have to resort to alternatives. An alternative can be to
use ‘würden’ and infinitive: ‘Er sagte, alle in seiner Partei würden hart arbeiten.’
(‘He said that all members of his party worked hard.’) It is also possible to use
Konjunktiv 2.
5.2 Use of Konjunktiv 2

Konjunktiv 2 forms can be used in reported speech to replace Konjunktiv
1 forms when these are not distinct from the indicative. What do the forms
look like?
108 Tenses
For regular verbs, the forms are exactly the same as the simple past form:
‘machen → ich machte’
For non-regular verbs: use the simple past form, add the Konjunktiv endings
(see Chapters 3 and 4) and use an umlaut where possible: haben → hätte; sein →
wäre; werden → würde; geben → gäbe; gehen → ginge; kommen → käme;
wissen → wüsste
Exercise 17
Transform the following verbs into Konjunktiv 2 forms.
1. Ich sage
2. Wir kommen
3. Er sieht
4. Du gibst
5. Sie haben
6. Ihr wisst
Exercise 18
Below are a few examples to help you get a sense of the usage of Konjunktiv 2.
• Ich wünschte, ich hätte mehr Zeit, um diese Aufgabe zu erledigen.

I wish I had more time to finish this job.
• Sie sagte, sie gingen jetzt nach Hause.
She said they were going home now.
• Wenn wir genug Geld hätten, gäben wir dir 1.000 Euro.
If we had enough money we would give you 1,000 Euros.
• Ich käme gern zu deiner Party, aber ich kann leider nicht.
I would love to come to your party but I’m afraid I can’t.
From the list of functions below, choose those for which Konjunktiv 2 can be used.
1. Questions
2. Speculations
3. Reported speech
4. Imperatives
5. The Passive
6. Unreal conditions
7. Wishes
8. Causal connections
Tenses 109
Exercise 19
It is important to understand the functions of Konjunktiv 2. From the alternatives

given below, tick the English translation which is best.
1. Wenn ich genug Zeit hätte, käme ich zu deinem Fest.

a. If I have enough time I will come to your party.
b. If I had enough time I’d come to your party.
2. Wenn er doch nur reicher wäre…!
a. If only he was richer…!
b. When he was richer…!
3. Sie sagten, sie kämen um 17.00 Uhr an.
a. They said they’d arrive at 5 pm.
b. They said they had arrived at 5 pm.
4. Gäbe es mehr Arbeit für alle, gäbe es weniger Migration.
a. When there is more work for everybody there will be less migration.
b. If there were more work for everybody there would be less migration.
Exercise 20
Expressing hypothetical conditions is one of the most frequent functions for

Konjuntiv 2. If the condition is real and can be fulfilled, German uses indicative
tenses: ‘Wenn du morgen nach Hause kommst, freu ich mich!’ (‘If you come
home tomorrow I will be happy.’). If the condition is not fulfillable, use the Kon-
junktiv 2 or its replacement ‘würde’ and infinitive: ‘Wenn du morgen nach Hause
kämest, würde ich mich freuen.’ (‘If you came home tomorrow I’d be happy.’).
Transform all hypothetical conditions below into real ones!
1. Wenn der Film interessant wäre, würde ich ihn nochmal anschauen.
Wenn der Film interessant __________, ______________ ich ihn nochmal
anschauen.
If the film is interesting I will watch it again.
2. Wenn er früh zu Hause wäre, würde er dich anrufen.
Wenn er früh zu Hause ___________, _____________ er dich an.
If he is home early he will call you.
3. Wenn wir genug Eier hätten, würde ich einen Kuchen machen.
Wenn wir genug Eier _____________, ____________ ich einen Kuchen.
If we have enough eggs I will make a cake.
4. Wenn ich die Antwort wüsste, würde ich es dir sagen.
Wenn ich die Antwort ________________, ___________ ich es dir.
If I know the answer I will tell you.
7 The passive
1 The ingredients 111

2 Where’s the subject? 113
2.1 The new subject in passive sentences 113
2.2 What becomes of the former subject? 116
3 Modal verbs in passive constructions 118
4 Process versus status 118
4.1 Expressing status 118
4.2 Verbs which cannot be used in the passive 120
5 Alternatives 120
The passive 111
Introduction
Using the passive is a way to shift the focus from the subject (the person or
thing doing things) to the object (the person or thing on the receiving end of this
action). The terms doing and action do not necessarily have to refer to verbs
that affect other people or things. For example, ‘Er schläft’ is an active sentence,
with ‘sleeping’ being the action performed. If you want to shift the focus from
‘the girl’ to ‘the hamster’ in the sentence ‘The girl strokes the hamster.’, then one
way to do this might be to move the hamster to the start of the sentence: ‘It is the
hamster that the girl strokes.’ – however, this sounds odd. It would be better to
use ‘The hamster is being stroked by the girl.’ – now all eyes are on the hamster.
Sentences that work in German, like ‘Den Hamster streichelt das Mädchen.’ do
not work in English – ‘The hamster the girl strokes.’. If you want to shift focus
to the object in German you do not have to use the passive to do it. This is why
sentences in the passive are less frequent in German compared with English.
When you want to render a passive idea in German, ask yourself: Can I say this
in German using an active sentence?
1 The ingredients
However, it is of course possible to produce passive sentences in German. All
you need are the following ingredients:
the appropriate form of ‘werden’ + the past participle of your verb

wird gebaut.
Das Haus
Grammar books will give you the forms of the verb ‘werden’ in the various tenses.
Below is a table giving the forms in the present and past tense.
Exercise 1
Complete the table of present and past tense forms of ‘werden’ below.
Person Present Past

ich 1. _________ wurde
du wirst 4. _________
er/sie/es/man 2. _________ wurde
wir werden 5. _________
ihr werdet 6. _________
sie/Sie 3. _________ wurden
112 The passive
Since the passive form in English is constructed using a form of the verb ‘to be’,
it is tempting for English speakers to reproduce this in German using a form of
‘sein’. Beware! The correct verb is ‘werden’!
Exercise 2
To reinforce this point, assemble passive sentences using the appropriate forms
of ‘werden’ below.
1. Das Haus/gebaut/von der Firma Konstrukt (present tense)

The house is built by the Konstrukt company.
2. aufgegeben/Die Projekte/zu früh (past tense)
The projects were given up too early.
3. Das Festival/organisiert/von einem professionellen Team (past tense)
The festival was organized by a professional team.
4. abgeholt/nach der Schule/Die Kinder (present tense)
The children are being collected after school.
5. trainiert/Du/von einem fantastischen Trainer (present tense)
You are being coached by a fantastic coach.
6. vor drei Wochen/geliefert/Die Stühle (past tense)
The chairs were delivered three weeks ago.
Exercise 3
Using a passive construction in German when native speakers would have used
an active one can lead to unnecessary mistakes. In the task below, find the
matching pairs. You will see that the German equivalent uses an active form
where the English uses a passive one.
1. This house was built by the architect when he was 39.

2. The man was bitten by the dog, not the woman.
3. Those essays were written by intelligent students.
4. This experiment is conducted by Professor Stamm.
5. The last sentence was written by the author on the train.
6. The first attempt was being made by the team in the morning.
a. Diese Essays haben intelligente Studenten geschrieben.

b. Den ersten Versuch machte das Team am Morgen.
The passive 113
c. Den Mann hat der Hund gebissen, nicht die Frau.

d. Dieses Experiment führt Professor Stamm durch.
e. Den letzten Satz schrieb der Autor im Zug.
f. Dieses Haus baute der Architekt, als er 39 war.
Exercise 4
For perfect tense forms in the passive, the ingredients are:
appropriate form of ist…worden + past participle
For example: Die Kinder sind von der Schule abgeholt worden.
The children were picked up from school.
Use the sentences from Exercise 2 and transform them into perfect tense
versions.
2 Where’s the subject?

2.1 The new subject in passive sentences
As mentioned in the introduction, the main objective of the passive is to shift the
emphasis to the object. It is the accusative object which can be transformed into
the ‘new’ subject.
(Active) Das Mädchen streichelt den Hamster.
Der Hamster wird von dem Mädchen gestreichelt. (Passive)
With ‘Hamster’ being a masculine singular noun, you can see how ‘den Ham-
ster’ (acc.) is transformed into ‘der Hamster’ (nom.). Whereas ‘das Mädchen’ is
the subject of the active sentence, ‘der Hamster’ is the subject in the passive.
Verbs can have different objects, but only the accusative object can work as the
subject in the passive. Knowing which verbs take accusative objects (some-
times they are referred to as ‘transitive verbs’) will help a great deal. The accu-
sative object is the ‘something’ in expressions like: ‘to like something’, ‘to make
something’, ‘to see something’ etc. However, you can’t ‘sit something’ or ‘sleep
something’ or ‘stay something’, and these second types of verb do not have an
accusative object.
Identifying verbs with accusative objects isn’t always straightforward for English
speakers.
114 The passive
Exercise 5
Spot the verbs which can have an accusative object in the list below and
underline them.
1. Er sitzt gemütlich in seinem Sessel.

He is sitting comfortably in his chair.
2. Susi kocht Suppe.
Susi is making soup.
3. Er hilft mir nicht.
He doesn’t help me.
4. Die Polizei beobachtet den Mann seit drei Stunden.
The police have been watching the man for three hours.
5. Die Schüler machen die Hausaufgaben.
The students are doing the homework.
6. Paul wartet an der Bushaltestelle.
Paul is waiting at the bus stop.
Exercise 6
Once you have checked your answers in the answer key, transform all sen-
tences with an accusative object into passive sentences. There are three.
1. ___________________________________________________________________.
2. ___________________________________________________________________.
3. ___________________________________________________________________.
What about verbs with other kinds of object? What happens to the dative in the
passive? As only accusative objects can become the subject in passive sen-
tences, they will need to remain dative objects. For example: ‘Sie verspricht
ihrem Freund einen Besuch.’ becomes ‘Ein Besuch wird ihrem Freund von ihr
versprochen’.
The accusative object ‘einen Besuch’ becomes the new subject, but the
dative object ‘ihrem Freund’ stays the same. Notice that this construction doesn’t
change with the dative object in the plural: ‘Ein Besuch wird ihren Freunden von
ihr versprochen.’ The subject ‘ein Besuch’ is in the singular and therefore the
verb ‘werden’ also needs to be in the singular.
This feature is different in English though. The sentence above would be trans-
lated as ‘Her friend is promised a visit by her.’ If ‘friend’ becomes ‘friends’,
we use: ‘Her friends are promised a visit by her.’ using a plural verb. What
The passive 115
happens in the German sentence is possibly more accurately rendered in

this version however: ‘A promise is made by her to her friends.’ It is important
to watch out for verbs which have dative objects. You can read up on them
in Chapter 8. Below are a few exercises involving the dative and the passive
forms.
Exercise 7
Insert the correct form of ‘werden’ into the gaps below. Do not be misled by the
English translations!
1. Den Kindern ___________________ ein Problem erklärt.

The children are being explained a problem. Or: A problem is being explained
to the children.
2. Den Leuten __________________ ein neues TV-Programm präsentiert.
The people are being shown a new TV programme.
3. Uns ____________ morgen ein neues Sofa geliefert.
A new sofa is being delivered to us tomorrow.
4. Dir ______________ ein Brief geschickt.
You are being sent a letter.
Now make changes to the verbs by adapting the sentences to the plural subjects.
5. Den Kindern ___________________ alle Probleme erklärt.

The children are being explained all problems. Or: All problems are being
explained to the children.
6. Den Leuten __________________ zwei neue TV-Programme präsentiert.
The people are being shown two new TV programmes.
7. Uns ____________ morgen die neuen Sofas geliefert.
The new sofas are being delivered to us tomorrow.
8. Dir ______________ viele Briefe geschickt.
You are being sent many letters.
It is also possible to have verbs with a dative object only: ‘Deine Familie
hilft dir.’ ‘Your family will help you.’ or ‘Peter dankte den Beamten schriftlich.’
‘Peter thanked the civil servants in writing.’ These can be transformed into
the passive too: ‘Dir wird von deiner Familie geholfen.’ and ‘Den Beamten
wurde von Peter schriftlich gedankt.’ Where is the subject here? The dative
object remains a dative object, and in fact these sentences do not have
any subjects at all! Note that the verb ‘werden’ remains in the third person
singular!

116 The passive
It is not possible to reproduce this feature in English, and it is important for

English speakers to be aware of this difference when reading German. What is
the dative object in a German passive clause can be the subject in the English
equivalent: ‘You are helped by your family.’ and ‘The civil servants are being
thanked by Peter in writing.’ The next exercise is a bit more advanced.
Exercise 8
Identify the dative object in the German sentences and the subject in the English
ones and then underline them.
1. Den Kindern wird von dem Lehrer geholfen.

1. a) The children are being helped by their teacher.
2. Der Schülerin wird empfohlen, ein Jahr zu überspringen.
2. a) The pupil is encouraged to skip one year.
3. Den Touristen wird erklärt, dass der Bus Verspätung hat.
3. a) The tourists are being told that the bus will be delayed.
4. Ihr wurde versprochen, dass sie mitkommen darf.
4. a) She was promised that she could come along.
2.2 What becomes of the former subject?

You will have noticed that some of the sentences used in this chapter include
expressions like ‘von dem Mädchen’ or ‘von mir’. ‘Von’ with the dative is the
equivalent of the English ‘by…’. This is how we are able to express in the pas-
sive the idea of who or what is doing the action, always bearing in mind that
these terms do not necessarily have to involve anything ‘active’, as it were. With
the accusative object taking on the role of the new subject in the passive, the
former subject has to be expressed in a different way. Below you can practice
transformations like
• Das Mädchen (subject) streichelt den Hamster. (accusative object) to →

• Der Hamster (new subject) wird von dem Mädchen (‘von’ with the dative:
expressing former subject) gestreichelt.
Exercise 9
1. Die Frau hört das Kind. → Das Kind wird _____________ gehört.
The woman hears the child.
2. Der Lehrer fragt Peter. → Peter wird _____________ gefragt.
The teacher asks Peter.
The passive 117
3. Der Mechaniker reparierte den Wagen. → Der Wagen wurde _____________

repariert.
The mechanic repaired the car.
4. Meine Eltern bauten das Haus. → Das Haus wurde _____________ gebaut.
My parents built the house.
It could be said that, in all sentences in Exercise 9, the people doing anything
did these things with intention. If an action is occurring without any person or
animal or thing causing it with deliberate intention, the expression ‘durch’ with
the accusative can be used instead. This ‘deliberate doing’ is not always easy
to distinguish from non-intentional action, though. For instance, a sentence like
‘Der Unfall wurde durch das Kind verursacht.’ implies that the child did not cause
the accident intentionally while ‘Der Unfall wurde von dem Kind verursacht.’
could mean that intention was involved. The next two exercises are slightly more
advanced.
Exercise 10
In the sentences below, decide where ‘durch’ could be used to express the idea
that there was no intention involved.
1. The house was destroyed by the wind.

2. A new road was built by the soldiers.
3. The message was delivered by a messenger.
4. The grass was covered by old leaves.
5. We were uplifted by the news.
6. The dog was found by the child.
Check your answers in the answer key before you continue.
Exercise 11
Now translate the sentences using the expressions provided. Make sure to use
either ‘von’ with the dative or ‘durch’ with the accusative.
1. Das Haus/zerstören/der Wind
2. Die Straße/bauen/die Soldaten
3. Die Botschaft/übermitteln (non-sep.)/der Bote
4. Das Gras/bedecken/alte Blätter
5. aufmuntern (sep. verb)/die Neuigkeit
6. Der Hund/finden/das Kind
118 The passive
3 Modal verbs in passive constructions

If you want to express the idea that something should, or can, or must be done
you will need to use modal verbs. The ingredients you will need are:
Eine Lösung muss gefunden werden
modal verb in the appropriate form + past participle + werden
If the solution doesn’t ‘have to be found’ but ‘can be found’ or ‘should be found’
then the sentence will change accordingly:
can be: Eine Lösung kann gefunden werden.

should be: Eine Lösung sollte gefunden werden.
If you’d like to brush up on modal verbs first, go to Chapter 3. If you feel confi-
dent that you know the necessary meanings and forms, carry on!
Exercise 12
Complete the following sentences using a modal verb in its appropriate form.
Take the English translations as your guide.
1. Diese Aufgabe ___________ noch heute fertig gemacht werden.

This task has to be finished today.
2. Glücklicherweise ___________ die Passagiere gerettet werden.
Fortunately, the passengers could be rescued.
3. Ab drei Uhr ___________ die Kinder abgeholt werden.
The children can be collected from 3 o’clock.
4. Handys ___________ nicht angeschaltet werden.
Mobile phones must not be switched on.
5. Hunde ___________ an die Leine genommen werden.
Dogs had to be put on a leash.
6. Jeder ___________ verstanden werden.
Everybody wants to be understood.
4 Process versus status

4.1 Expressing status
So far, we have looked at the passive using the verb ‘werden’ with the past
participle. This is in fact the most frequent passive form occurring in German.
The passive 119
It describes an ‘action’ being underway, or being performed. When translating

‘Das Auto wird repariert.’ it is best to use ‘The car is being repaired.’ to indicate
the process. If you wanted to emphasize the status of someone or something
you could employ a form involving ‘sein’ rather than ‘werden’: ‘Das Auto ist repa-
riert.’ means that the car, having been repaired, is now (in a state of being)
repaired. So far, so good.
Using this passive form can lead to mistakes, though, as not every verb which
can be used to express status in English can be used in this way in German.
Exercise 13
First, here is an exercise involving verbs which do work in the status passive
form. Fill in the gaps.
1. Die Ausstellung wurde heute Morgen eröffnet. Jetzt _________ sie _________.
The exhibition was opened this morning.
2. Der Artikel ist gestern veröffentlicht worden. Jetzt _________ er _________.
The article was published yesterday.
3. Die Touristen sind verletzt worden. Jetzt _________ sie _________.
The tourists were injured.
4. Ein neuer Präsident ist gewählt worden. Jetzt _________ er _________.
A new president has been elected.
5. Die Socken sind gewaschen worden. Jetzt _________ sie _________.
The socks have been washed.
6. Mein Laptop wurde beschädigt. Jetzt _________ es _________.
My laptop has been damaged.
All of the verbs above denote a result or change of state. Verbs which do not do
this cannot be used to express status passive in German. This fact is important
to bear in mind.
Exercise 14
Here is a list of such verbs. Your task is to match them with their translations.
1. anbieten a. to see

2. basieren b. to watch
3. bemerken c. to show
4. beobachten d. to offer
5. bewundern e. to need
6. brauchen f. to base
120 The passive
7. erinnern g. to admire

8. loben h. to remember
9. sehen i. to praise
10. zeigen j. to notice
4.2 Verbs which cannot be used in the passive
There are a few verbs in German which take an accusative object but which still
can’t be used in the passive. This is different from English usage and can there-
fore lead to mistakes.
These verbs can be grouped as follows; verbs of knowing (‘bedeuten’, ‘ken-
nen’, ‘wissen’), containing (‘beinhalten’, ‘enthalten’, ‘umfassen’), possessing
(‘besitzen’, ‘haben’) and receiving (‘bekommen’, ‘erhalten’, ‘kriegen’).
The challenge here is to translate English expressions in the passive into
German, using these verbs.
Exercise 15
Identify from the list of English verbs below those whose German version cannot
be used in a passive construction.
1. to know – to be known
2. to buy – to be bought
3. to own – to be owned
4. to contain – to be contained
5. to admire – to be admired
6. to receive – to be received
7. to say – to be said
8. to mean – to be meant
Find out what to do with these verbs instead in the next section with some slightly
more advanced exercises.
5 Alternatives
As mentioned before in this chapter, the passive is less common in German than
in English. Starting with the verbs from Exercise 15, use an active form to trans-
late the English sentences. If there is no subject, use ‘man’.
The passive 121
Exercise 16
1. This has been known for a long time. (use ‘man’)

2. The castle is owned by my family. (use ‘die Burg’)
3. Three litres are contained in this bucket. (use ‘drei Liter’)
4. The letter was received by me. (use ‘der Brief ’)
5. What is meant by this word? (use ‘dieses Wort’)
Exercise 17
There are a number of other ways of avoiding using passive forms in German.
For example, using the suffix ‘-bar’ is one. The English equivalent is ‘-able’, or
‘-ible’ as in ‘understandable’ or ‘visible’. Rather than saying ‘this sentence can be
understood’ you could say ‘this sentence is understandable’. In German, ‘-bar’
is added to the stem of the verb: machen ◊ mach+bar = machbar (doable).
Note that not all verbs fit into this pattern though.
Form words by applying the suffix -bar and then match them with their
translations.
1. sagen +bar = __________________ a. audible

2. essen +bar = __________________ b. mentionable
3. denken +bar = __________________ c. negotiable
4. verhandeln +bar = __________________ d. achievable
5. erreichen +bar = __________________ e. edible
6. hören +bar = __________________ f. thinkable
7. ersetzen +bar = __________________ g. solvable
8. lösen +bar = __________________ h. replaceable
Another idiomatic form which can replace the passive is a construction using
‘sich lassen’ plus the infinitive of the verb. ‘Das lässt sich machen’, for exam-
ple, can replace ‘das kann gemacht werden’. This is a useful construction
to know.
English speakers might be stumped when having to translate expressions like

‘Das lässt sich machen’. Knowing that it is a version of ‘Das kann gemacht
werden’ or ‘This can be done’ will make it easier.
122 The passive
Exercise 18
First, transform the expressions below into ones using the passive with the modal
verb ‘können’. Then match them with their English translation. See the example:
‘Das lässt sich nicht imitieren.’ Passive: ‘Das kann nicht imitiert werden.’
This cannot be imitated.
1. Das lässt sich schnell erklären. a. This cannot be prevented.

Passive: ____________________.
2. Das lässt sich sofort ändern. b. This can be accommodated.
Passive: ____________________.
3. Das lässt sich nicht verhindern. c. This is easily said.
Passive: ____________________.
4. Das lässt sich einrichten. d. This cannot be understood.
Passive: ____________________.
5. Das lässt sich leicht sagen. e. This is explained quickly.
Passive: ____________________.
6. Das lässt sich nicht verstehen. f. This can be changed immediately.
Passive: ____________________.
8 Prepositions
and cases
1 Prepositions taking particular cases 124

1.1 Prepositions taking the dative 124
1.2 Prepositions taking the accusative 125
1.3 Prepositions taking the genitive 127
1.4 Expressions used to replace prepositions 127
2 Prepositions used to express space 128
3 Equivalents for the English preposition ‘to’ 132
4 ‘Da’ + preposition – the prepositional adverb 134
5 The Dative – a special case 135
5.1 Prepositions used with the dative 135
5.2 Verbs with the dative – and how to spot them 136
5.3 Passive and dative 143
124 Prepositions and cases
Introduction
Prepositions are interesting because they can be seen as part of both a lan-
guage’s grammar and its vocabulary. Learners have to become familiar with
their meaning as well as their effects on the grammatical environment. Since
English is a Germanic language, quite a few prepositions and their use are simi-
lar to German usage. However, there are also some significant differences.
1 Prepositions taking particular cases

The English case system is still visible in expressions like ‘To whom is the letter
addressed?’, or ‘For Whom The Bell Tolls’, where ‘who’ is turned into the dative
‘whom’. However, in most other situations, case endings are not applied. You
will be familiar with the German cases and what their endings look like (also
compare Chapter 1, Nouns, Chapter 2, Adjectival Endings and Chapter 4, Pro-
nouns). In this section, you will look at prepositions and the cases they take. It
can be a good strategy to learn one group very thoroughly (those prepositions
taking either the dative or the accusative) before starting with another. Let’s start
with those taking the dative.
1.1 Prepositions taking the dative
Exercise 1
One method of learning information is to use acronyms to help you remember.

Here are 9 prepositions taking the dative in alphabetical order: ‘aus’, ‘außer’,
‘bei’, ‘gegenüber’, ‘mit’, ‘nach’, ‘seit’, ‘von’ and ‘zu’. You can devise your own
acronym, here is the one we have made: ZMAGSBANV. Read through the list
of prepositions again and match the letters of the acronym with a preposition.
Mnemonic device
1. z ____________________________
2. m ____________________________
3. a ____________________________
4. g ____________________________
5. s ____________________________
6. b ____________________________
7. a ____________________________
8. n ____________________________
9. v ____________________________
Prepositions and cases 125
Another method to recall information is to invent a story that involves the

information.
Exercise 2
Read the story below and identify all nine prepositions with the dative. Learn the
story to remember them.
Seit vielen Jahren kommt aus diesem Haus gegenüber dem Wald und bei
dem Fluss eine Fee mit ihrer Katze. Sie geht von ihrem Haus nach Süden
und bringt den Frühling zu allen außer dem fernsten Norden.
For many years, a fairy has been coming out of this house with her cat,
opposite the forest by the river. She walks south from her house and
brings spring to all except the furthest north.
Exercise 3
Taking the story and its translation as a guide, match the prepositions with their
English translations. Please note though that these are all general translations and
that prepositions will have to be translated according to their context. Consider,
for example, the different meanings of the English preposition ‘on’ in these exam-
ples: ‘The cat is on the roof’, ‘A talk on an interesting topic’, ‘Put on the radio’!
1. zu a. except
2. mit b. since/for/from
3. aus c. to/towards
4. gegenüber d. in the direction of/after
5. seit e. from
6. bei f. with
7. außer g. out of/from
8. nach h. opposite
9. von i. by/next to
1.2 Prepositions taking the accusative
Mnemonic device
Here is a different acronym: FUDGEBO. As with the dative acronym, the
word itself is meaningless but it is made up of the first letters of preposi-
tions taking the accusative.
Exercise 4
From the list below, tick those seven prepositions which fit the acronym for the
accusative.
aus – ohne – bei – für – durch – nach – bis – entlang – um – gegen –

gegenüber – seit
Exercise 5
Here are some expressions using all seven accusative prepositions. Match them
with their English translations.
1. Für dich tu ich alles.

2. Es geht um den Ersten Weltkrieg.
3. Durch das Erdbeben wurden viele Häuser zerstört.
4. Ich bin gegen den Plan.
5. Wir gingen den Fluss entlang.
6. Bis nächste Woche sind wir fertig.
7. Ohne deine Hilfe geht es nicht.
Translations:
a. Due to the earthquake, many houses were destroyed.

b. It won’t be possible without your help.
c. I’ll do anything for you.
d. It is about the First World War.
e. We will be finished by next week.
f. We went along the river.
g. I am against the plan.
Exercise 6
Knowing those prepositions which take the dative or the accusative will help you
spot mistakes in your own writing. Identify the mistakes in the expressions below
and correct them.
1. Aus den 18. Jahrhundert (n.) – (from the 18th century)

2. Seit den ersten Tag (masc.) – (since/from the first day)
3. Mit die Freundin (fem.) – (with the girlfriend)
4. Für mir – (For me)
5. Ohne der Arbeit (fem.) – (without work)
6. Gegen mir – (against me)
In the next section, you will find out about prepositions used with the genitive
case. This is slightly more advanced grammar.
1.3 Prepositions taking the genitive
Exercise 7
Four common prepositions take the genitive, they are: ‘statt’, ‘trotz’, ‘während’
and ‘wegen’. Using the genitive will give your writing a higher register as the
genitive is one of the typical signs of journalistic and academic writing, as exem-
plified in the sentences below.
1. Statt des richtigen Resultats (n.) wurde das falsche veröffentlicht.

Instead of the correct result the wrong one was published.
2. Trotz ihrer vielen Bemühungen (pl.) war die Politikerin nicht erfolgreich.
In spite of her many efforts the politician wasn’t successful.
3. Während des Wahlkampfs (masc.) gab es viele Veranstaltungen.
During the campaign there were many events.
4. Wegen meiner Arbeit (fem.) für die Partei habe ich nicht viel Zeit.
Due to my work for the political party I don’t have much time.
All of these four prepositions can also be used with the dative, but that will make
the register less formal. Change the underlined parts of the sentences above
by using the dative instead of genitive. In one example, the genitive and dative
forms are the same, so you don’t need to change anything.
1.4 Expressions used to replace prepositions

One handy tip regarding prepositions is to use an ‘all-rounder’. For example, the
English expressions ‘regarding’, ‘concerning’ or ‘with reference to’ can be used
instead of prepositions. Rather than saying ‘the discussion about’, you can say
‘the discussion concerning’. You will only need to know two such expressions in
German to help you out whenever you are not sure which preposition to use. Is
it ‘die Diskussion auf’, or ‘die Diskussion über’? Try this out in the next, slightly
more advanced exercise.
Exercise 8
The expression ‘in Bezug auf’ means ‘with reference to’ or ‘regarding’. It is used
with the accusative case. Below are a few beginnings of statements. Complete
them using ‘in Bezug auf’. The accusative forms are already in place.
1. The discussion about migration

Die Diskussion _________________ die Migration
2. The search for a solution
Die Suche _________________ eine Lösung
3. A solution for the problem
Eine Lösung _________________ das Problem
4. The fear of failure

Die Angst _________________ eine Niederlage
Equally, ‘betreffend’ can be used to replace prepositions. It is also used with the
accusative case but comes after the noun, for example: ‘eine Lösung das Prob-
lem betreffend’. It sounds even more sophisticated.
5. The fight for human rights

Der Kampf die Menschenrechte _________________
6. The interest in the debate
Das Interesse die Debatte _________________
7. The statement about the situation
Die Aussage die Situation _________________
8. The opinion about politicians
Die Meinung die Politiker _________________
You will find the actual prepositions these constructions avoid in the rest of this
chapter!
2 Prepositions used to express space

Unlike English, German can mark differences in meaning grammatically when

describing positions in space. You can differentiate, for example, between
whether you are talking about a position or location on the one hand (using the
dative) or a change of location/direction (using the accusative) on the other. It
takes a little while to understand this difference, but once you have got it this
knowledge will reduce errors.
Exercise 9
Here are nine prepositions describing situations of objects in space:
‘an’ (to, at, by), ‘auf’ (on, on top of), ‘hinter’ (behind), ‘in’ (in/into), ‘neben’
(next to), ‘über’ (above, across), ‘unter’ (under, underneath), ‘vor’ (in front
of), ‘zwischen’ (between)
A sentence beginning with ‘Ich stehe’ (I am standing) will always describe a

fixed position, requiring the dative. Whereas a sentence beginning ‘Ich stelle’ (I
am putting) will require the accusative as it describes a change of location of an
object. Correct the case errors in the expressions below.
1. Ich stehe an der Fluss (masc.). → Ich stehe ___________ Fluss. (by the river)
2. Ich stehe auf das Gras (n.). → Ich stehe ___________ Gras. (on the grass)
3. Ich stelle das Auto hinter dem Haus (n.). → Ich stelle das Auto ___________
Haus. (behind the house)
4. Ich stelle das Auto in der Garage (fem.). → Ich stelle das Auto ___________
Garage. (into the garage)
5. Ich stehe neben die Freundin (fem.). → Ich stehe ___________ Freundin.
(next to the girlfriend)
6. Ich stelle das Buch über den anderen Bücher (pl.). → Ich stelle das Buch
___________anderen Bücher. (above the other books)
7. Ich stelle das Auto unter der Brücke (fem.). → Ich stelle das Auto ___________
Brücke. (under the bridge)
8. Ich stehe vor der Garten (masc.). → Ich stehe ___________ Garten. (in front
of the garden)
9. Ich stelle das Auto zwischen den anderen Autos (pl.). → Ich stelle das Auto
___________ Autos. (between the other cars)
Exercise 10
It is useful to know the verbs which describe certain situations in space. The
verbs ‘stehen’ and ‘stellen’ from above can be seen as a contrasting pair. Sim-
ilarly, ‘liegen’ (to be lying) and ‘legen’ (to put) and ‘sitzen’ (to be sitting) and
‘setzen’ (to put) can be seen as such pairs. Change the circumstances of the
objects below by moving them somewhere else. Remember that this requires
the accusative.
1. Der Teller steht im Schrank.

The plate is in the cupboard.
Ich stelle den Teller auf ___________________ (der Tisch).
I am putting the plate on the table.
2. Das Kind liegt auf dem Sofa.
The child is lying on the sofa.
Ich lege das Kind in ___________________ (das Bett).
I am putting the child to bed.
3. Das Buch liegt auf der Bank.
The book is lying on the bench.
Ich lege das Buch vor ___________________ (der Computer).
I am putting the book in front of the computer.
4. Das Kind sitzt vor dem Fernseher.
The child is sitting in front of the TV.
Ich setze das Kind neben ___________________ (das Fenster).
I am putting the child in front of the window.
The next two exercises involve more detailed descriptions of where things are,
they reflect a more advanced level of grammar.
Exercise 11
You will find the explanation that the accusative describes movement whereas
the dative describes location in a number of grammar books. This is essentially
correct but not a complete explanation. It is possible to describe the location of
persons or objects which are moving, for example, and for this you would need
the dative. Consider: ‘I am walking up and down in front of the house.’ This
sentence describes movement, but ‘in front of the house’ describes the location
of this movement, a job for the dative: ‘Ich gehe vor dem Haus auf und ab.’ In
the next task, identify which of the underlined expressions describe movement
(M) and which describe location of movement (L). Delete the incorrect one. Use
grammar as your guide. You will find translations in the answers section.
1. Ich reise in ein neues Land. M L

2. Ich reise in dem neuen Land von Osten nach Westen. M L
3. Das Flugzeug fliegt eine Runde über dem Meer. M L
4. Das Flugzeug fliegt über das Meer. M L
5. Der Jogger lief hinter der 10-Kilometermarke nicht mehr so schnell. M L
6. Der Jogger lief hinter das Haus. M L
Exercise 12
There are also a number of verbs which describe movement, or rather the end of
a movement, like ‘landen’ (to land), ‘ankommen’ (to arrive), ‘verschwinden’ (to
disappear) and ‘erscheinen’ (to appear). Again, these are used with the dative
to describe the location where the movement is taking place. Supply the correct
dative forms for the exercise below.
1. Das Raumschiff landete auf ______ Mond (masc.).

The space ship landed on the moon.
2. Er kam um 9 Uhr in _______ Stadt (fem.) an.
He arrived in town at 9 o’clock.
3. Das Flugzeug verschwand hinter _______ Gebäude (n.).
The plane vanished behind the building.
4. Das Boot erschien auf ______ Radar (masc.).
The boat appeared on the radar.
Exercise 13
Saying where you are from and where you are going are basic tasks in any lan-
guage. Knowing the equivalents of ‘from’ and ‘out of’ as well as ‘to’ and ‘in the
direction of’ are basic elements of vocabulary. It is important to learn when to

use which prepositions. In the following tasks you will be looking at this.
Look at the examples and then complete the rule.
• Sie kommt aus Irland.

• Er kommt aus München.
• Wir kommen aus der Türkei.
• Sie kamen aus dem Theater.
• Ich fahre nach Frankreich.
• Du fährst nach Köln.
• Er fährt in die USA.
1. Use _________ to describe origin.

2. Use _______ or _________ to describe destination.
3. For destinations, use _______ with names of places without articles, but use
________ for names of places with articles.
Exercise 14
For English speakers, there are a few counter-intuitive examples of the usage of
prepositions in German. Here are a few of the most commonly confused ones.
It pays to learn these.
• Use ‘auf’ when describing positions on uncovered spaces like fields, streets,
squares etc. The English equivalent is usually ‘in’.
• Use ‘in’ when describing positions in contained spaces: rooms, buses,
planes, houses etc. The English equivalent can be ‘on’.
• Use ‘bei’ when describing where people work or who they are visiting. Here
the English equivalent can be ‘for’ or ‘at’.
Select the correct German preposition for each English expression.
1. I like it at yours.
2. Can you see the car in the street?
3. There is no more room on the bus.
4. Cows are happiest in the field.
5. I work for IBM.
6. Can you read on the plane?
7. The protesters are gathering in the square.
8. I can work on the train.
This exercise should have made it clear that it is not always possible to find a
1:1 translation for prepositions. In the next section, you will look at how to find
German equivalents for the English preposition ‘to’.
3 Equivalents for the English

preposition ‘to’
It is tempting to use one particular translation of an English preposition like ‘to’

and stick with it. However, ‘zu’ isn’t always the correct equivalent of ‘to’, and this
section explores the alternatives.
Exercise 15
‘Zu’ is the correct translation of ‘to’ when describing general directions or when
the speaker isn’t actually entering a building or place:
• Ich fahre zur Kirche. (in the general direction of the church, not necessarily
entering the building)
• Der Bus fährt zum Rathaus. (not entering the town hall!)
• Ich fahre zum Meer. (to the seaside)
‘Zu’ is always used with the dative, and you will have noticed that ‘zu + dem’, or
‘zu + der’ is contracted to ‘zum’ and ‘zur’. Fill in the correct forms of ‘zu’ below.
1. Wir fahren __________ Fluss (masc.). (to the river)

2. Er geht __________ Messe (fem.). (to the trade fair)
3. Ich fahre __________ Zoo (masc.). (to the zoo)
4. Sie geht __________ Tür (fem.). (to the door)
5. Er geht __________ Zentrum (n.). (to the centre)
6. Wir fahren __________ Gymnasium (n.). (to the school)
However, German also has three other prepositions to describe direction which
are more precise. The selection of either ‘an’, ‘auf’ or ‘in’ depends on the nature
of the destination. Here are some general guidelines:
Exercise 16
Use ‘an’ if the destination cannot be entered as it is not a building you can be
inside of but rather places or border lines: rivers, borders, coasts are typical
examples. You also use ‘an’ with desks, windows, traffic lights, and junctions, for
example. Use the accusative to describe direction.
Supply the correct accusative forms.
1. Ich gehe an __________ Strand (masc.). (to the beach)

2. Das Auto fährt an __________ Ampel (fem.). (to the traffic lights)
3. Sie rannte an __________ Fenster (n.). (to the window)
4. Wir fuhren an __________ Grenze (fem.). (to the border)
Exercise 17
Use ‘auf’ with accusative to describe destinations you cannot enter but which are
seen as open spaces without roofs: the countryside, fields, meadows, streets,
yards, farms etc.
Fill in the accusative forms.
1. Die Kinder liefen auf __________ Feld (n.). (to the field)
2. Das Auto fuhr auf __________ Parkplatz (masc.). (to the car park)
3. Er schoss den Ball auf __________ Hof (masc.). (into the yard)
4. Die Demonstranten gingen auf __________ Straße (fem.). (into the street)
Exercise 18
Use ‘in’ with the accusative to describe destinations you can enter and be inside
of (all buildings) or be surrounded by (villages, cities, water). Fill in the accusa-
tive forms below. ‘In’ + ‘das’ becomes ‘ins’.
1. Ich gehe _________________ Garten (masc.). (into the garden)

2. Sie geht _________________ Büro (n.). (to the office)
3. Wir gehen _________________ Museum (n.). (to the museum)
4. Er ging _________________ Stadt (fem.). (into town)
5. Sie sprang _________________ Fluss (masc.). (into the river)
6. Ich ging _________________ Bar (fem.). (to the bar)
Exercise 19
Test whether you can select the appropriate German preposition as an equiva-
lent of English ‘to’/‘into’. Choose from ‘an’, ‘auf’ and ‘in’.
1. Das Schiff fährt _________________ Ufer (n.). (to the embankment)

2. Die Kuh lief _________________ Wiese (fem.). (to the meadow)
3. Sie ging _________________ Park (masc.). (to the park)
4. Er ist _________________ Wasser (n.) gefallen (n). (into the water)

5. Das Auto fuhr _________________ Einfahrt (fem.). (into the entrance)
6. Wir gehen _________________ Küste (fem.). (to the coast)
4 ‘Da’ + preposition – the prepositional

adverb
Most prepositions can be combined with ‘da-’ or ‘dar-’ and used to avoid repeat-
ing the noun in question. In this sense, they replace the noun and can be seen
as pronouns.
There is no equivalent in English for this construction. Expressions like ‘thereby’

and ‘therefore’ are similar but their formation and use differ from those of the
prepositional adverbs in German.
Exercise 20
Replace preposition and noun constructions (underlined in the example below)

with the relevant prepositional adverb. For example: ‘Für dieses Problem gibt es
eine Lösung. Dafür gibt es eine Lösung.’ (For this problem there is a solution.)
1. Was willst du mit dieser Bemerkung sagen? Was willst du _________ sagen?
What do you want to say by making this remark?
2. Auf diese Frage habe ich eine Antwort. _________ habe ich eine Antwort.
I have an answer to this question.
3. Er träumt von einem Urlaub in Bayern. Er träumt _________.
He is dreaming of a holiday in Bavaria.
4. Können wir über die Situation sprechen? Können wir _________ sprechen?
Can we talk about the situation?
5. Ich habe keine Angst vor dem Test. Ich habe keine Angst _________.
I am not scared of the test.
6. Er hat durch den Sport mehr Muskeln. Er hat _________ mehr Muskeln.
He has built up his muscles by doing sport.
7. Nach dem Urlaub beginnt eine neue Phase. _________ beginnt eine neue
Phase.
A new phase will begin after the holiday.
8. Kannst du etwas zu der Frage sagen? Kannst du etwas _________ sagen?
Can you say something about the question?
9. Er parkte das Auto neben dem anderen Auto. Er parkte das Auto _________.
He parked the car next to the other car.
10. Sie stellte die Bücher zwischen die Magazine. Sie stellte die Bücher _________.
She put the books between the magazines.
Please note that persons cannot be replaced in this way. To avoid repeating
nouns referring to persons you must use pronouns, see Chapter 4.
Exercise 21
Take another look at the examples in Exercise 20 and complete the rule. Delete
as appropriate.
1. ‘da’+ preposition is used for prepositions starting with a vowel/consonant.

2. ‘dar’+ preposition is used for prepositions starting with a vowel/consonant.
5 The Dative – a special case

Knowing when to use the dative case is a clear sign of proficiency in German.
Students wishing to gain extra marks should make sure that they know when
and how to use the dative. You will revise a few rules and tips learned so far in
this chapter by completing this last section.
5.1 Prepositions used with the dative

There is no real equivalent to dative endings in English. The dative is used for
the ‘receiver’ of an action or object. The nearest English comes to expressing
the dative in everyday language is by using ‘to’: ‘I give the book to her.’ In formal
and literary language the pronoun ‘whom’ is still used in dative constructions:
‘To whom it may concern’ or ‘For Whom the Bell Tolls’. However, in German, it is
necessary to know the grammatical contexts when a dative is required, and the
way it is expressed.
Exercise 22
Have a look at the acronym ZMAGSBANV below which you may remember from
earlier. Find a preposition with the dative for each of the acronym’s letters. If you
can’t remember these prepositions, look them up in section 1.1.
1. z: ___________________
2. m: ___________________
3. a: ___________________
4. g: ___________________
5. s: ___________________
6. b: ___________________
7. a: ___________________
8. n: ___________________
9. v: ___________________
Knowing which preposition takes a dative means that you will be able to spot
‘impossible combinations’. In the next task, all prepositions have been matched
with the wrong cases. Correct the errors.
Exercise 23
1. durch dem Wind (masc. sing.):__________ (through the wind)

2. mit die Bahn (fem. sing.): __________ (by train)
3. nach die Verhandlung (fem. sing.): __________ (after the negotiation)
4. für dem Notfall (masc. sing.): __________ (for an emergency)
5. zu das Haus (n. sing.): __________ (towards the house)
6. von die Freunden (pl.): __________ (from the friends)
Exercise 24
‘According to’ is used in English to link statements to their source. For example:
‘According to the weather forecast it’s going to be sunny tomorrow.’ To express
this in German, you have three prepositions to choose from: ‘laut der Wettervor-
hersage’, ‘nach der Wettervorhersage/der Wettervorhersage nach’ and ‘der Wet-
tervorhersage zufolge’. Note that ‘laut’ must come before, but ‘nach’ can come
after and ‘zufolge’ must come after the noun, in this case ‘Wettervorhersage’. For
the next task, fill in the dative forms of the nouns provided in brackets.
1. Laut ____________________(der Ansager) kommt jetzt eine kurze Pause.

According to the announcer there will be a short break now.
2. Nach _______________ (der Politiker) wird sich die Situation stabilisieren.
According to the politician the situation will become stable.
3. _______________ (die Expertin) zufolge sind die Ergebnisse positiv.
According to the expert the results are positive.
5.2 Verbs with the dative – and how to spot them
Forgetting to use dative endings is a very frequent cause of errors. In German,

there are verbs which only take a dative object and knowing them will help a lot
with grammatical correctness! The difficulty is that these verbs often don’t take
a dative in English: ‘I follow him.’ = ‘Ich folge ihm.’; although it’s easier to see
that there is a dative implied in English if ‘to’ is used: ‘I listen to him.’ = ‘Ich höre
ihm zu.’ In total, you will find 52 verbs with the dative in this section. It would be
unrealistic to learn all of these in one go. Rather, we would advise that you learn
them systematically – and also learn how to spot them!
5.2.1 Verbs taking dative objects

We have listed eight of the most frequently used verbs that only take a dative
object. They are, in alphabetical order: ‘begegnen’, ‘danken’, ‘drohen’, ‘fol-
gen’, ‘gehören’, ‘helfen’, ‘passen’, ‘vertrauen’. They are all regular verbs except
‘helfen’ for which the forms are: ‘helfen’, ‘er hilft’, ‘er half’, ‘er hat geholfen’.
Exercise 25
Choose the relevant verbs from the list above to fill the gaps. Use the English
translations as your guide. You can use this exercise to consolidate your vocab-
ulary as well as to revise verb forms.
1. Der Sprecher ____________ dem Publikum für die Aufmerksamkeit.

The speaker thanked the audience for its attention.
2. Der Minister ______________ dem Rivalen mit einer Gerichtsklage.
The minister threatened his rival with a court case.
3. Das rote Auto ____________ mir.
The red car is mine.
4. Kann ich dir ____________?
Can I help you?
5. Er _____________ ihr zufällig in Rom.
He bumped into her in Rome.
6. Die Eltern ___________ ihren Kindern.
The parents trust their children.
7. ____________ Sie diesem Auto!
Follow that car!
8. Die Hose ___________ ihm nicht.
The trousers didn’t fit him.
Exercise 26
In this exercise, you will need to spot the errors involving the dative. Find them
and correct them, but be careful: only four sentences contain errors.
1. Ich danke dich für deine Unterstützung.

I thank you for your support.
2. Kannst du mich helfen?

Can you help me?
3. Wem gehört das rote Auto?
Who is the owner of the red car?
4. Die Kinder haben ihre Eltern vertraut.
The children trusted their parents.
5. Passt Ihnen die Jacke?
Does the jacket fit you?
6. Der Detektiv folgte die Autos.
The detective followed the cars.
There will be an exercise at the end of this chapter to check how well you have
learned verbs taking the dative!
5.2.2 Verbs with certain prefixes taking dative objects

Some verbs taking dative objects are easier to spot: they come with certain pre-
fixes. Once you see one there is a good chance that the verb will take a dative
object. But beware, there are exceptions.
• ‘entgegen’ (against, towards) and ‘gehen’, ‘kommen’

• ‘nach’ (after, following) and ‘laufen’, ‘streben’
• ‘wider’ (against, contra) and ‘sprechen’, ‘stehen’
• ‘zu’ (to, in favour of) and ‘hören’, ‘stimmen’
Exercise 27
Match the German expressions involving prefixes with their synonyms.
1. Ich gehe dir ein bisschen entgegen.

2. Kannst du mir etwas entgegenkommen?
3. Das Kind läuft der Katze nach.
4. Wir wollen dem Vorbild nachstreben.
5. Ich muss Ihnen widersprechen.
6. Sie widerstand dem Bedürfnis zu lachen.
7. Ich würde euch gerne zuhören.
8. Er stimmte dem Politiker zu.
Synonyms:
a. Sie wehrte sich gegen das Bedürfnis zu lachen.

b. Wir wollen uns bemühen, so zu sein wie das Vorbild.
c. Ich gehe ein Stück in deine Richtung.
d. Das Kind läuft hinter der Katze her.
e. Er war mit dem Politiker einverstanden.

f. Ich bin nicht Ihrer Meinung.
g. Ich möchte bei eurer Unterhaltung dabei sein.
h. Kannst du ein bisschen in meine Richtung gehen?
Exercise 28
Take another look at the examples in the previous exercise. Complete the
statement:
Only one prefix in Exercise 27 (numbers 1–8) is not separable. It is:
__________________.
If you want to look at separable verbs, go to Chapter 3.
Exercise 29
Now it is up to you to put in the correct dative forms. This time, English transla-
tions are provided.
1. Wann kommt dein Bus an? Ich gehe _________(du) ein Stück entgegen.
What time does your bus arrive? I will walk towards you.
2. Die Katze läuft __________________(der Hund) nach.
The cat is running after the dog.
3. Warum hast du _________ (er) widersprochen?
Why did you contradict him?
4. Ich muss ____________ (Sie) zustimmen.
I have to agree with you (formal).
Learn two more prefixes for dative verbs in the next exercise.
Exercise 30
Many verbs with the prefixes ‘bei-’ and ‘ent-’ also take the dative. Here are four
examples:
Separable verbs:
• ‘beitreten’: to join (a club, an organization)

• ‘beistehen’: to help, support
Non-separable verbs:
• ‘entsprechen’: to be the equivalent of

• ‘entkommen’: to escape
Fill in the correct dative plural endings of the words provided.
1. die meisten Vereine: Er ist d_____ meist_____ Verein____ beigetreten.

He has joined the most clubs.
2. meine Freunde: Ich stehe mein____________ Freund____ bei.
I support my friends.
3. zehn Liter: Ein Eimer entspricht zehn Liter__.
One bucket is the equivalent of 10 litres.
4. die vielen Polizisten: Die Diebe sind d_____ viel _____ Polizist___ entkommen.
The thieves got away from the many policemen.
5.2.3 Verbs with prepositions taking dative objects

As in English, verbs in German can be combined with prepositions.
It is important to know which preposition goes with which German verb as they
wouldn’t always be the intuitive choice of English speakers. In this chapter, we
have listed frequently used prepositions which take the dative.
Exercise 31
Match the verbs with their English translations – this way you can also build up
your vocabulary.
an:
1. erkennen an, erkannte, hat erkannt

2. leiden an, litt, hat gelitten
3. teilnehmen an, nahm teil, hat teilgenommen
4. zweifeln an (reg. verb)
aus:
5. bestehen aus, bestand, hat bestanden

6. schließen aus, schloss, hat geschlossen
mit:
7. anfangen, fing an, hat angefangen/aufhören mit (reg. verb)

8. sprechen mit, sprach, hat gesprochen
9. telefonieren mit (reg. verb)
10. vergleichen mit, verglich, hat verglichen
nach:
11. fragen nach (reg. verb)

12. rufen nach, rief, hat gerufen
13. sich sehnen nach (reg. verb)

14. suchen nach (reg. verb)
Translations:
a. to doubt
b. to take part in
c. to ask after
d. to recognize by
e. to long for
f. to call for
g. to begin/finish with
h. to look for
i. to talk with
j. to compare with
k. to consist of
l. to conclude from
m. to talk with on the phone
n. to suffer from
Exercise 32
For the next exercise, you have to guess which preposition goes with which verb.
Choose from: ‘von’, ‘vor’ and ‘zu’. Write the correct preposition next to the verb.
1. träumen ____ (to dream of)

2. überreden ____ (to persuade to)
3. abhängen ____ (to depend on)
4. Angst haben ____ (to be afraid of)
5. einladen ____ (to invite to)
6. (be-)schützen ____ (to protect from)
7. sich erholen ____ (to recover from)
8. führen ____ (to lead to)
9. passen ____ (to match)
10. fliehen ____ (to flee from)
11. zwingen ____ (to force to)
You will have noted that quite a few German prepositions may not be the most
intuitive choice for English speakers. To test your short-term memory, do the
next task: fill in the correct preposition.
Exercise 33
1. Sie telefonierte _______ ihrem Bruder.

She was talking to her brother on the phone.
2. Die Übung besteht _______ zwei Teilen.

The exercise consists of two parts.
3. Der Hut passt sehr gut _______ der Jacke.
The hat matches the jacket very well.
4. Er sucht _______ seiner Tasche.
He is looking for his bag.
5. Willst du _______ dem Spiel teilnehmen?
Do you want to take part in the game?
6. Viele Touristen fliehen ______ der Kälte in den Süden.
Many tourists escape from the cold and travel south.
7. Meine Tante träumt _______ einem großen Garten.
My aunt dreams of a big garden.
5.2.4 The dative object in the German expression is

translated as the subject in English
To complete this section on verbs plus the dative you will look at expressions
where the subject of an English sentence is expressed by the dative in German.
Errors occur where English speakers try to translate an English expression 1:1
into German when the German requires different grammatical constructions.
For example, an expression like: ‘Der Film gefällt mir.’ is typically translated as ‘I
like the film.’ You will have spotted that ‘mir’ in German is the dative form of ‘ich’.
Exercise 34
Below are eight more such expressions. Your task is to fill in the dative forms of
the pronouns required. You can brush up on pronouns in Chapter 4.
1. auffallen: Es fällt mir auf. (I notice.)

You (sing.) notice: Es fällt ______ auf.
2. leicht/ schwer fallen: Es fällt mir leicht/schwer. (I find it easy/difficult.)
He finds the task easy: Die Übung fällt ______ leicht.
3. gefallen: Es gefällt mir. (I like it.)
Do you (sing., informal) like the photo? Gefällt _______ das Foto?
4. gelingen: Es gelingt mir. (I succeed.)
She succeeds: Es gelingt _______.
5. Leid tun: Es tut mir Leid. (I am sorry.)
We are sorry: Es tut _____ Leid.
6. gehören: Es gehört mir. (I own it.)
Do you (pl. form.) own the car? Gehört ______ das Auto?
7. schmecken: Es schmeckt mir. (I like (the taste of) it.)

We like the pizza: Die Pizza schmeckt _______.
8. fehlhen: Du fehlst mir. (I miss you.)
Do you miss me?: Fehle ich _______?
The final exercise in this section tests your memory. It involves verbs dealt with
so far. Your task is to spot those verbs which need to be combined with the
dative. Successfully spotting these will help reduce errors significantly!
Exercise 35
Which of the verbs below take the dative? There are six in total.
fragen – danken – verletzen – vertrauen – spielen – gehören – widersprechen

– rufen – hören – zuhören – Leid tun
5.3 Passive and dative

This section can double up as revision if you have completed Chapter 7 (The
Passive) first. All verbs used in the sentences below are taken from this chapter.
German and English passive constructions differ when verbs taking dative
objects are involved. The main points to remember are: 1. In German, only accu-
sative objects can form the subject in passive sentences. 2. Dative objects stay
dative objects in the passive; the ‘dummy’ subject is ‘es’, which is why the verb
‘werden’ is in the singular (=‘wird’).
Exercise 36
Fill in the correct forms of the words provided in brackets, using the translation
as your guide.
1. helfen: Den Studenten ___________(present form of ‘werden’) von ihrem

Lehrer geholfen.
The students were helped by their teacher.
2. danken: _______________ (der Arzt) wurde von allen gedankt.
The doctor was thanked by everyone.
3. vertrauen: _____________ (diese Expertin) kann man vertrauen.
This expert can be trusted.
4. folgen: Den Instruktionen___________(past tense form of ‘werden’) sofort
gefolgt.
The instructions were followed immediately.
5. zustimmen: Den Forderungen _________ (müssen) zugestimmt werden.

The demands must be agreed to.
6. widersprechen: ____________ (der Politiker) wird widersprochen.
The politician is being contradicted.
9 Agreement
1 Subject and verb have the same number146

2 Know your objects (case)148
2.1 Verbs and objects 148
2.2 Verbs and prepositions 149
2.3 Adjectives and cases 151
3 Apposition 152
4 Nouns and pronouns have the same gender153
4.1 Personal Pronouns 153
4.2 Possessive pronouns 154
4.3 Relative pronouns 154
146 Agreement
Introduction
The term ‘agreement’ in a grammatical context means that parts of speech
have to work together to form a meaningful unit. Parts of speech can agree
in a number of ways: they can have the same number (be in the singular
or plural), belong to the same grammatical person, for example, the third
person singular, be in the same case or have the same gender. This chap-
ter looks at each of these in turn. Agreement can make it easier to find out
which parts of a sentence belong together and it can help avoid ambiguity;
it is therefore an important concept to be aware of when reading and writing
German texts.
When producing their own texts, students often make changes. Changing one
part of a sentence can mean that you will have to change other parts as well to
make them agree again. What was a correct German sentence can include new
mistakes after such changes; it is important to watch out for them. Statistically,
failure to observe the rules of agreement is responsible for many (easily avoid-
able) mistakes. It makes sense to use this chapter as revision, since many topics
here have been dealt with in individual chapters already. Use the exercises to
consolidate what you have learned so far.
1 Subject and verb have the

same number
In English too, verbs and subjects have to agree. However, it is mainly with
the third person singular that speakers have to display this rule, usually by
adding an ‘-s’: It is I/you/we/you pl./they sing, but he/she/it sings. In German,
there are more forms for verbs (see Chapter 3). For the exercise below, the
author has made a few changes to the sentences. The crossed out parts
have been replaced with new subjects. The translations are of the corrected
versions. Your task is to find all the resulting errors in the sentences. Under-
line them.
Exercise 1
1. Der Politiker Die Politiker verspricht den Wählern eine bessere Zukunft.
The politicians promise the voters a better future.
Agreement 147
2. Die Wähler Das Volk wollen Veränderungen sehen.

The people want to see changes.
3. Für die Partei sind die Veränderungen die Veränderung extrem wichtig.
For the party, change is extremely important.
4. In der Partei sind die Mitglieder man zuversichtlich.
In the party, everyone is confident.
Check your answers in the answer key before moving on to the text task.
Exercise 2
Now make the changes you have identified as necessary:
1. Die Politiker __________________ den Wählern eine bessere Zukunft.

2. Das Volk __________________ Veränderungen sehen.
3. Für die Partei __________________die Veränderung extrem wichtig.
4. In der Partei __________________ man zuversichtlich.
Exercise 3
When expressing views or making statements about things, we often use the
verb ‘sein’: ‘Es ist eine gute Idee, vor der Prüfung zu lernen.’, or ‘This dog is a
chow-chow.’ It is possible in German to combine a plural concept and a verb
with a singular pronoun like ‘es’ or ‘das’:
Was ist das? Das sind Erdbeeren.

What is this? These are strawberries.
Wer macht den Krach? Das sind die Kinder. Sie machen den Krach.
Who is making this noise? It’s the children. They are making the noise.
For the exercise below, insert the correct form of the verb.
1. Es _____________ die besten Studenten, die selbstständig denken. (sein)

It’s the best students who think independently.
2. Es _____________ viele Besucher zum Tag der offenen Tür. (kommen)
Many visitors came to the Open Day.
3. Das _____________ Fehler, die man leicht vermeiden kann. (sein)
These are mistakes which you can easily avoid.
4. Es _____________ viele gute Ideen bei deinen Vorschlägen. (sein)
There are many good ideas among your suggestions.
5. Das _____________ normale Reaktionen bei einem Säugetier. (sein)
These are normal reactions in a mammal.
148 Agreement
Exercise 4
One area which causes problems for English speakers is that of collective nouns.
There are nouns in English which are used with plural verbs, whereas in German
singular nouns are always used with singular verbs. Fill in the verb forms below.
Do not be distracted by the English translations!
1. Die Polizei _____________________ (suchen) nach drei Verdächtigen.

The police are looking for three suspects.
2. Die Familie _____________________ (planen) einen Sommerurlaub.
The family are planning a summer holiday.
3. Die Brille _____________________ (liegen) im Badezimmer.
The glasses are in the bathroom.
4. Die Hose _____________________ (sein) zu weit.
The trousers are too big.
5. Die Schere _____________________ (kosten) fünf Euro.
The scissors cost five Euros.
6. Die Waage _____________________ (müssen) kaputt sein!
The scales must be broken!
If you want to learn more about nouns, go to Chapter 1.
2 Know your objects (case)

2.1 Verbs and objects
It is important to know who is who in a German sentence. Knowing which verbs
are combined with which objects will reduce the number of mistakes drastically.
For example, knowing which verbs take dative objects in particular will help. Here
is a list of some common ones. For more exercises on the dative, go to Chapter 8.
• antworten (to answer, reply)

• danken (to thank)
• folgen (to follow)
• gehören (to belong)
• helfen (to help)
• nutzen (to be of use)
Exercise 5
For this exercise, fill in the correct dative plural endings only where they are
needed, i.e. when a verb taking the dative is involved. If you want to look up
dative case endings of nouns, go to Chapter 1.
1. Das Auto gehört _______________________ (die Besucher).

The car belongs to the visitors.
Agreement 149
2. Er fragt _______________________ (seine Freunde), wann sie zurückkommen.

He asks his friends when they will return.
3. Die Polizei folgte _______________________ (die Verbrecher) zu einem
Parkplatz.
The police followed the criminals to a car park.
4. Die Firma antwortete _______________________ (die Bewerber) am
nächsten Tag.
The company replied to the applicants the next day.
Do you want to step it up a gear? If you’d like to add personal pronouns to this
exercise, then look at the next task. For more information on pronouns, see
Chapter 4. Remember to keep an eye out for dative plural endings.
Exercise 6
As in the previous exercise, you will find a mixture of verbs, some taking accu-
sative and some taking dative objects. Fill in the appropriate forms of the nouns
and pronouns provided in brackets.
1. Wenn ich Hilfe brauche, rufe ich _______________________ (du) an.

I will call you when I need any help.
2. Kannst du _______________________ (ich) erklären, was wir machen
sollen?
Can you explain to me what we are supposed to do?
3. Meine Familie besucht _______________________ (Freunde) in München.
My family are visiting friends in Munich.
4. Hannah hilft _______________________ (ihre Freunde) bei den
Vorbereitungen.
Hannah is helping her friends with the preparations.
5. Susie gibt _______________________ (er) das Telefon.
Susie hands over the telephone to him.
6. Nach der Wahl interviewte der Journalist _______________________ (die
Politiker).
After the elections, the journalist interviewed the politicians.
2.2 Verbs and prepositions

Verbs can also be combined with prepositions, and prepositions take specific
cases. It is useful to know which prepositions go with which cases.
Exercise 7
Below is a list of commonly used verbs with prepositions which seem to be

counter-intuitive for English speakers. Work out from the sentences below which
150 Agreement
case the prepositions in 1–8 take and write A for accusative and D for dative
behind them.
1. Viele Leute haben Angst vor dem Unbekannten.

Many people are afraid of the unknown.
2. Du hast nie auf meine Briefe geantwortet.
You never replied to my letters.
3. Er bat seinen Boss um eine Gehaltserhöhung.
He asked his boss for a salary increase.
4. Viele Migranten fliehen vor einem Krieg.
Many migrants flee from war.
5. Kannst du mir bei dieser Aufgabe helfen?
Can you help me with this task?
6. Die Studenten interessieren sich für die Diskussion.
The students are interested in the discussion.
7. Ich suche immer nach meinen Schlüsseln.
I am forever looking for my keys.
8. Willst du an der Veranstaltung teilnehmen?
Do you want to take part in this event?
1. Angst haben vor (to be afraid of), case: _________

2. antworten auf (to reply to), case: _________
3. bitten um (to ask for), case: _________
4. fliehen vor (to flee from), case: _________
5. helfen bei (to help with), case: _________
6. sich interessieren für (to be interested in), case: _________
7. suchen nach (to look for), case: _________
8. teilnehmen an (to take part in), case: _________
Exercise 8
This time, you need to choose the correct preposition and complete the sen-
tences so that the cases agree with the prepositions. This is slightly more difficult.
an, vor (x 2), auf, bei, um, nach, für
1. Ich habe Angst _________ _________ (die Reise).

I am afraid of the journey.
2. Kannst du mir bitte _________ _________ (die Fragen) antworten?
Can you please give me an answer to my questions?
3. Sie bittet ihre Mutter _________ _________ (ein Gefallen).
She is asking her mother for a favour.
4. Die Katze flieht _________ _________ (du).
The cat is running away from you.
Agreement 151
5. Er half seinem Bruder ___________ _________ (die Arbeit).

He helped his brother with the work.
6. Interessierst du dich __________ _________ (der Job)?
Are you interested in the job?
7. Meine Schwester hat _________ _________ (du) gesucht.
My sister was looking for you.
8. Die Kinder nehmen ________ _________ (die Verlosung) teil.
The children are taking part in the lottery.
2.3 Adjectives and cases

It is not just verbs and prepositions which are combined with certain cases,
adjectives also play a role here.
Exercise 9
Here are six adjectives which take the dative case.
• ähnlich sein (to be similar to, to look alike)

• böse sein (to be mad at, annoyed with)
• warm/kalt/heiß sein (to be warm/cold/hot)
• dankbar sein (to be grateful to)
• vertraut sein (to be familiar with)
• wichtig sein (to be important to)
Your task is to translate the sentences.
1. Seine Schwester ist seinem Vater ähnlich.

2. Bist du mir böse?
3. In Kalifornien war es den Touristen zu warm.
4. Wir sind der Krankenschwester sehr dankbar.
5. Diese Musik ist uns sehr vertraut.
6. Wie wichtig ist euch der Urlaub?
In the next exercise, you can practise more adjectives with cases including the
genitive.
Exercise 10
For this exercise, you need to fill in the correct singular forms. The author has
decided to replace every plural form with a singular one. The translations reflect
the corrected versions.
• ‘bekannt sein’ with the dative (to know, to be known to, to be acquainted with)
• ‘bewusst sein’ with the dative (to be aware of)
152 Agreement
• ‘gewiss sein’ with the genitive (to be certain of)

• ‘mächtig sein’ with the genitive (to have mastered, to be in control of)
• ‘treu sein’ with the dative (to be loyal/true to)
• ‘überlegen sein’ with the dative (to be superior to)
1. Die Probleme sind den Brüdern (masc. pl.) bewusst.

Die Probleme sind __________________________ bewusst.
The brother is aware of the problems.
2. Ich bin euch treu.
Ich bin __________________________ treu.
I am loyal to you (sg.).
3. Er ist dieser Tatsachen (fem. pl.) gewiss.
Er ist __________________________ gewiss.
He is certain of this fact.
4. Solche Situationen sind den erfahrenen Sekretärinnen (fem. pl) bekannt.
Solche Situationen sind __________________________ bekannt.
The experienced secretary is familiar with such situations.
5. Er ist dieser schwierigen Dialekte (masc. pl.) mächtig.
Er ist __________________________ mächtig.
He has a command of this difficult dialect.
6. Dieses Auto ist den anderen Autos (n. pl.) überlegen.
Dieses Auto ist __________________________ überlegen.
This car is superior to the other car.
3 Apposition
If two expressions refer to the same thing they need to be identical grammat-
ically. If you to take your dog to the park and the dog is a poodle, you can
express it thus: ‘Ich gehe mit meinem Hund, einem Pudel, in den Park.’ Both,
‘meinem Hund’ and ‘einem Pudel’ are in the same case: the dative after ‘mit’.
It is easy to forget to put the second expression in the same case.
Exercise 11
In each underlined phrase in the exercise below, identify which case is involved
in order to establish agreement.
1. In Hamburg, einer großen Stadt mit Hafen, gibt es viele internationale

Firmen.
In Hamburg, a big city with a harbour, there are many international firms.
Case: ____________
Agreement 153
2. Ich besuche meinen Freund, einen Kapitän aus Hamburg.

I am visiting my friend, a captain from Hamburg.
Case: ______________
3. Das ist die Telefonnummer seiner Firma, einer bekannten Firma aus
Norddeutschland.
This is the telephone number of his company, a well-known company from
North Germany.
Case: __________________
4. Seine Frau wurde in Putzig geboren, einem Dorf im Süden.
His wife was born in Putzig, a village in the South.
Case: ______________
5. Ich kenne ihn als einen guten Freund.
I know him as a good friend.
Case: __________________
6. Ich danke ihm, dem Hamburger Kapitän, für seine Freundschaft.
I thank him, the Hamburg captain, for his friendship.
Case: __________________
7. Er ist der beste Freund, den ich habe.
He is the best friend I have.
Case: ___________
4 Nouns and pronouns have the

same gender
Since every noun in German has a gender, the equivalent pronoun has to reflect
this too and has to agree with the noun it refers to. (For more on nouns, see
Chapter 1; for pronouns, see Chapter 4.)
In English, only pronouns referring to persons (and pets) are gendered, all oth-
ers are ‘it’. It is therefore tempting for English speakers to forget to use gendered
pronouns altogether.
4.1 Personal Pronouns
Exercise 12
Translate the following English sentences using the pronoun ‘it’ into German,
making sure that the pronoun agrees with the noun it refers to.
1. Wann beginnt der Film? ____________ (nom.) beginnt um halb acht.

When does the film start? It starts at half seven.
154 Agreement
2. Wo hast du diese Jacke gekauft? Ich habe ____________ (acc.) im Kaufhaus

gekauft.
Where did you buy this jacket? I bought it in the department store.
3. Wo ist der Wagen? Ich habe ____________ (acc.) in die Garage gefahren.
Where is the car? I have put it in the garage.
4. Was für eine schöne Blume. Hast du ____________(dat.) frisches Wasser
gegeben?
What a nice flower. Have you given it some fresh water?
5. Euer Haus ist groß. Ja, ____________(nom.) hat auch einen großen Garten!
Your house is big. Yes, it also has a huge garden!
4.2 Possessive pronouns
Exercise 13
The following sentences are all based on the previous exercise. Use the posses-
sive pronouns in the examples to fill in the slots in the table below.
• Wann beginnt der Film? Ich freue mich auf seinen Anfang. (its beginning)
• Wo hast du diese Jacke gekauft? Ihre Knöpfe sind schön. (its buttons)
• Wo ist der Wagen? Ich muss seinen Motor reparieren. (its engine)
• Was für eine schöne Blume. Mir gefällt ihre Farbe. (its colour)
• Euer Haus ist groß. Sein Architekt ist berühmt. (its architect)
Singular Possessive English Plural person Possessive English

person pronoun pronoun
ich mein my wir unser our
du dein your ihr euer your
er 1. ___________ his/its sie ihr their
sie 2. ___________ her/its
es 3. ___________ its
4.3 Relative pronouns

Relative pronouns are a very good example of how agreement works: they need
to agree with the noun they refer to in number and gender. In English, you only
need to know whether you want to refer to a person (for which the relative pro-
noun is ‘who’) or not (which takes ‘which’ or ‘that’). Here is a table with the
German forms.
Agreement 155
Nominative Genitive Accusative Dative

Masculine der dessen den dem
Feminine die deren die der
Neuter das dessen das dem
Plural die deren die denen
Exercise 14
Fill in the relative pronouns. The sentences are based on Exercises 12 and 13.
1. Das Haus, ____________(gen.) Architekt berühmt ist, hat einen großen

Garten.
The house whose architect is famous…
2. Die Jacke, ____________ (acc.) du gekauft hast, ist schön.
The jacket which you bought…
3. Der Film, mit ____________ (dat.) der Regisseur viel Geld verdient hat,
beginnt gleich.
The film with which the director made a lot of money…
4. Die Blume, ____________ (gen.) Farbe mir gefällt, hat jetzt frisches Wasser.
The flower whose colour I like…
5. Die Wagen, ____________ (nom. pl.) in der Garage stehen, gehören mir.
The cars which are in the garage…
10 Negation
1 Basic rules for negation 157

1.1 Negating the whole or parts of a sentence 157
1.2 ‘Nicht ein’ versus ‘kein’ 158
2 Variations in the use of negation 160
2.1 Particles and adverbial expressions 160
2.2 Double negation 161
3 Special expressions 163
3.1 ‘Etwa’ 163
3.2 ‘Nicht einmal’ 163
4 Negation and subordinate clauses 164
Negation 157
Introduction
Negation in English and in German can be expressed by using negating words,
such as ‘nicht’ (not), ‘nie’ (never), ‘kaum’ (hardly) etc., but when it comes to the
position of these words, things work somewhat differently in English and in German.
1 Basic rules for negation

In German, the full form ‘nicht’ is always used independently to negate whole
statements or elements in a sentence; in English the same is often true, but
there is also the common practice of contracting ‘not’ into ‘-n’t’, which is added
to the relevant forms of ‘to be’ (isn’t), ‘to have’ (haven’t), ‘will’ (won’t), ‘would’
(wouldn’t) and modal verbs (mustn’t). There are no equivalent forms in German.
Exercise 1
Here are some sentences which involve negation. Match them with their English
translations:
1. Ich kaufe nicht das blaue Auto, a) I never wanted to have a car.
sondern das rote.
2. Ich kaufe das Auto nicht. b) It’s not me who’s buying the car,
but my sister.
3. Ich fahre kaum mit diesem Auto. c) I didn’t buy this car.
4. Ich habe das Auto nicht im Juli, d) I’m not buying this car.
gekauft, sondern im Juni.
5. Nicht ich kaufe das Auto, sondern e) I’m not buying the blue car, but the
meine Schwester kauft es. red one.
6. Ich habe das Auto nicht gekauft. f) I hardly ever drive this car.
7. Ich wollte nie ein Auto haben. g) I didn’t buy this car in July, but in
June.
1.1 Negating the whole or parts of a sentence

Here are the basic rules. There are two groups (I and II):
I. Negation of whole statement: ‘nicht’ (or other negating words) stand
• near or at the end of the clause, yet before the verbal bracket
• before adverbs of manner, but after all other adverbs
• before complements to the verb (prepositional phrases)
II. Negation of one element in the clause: ‘nicht’ comes before this element.
158 Negation
Exercise 2
Look at the sentences in Exercise 1 again. Sort them according to the rules into
either group I or group II by their numbers:
Group I: __________________________
Group II: __________________________
Exercise 3
Put ‘nicht’ into the following (as yet a little illogical) dialogue between Ina and
Martin so that it makes sense. Use the translations (which include the negations)
for guidance.
1. I: „Kannst du heute Abend zu meiner Party kommen?“

“Can you come to my party tonight?”
2. M: „Ich kann heute kommen.“
“I can’t come today.”
3. I: „Warum denn nicht?“
“Why on earth not?”
4. M: „Ich kann heute das Auto von meinen Eltern bekommen und die Busse
fahren am Sonntag.“
“I can’t get my parents’ car today and the buses don’t go on a Sunday.”
5. I: „Schade! Aber willst du mit ins Kino nächste Woche?“
“Pity! But do you want to go the cinema next week?”
6. M: „Da kann ich auch kommen.“
“I can’t come then either.”
7. I: „Wirklich?! Das verstehe ich.“
“Really?! I can’t understand this.”
8. M: „Ich habe bei meinen Examen gut abgeschnitten und muss arbeiten!“
“I didn’t do well in my exams and have to work!”
1.2 ‘Nicht ein’ versus ‘kein’

‘Kein’ is the usual equivalent of ‘nicht ein’ in neutral statements. It is declined like
the indefinite article ‘ein’. It corresponds to English ‘not … a’ or ‘not … any’ or
‘no’, and negates a noun:
• Ich bin kein Fan von Mick Jagger.

I’m not a fan of Mick Jagger’s.
• Sie hat eine Schwester – ich habe keine Schwester.
She has a sister – I don’t have a sister.
• Wir haben ein Haus – sie haben kein Haus.
We have a house – they don’t have a house.
Negation 159
The temptation to use ‘nicht ein’, because English usage suggests it, is always
there for English speakers learning German. A useful rule of thumb is that ‘kein’
is the likely translation, and ‘nicht ein’ is only used in a few contexts:
Exercise 4
Look at the examples below, the stress is either on ‘nicht ein’ or another word.
The stressed words are underlined.
1. Sie spielt nicht ein Instrument, sondern zwei.

She doesn’t just play one instrument, but two.
2. Leider hat unser Team nicht ein Match gewonnen.
Unfortunately, our team didn’t win even one match.
3. Er hat keinen Wellensittich gekauft, sondern einen Papagei.
He hasn’t bought a budgie, but a parrot.
4. Er mietet kein Haus in London, sondern eine Wohnung.
He doesn’t rent a house in London, but a flat.
5. Wir haben im Urlaub nicht einen Delphin gesehen!
We didn’t see a single dolphin on holiday!
6. Wir haben nicht einen Löwen gesehen, sondern ein ganzes Rudel.
We didn’t see one lion, we saw a whole pride.
a) Identify which number goes with which category:

i) emphasis on contrast: _________________
ii) emphasis on ‘ein’, ‘zwei’ etc. (cardinal numbers) ________________
iii) emphasis on ‘ein’ (‘not even a single one’) ________________
b) Complete the rule by putting in ‘nicht ein’ and ‘kein’ into the appropriate gap:
Negation: If the emphasis is on ‘ein’, use ___________; if the emphasis is on a

noun, use ___________.
Exercise 5
Put ‘nicht ein’ or ‘kein’ into the gaps. The endings, where needed, are given.
Wir haben letztes Jahr (1) ______________-en Tag Schnee gehabt. Ich liebe
Schnee. Wir haben (2) ______________ Auto, und ich gehe zu Fuß. Ich könn
t e den Schnee genießen, aber es scheint, dass es (3) ______________-e kalten
Winter mehr gibt. Deshalb haben wir (4) ______________-en Winterurlaub
gemacht, sondern sind im Sommer ans Meer gefahren. Aber es gab (5)
______________-e Woche, wo es nicht geregnet hat. Ich bin froh, dass wir (6)
______________, sondern nur eine Woche Urlaub genommen haben.
160 Negation
We didn’t have one single day with snow last year. I love snow. We don’t
have a car and I walk. I could enjoy the snow, but it seems that there
are no more cold winters. Therefore, we didn’t go on a winter holiday,
but went to the coast in the summer. But there wasn’t a single week
when it didn’t rain. I’m glad that we didn’t take two weeks holiday, but
only one.
2 Variations in the use of negation

There is some scope for variation in how negation is expressed in German. The
main difficulty is that idiomatic English translation may not give a hint as to how
to arrive at an equivalent German version.
2.1 Particles and adverbial expressions

In German, there is the possibility to put particular words before a negative to
achieve a particular effect.
Exercise 6
Look at these example sentences and underline the words before the negation,
and then answer Question 7.
1. Hast du überhaupt kein Geld?

Do you have no money whatsoever?
2. Ruft sie ihn gar nicht mehr an?
Does she never ever call him any more?
3. Möchtest du gar nichts mehr essen?
Do you really not want to eat anything else?
4. Hat sie denn überhaupt keinen Stolz?
Doesn’t she have any pride at all?
5. Ich möchte absolut nichts mit ihm zu tun haben.
I don’t want to have anything whatever to do with him.
6. Du verstehst das einfach nicht.
You simply don’t understand this.
7. What effect do these words have? Look at the English translations and then
choose your answer:
a) intensification of negation
b) cancelling out the negation
Below are some other expressions which have a similar effect.

Negation 161
Exercise 7
Look at the examples and underline the corresponding negations in each pair.
Take note of the English translations.
1. Ich kann auf keinen Fall morgen kommen = Ich kann morgen überhaupt
nicht kommen.
Whatever happens, I won’t be able to come tomorrow.
2. Sie ist keinesfalls bereit, das zu tun. = Sie ist überhaupt nicht bereit, das
zu tun.
On no account is she prepared to do this.
3. In keinem Fall werden wir nachgeben. = Wir werden nie nachgeben.
In no case will we give in.
4. Er ist keineswegs sicher = Er ist gar nicht sicher.
He is not at all sure.
The next exercises are challenging but useful.
Exercise 8
Fill in the simple negations and emphasizing negations into the following text.
Sometimes these consist of more than one word, and sometimes there is more
than one correct answer. Take the English translations for guidance.
„Das kann (1) _____________ stimmen, sie kann das (2) _____________
gesagt haben. Du kennst sie (3) _____________ gut genug. Sie ist eine
sehr faire Person und könnte (4) _____________ so schlecht über andere
reden. Ich bin (5) _____________ bereit, das zu akzeptieren und werde (6)
_____________ erlauben, dass du sie diffamierst.“
“This cannot be true, on no account can she have said this. You simply
don’t know her well enough. She is a very fair person and could never
talk so badly about others. I am not at all prepared to accept this and will
definitely not allow you to defame her.”
2.2 Double negation

In English colloquial speech the effect of negating a statement twice in one
phrase can sometimes be what you might expect: two is more than one, so the
negation is intensified. This is not very subtle, but expressive:
‘I can’t get no answer out of him’, meaning ‘I cannot get any answer out of him’,
or ‘I don’t know nothing about that’, meaning: ‘I know nothing about that’.
162 Negation
In standard English, by contrast, using two negatives in one phrase to intensify

negation doesn’t work, nor does it in German. Look at these examples:
Exercise 9
• Ich antworte nie nicht auf seine Mails. = Ich antworte immer auf seine Mails.
I never not answer his mails = I always answer his mails.
• Sie macht sich nie keine Sorgen. = Sie macht sich immer Sorgen.
She is never not worried = She is always worried.
• Er hat nie kein Geld. = Er hat immer Geld.
He never has no money. = He always has money.
What function does using double negation have? Choose your answer and
check in the answer key:
a) doubt
b) affirmation
Such constructions are rarely used, but it’s good to be aware of them.
The combination of a negation with a word that has a negative meaning is also
a form of double negation and achieves a similar effect, but it’s a more muted,
cautious one; for example: ‘I was not displeased’ = ‘I was rather pleased.’
The possibilities for subtle expression are endless. Look at these – more or
less synonymous – corresponding phrases:
• nicht ungern = ziemlich/recht gern
not unwillingly = quite willingly
• nicht ohne Mitleid = mit einigem Mitleid
not without compassion = with some compassion
• nicht ohne Interesse = mit einigem Interesse
not without interest = with a degree of interest
Exercise 10
The following phrases have the wrong translations. Match them with the
correct ones.
1. nicht schlecht = a. immer pünktlich

not bad always punctual
2. kaum Unsinn machen = b. immer höflich
to almost never fool around always courteous
Negation 163
3. nicht unerlaubt = c. größtenteils positiv

not not permitted mostly positive
4. nicht unreif = d. ganz gut
not without maturity quite good
5. nie unhöflich = e. ziemlich reif
never impolite quite mature, ripe
6. kaum negativ = f. erlaubt (mit Vorsicht)
hardly negative permitted – but with caution
7. nie unpünktlich = g. meistens vernünftig sein
never unpunctual to be mostly sensible
3 Special expressions
3.1 ‘Etwa’
The particle word ‘etwa’ – not to be confused with ‘etwas’ (‘something’) – can
be used in yes/no questions to achieve a particular effect. The translation into
English is not straightforward.
Exercise 11
Look at these questions and their translations:
1. Hast du etwa kein Geld mehr? Don’t tell me you don’t have any
money any more?
2. Möchtet ihr etwa heute Abend You don’t still want to go out tonight,
noch ausgehen? do you?
3. Ist das etwa Ihr Hund? This isn’t your dog, is it?
i) Underline how ‘etwa’ is rendered in the English translations.

ii) Delete as appropriate: the answer expected to these questions is
yes/no.
3.2 ‘Nicht einmal’

Sentences with ‘nicht einmal’ can be ambiguous if you read them, but if you
could hear them, you would hear that the stress is on different words, which
164 Negation
changes the meaning as intended. Look at this example, with the stressed word
in bold, and the different translations in English:
1. Ich habe ihn nicht einmal gesehen, als ich in den Ferien zu Hause war.
I never saw him once when I was at home in the holidays.
2. Ich habe ihn nicht einmal gesehen, als ich in den Ferien zu Hause war.
I didn’t even see him when I was at home in the holidays.
Exercise 12
What does ‘nicht einmal’ express in the two sentences above? Choose as
appropriate:
Sentence 1
a) ‘Nicht einmal’ expresses that what is negated did not happen (but would
have been expected to happen).
b) ‘Nicht einmal’ expresses that what is negated did not happen even once.
Sentence 2
a) ‘Nicht einmal’ expresses that what is negated did not happen (but would
have been expected to happen).
b) ‘Nicht einmal’ expresses that what is negated did not happen even once.
4 Negation and subordinate clauses

In Chapter 5 on Word order, we have dealt with subordinating conjunctions, so
you know that ‘bevor’/‘ehe’ (both meaning ‘before’) or ‘bis’ (until) are conjunc-
tions indicating time. But if the main clause is negated, the subordinating clause
introduced by these conjunctions can take on another function.
Exercise 13
Look at these examples:
• Wir kommen nicht, bevor/ehe sie sich entschuldigt.

We are not coming before she apologizes.
• Ich bezahle nicht, bevor/ehe ich die Rechnung bekomme.
I’m not paying before I get the bill.
• Er entscheidet das nicht, bis er mit uns gesprochen hat.
He’s not going to decide this before he has talked to us.
Negation 165
What is the function of the subordinate clause in these examples (in addition to
indicating time)?
It indicates …
a) … condition.
b) … concession.
c) … reason.
Exercise 14
Here is a dialogue between two friends, Alexander and Martin. Look over what
you have learned about negation in this chapter and then fill in the negating
expressions:
A: „Ich fand ihn schon immer problematisch, aber diesen Sommer

hat er mich _________________(1) eingeladen. Jetzt besuche ich ihn
_________________ (2), bevor er sich entschuldigt.“
“I have always found him problematic, but this summer he didn’t even invite
me once. Now I won’t visit him unless he apologizes.”
M: „Du willst doch _________________ (3) sagen, dass er dich
_________________(4) angerufen hat?“
“You don’t want to say, do you, that he didn’t even ring you up?”
A: „Genau das will ich sagen.“
“That’s exactly what I want to say.”
M: „Aber er ist doch _________________ (5) unhöflich!“
“But he is never rude!”
A: „Das denkst du – ich finde, er hat überhaupt ________________ (6)
Manieren.“
“That’s what you think – I think he has no manners at all.”
M: “Ich erkenne ihn _________________ (7) wieder – sprechen wir von der-
selben Person?“
“I don’t recognize him – are we talking about the same person?”
A: „Ja, du glaubst _________________ (8), dass er so sein kann, und ich
möchte _________________ (9) unfair sein, aber ich bestehe auf meiner
Meinung: Es ist nie akzeptabel, wenn jemand _________________ (10)
eine halbe Stunde für einen alten Freund hat.
“Yes, you hardly believe that he can be like that, and on no account do I want
to be unfair, but I insist on my opinion: it’s never acceptable if someone doesn’t
even have a single half hour for an old friend.”
M: „Da hast du _________________ (11) unrecht.“
“You are not wrong there.”
11 False friends
1 Spelling 167
1.1 Same spelling, different meaning 167
1.2 Almost the same spelling, different meaning 168
1.3 Different spelling, different meaning 171
2 Confusing word pairs: genders and meanings 174
False friends 167
Introduction
There are a number of words in English and German which look the same or
similar; their meaning, too, is the same or overlaps. One example is ‘informa-
tion’, ‘die Information’ in German, another ‘police’, ‘die Polizei’. These are called
‘cognates’, or ‘genuine cognates’. But there also are many ‘false cognates’ or
‘false friends’, confusing words for English learners of German because they
look the same or similar in both languages, but have different meanings. The
majority are nouns. Most German course books will have collections of ‘false
friends’, and there are also numerous web-pages with lists of them. They make
an amusing read, but it’s important for every learner of German to be aware of
such word pairs, as their respective meanings can be very different. One of the
best-known examples is, ‘gift’ and ‘das Gift’: the meaning of the English word
is ‘present’, that of the German noun, ‘poison’. We have picked out some of the
most striking false friends, and sorted them into categories, according to the
way in which they differ from each other.
The lists of ‘false friends’ on this site http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/words/
false_friends.htm were very helpful for writing this chapter.
1 Spelling
1.1 Same spelling, different meaning
There are not many word pairs that have exactly the same spelling in English
and German, because German nouns have capital initial letters. The pronunci-
ation of these words is different, of course, so you can hear the difference, but
here we are concerned with meaning.
Exercise 1
Some of the words in this list you may know already. They are mostly adjec-
tives and adverbs. Go through it and put down the missing translations for both
the English and the German versions if you know them. If you get stuck, try to
work out the correct meaning from the example sentences below. Check your
answers in the answer key.
168 False friends
GERMAN–ENGLISH ENGLISH–GERMAN
1. also _____________ – 2. also ______________
3. apart ______________ – 4. apart _____________
5. bald ______________ 6. bald _____________
7. fast ______________ – 8. fast ______________
9. herb ______________ – 10. herb ______________
11. still ______________ – 12. still ______________
1. Wir haben es auch versprochen, also machen wir es.

Also, we promised it, and so we’ll do it.
2. Das sind zwei aparte Hotels, aber sie stehen weit auseinander.
These are two fancy hotels, but they stand far apart.
3. Wenn seine Haare weiter ausfallen, hat er bald einen kahlen Kopp.
If any more of his hair falls out, he’ll soon have a bald head.
4. Er fuhr so schnell, dass er fast einen Unfall hatte.
He drove so fast that he almost had an accident.
5. Dieses Kraut schmeckt sehr herb.
This herb tastes very bitter.
6. Das Kind war immer noch sehr still.
The child was still very quiet.
1.2 Almost the same spelling, different meaning

The following words all have the same basic spelling in English and in Ger-
man, but the German versions are nouns and of course have a capital letter,
gender and varying plural forms. The pronunciation of the English and German
words normally varies in the two languages, too, for example, English ‘r’ differs
from German ‘r’, or the pronunciation of vowels is different: ‘hut’ – ‘der Hut’. You
can normally hear a difference, but again, we are concerned with meaning.
Exercise 2
Look through this list of English words (almost all nouns) and put down the
English translation of the German nouns. Sometimes there is more than one
meaning. Use the example sentences for help. Also put the correct German
words into the sentences. Use the list for help.
Check your answers in the answer key.
1. bad (schlimm) das Bad, -ër ______________

2. brand (die Marke, -n) der Brand, -ë ______________
3. chef (der Koch, -ë) der Chef, -s ______________
False friends 169
4. gift (das Geschenk, -e) das Gift, -e ______________

5. herd (die Herde,-n) der Herd,-e ______________
6. hose (der Schlauch, -ë) die Hose, -n ______________
7. hut (die Hütte, -n) der Hut, - ë ______________
8. lager (helles Bier) das Lager, - ______________
9. list (die Liste, -n) die List, -en ______________
10. mist (der Nebel, -) der Mist (no pl.) a)_____________
b) coll. _________
11. stern (streng) der Stern, -e ______________
12. stock (die Brühe, -n; der der Stock, -ë a)_____________
Bestand, -ë)
b)_____________
13. wall (die Mauer, -n) der Wall, -ë ______________
14. wand (der [Zauber-] die Wand, -ë ______________
Stock, -ë)
1. Die Wirkung, die das heiße Bad auf sie hatte, war sehr ____________.
The effect of the hot bath on her was very bad.
2. a) Der Brand hatte das Warenlager zerstört.
The fire had destroyed the warehouse.
2. b) Ich mag Jeans mit der ____________ Levis.
I like Levis as a jeans brand.
3. Der_____________ hatte das Essen versalzen, und sein Chef war wütend.
The chef had over-salted the food and his boss was angry.
4. Das ____________ (eine Flasche Whisky) ist Gift für ihn: Er trinkt sowieso
zu viel.
The present (a bottle of whisky) is poison for him: he’s drinking too much
as it is.
5. a) Die ____________ Ziegen stand mitten auf der Straße.
The herd of goats were standing in the middle of the road.
5. b) Auf dem Herd stand ein Topf kochendes Wasser.
There was a pot of boiling water on the cooker.
6. a) Nimm den ____________, wenn du den Garten wässern willst.
Take the hose when you want to water the garden.
6. b) Ich muss eine neue ____________ kaufen.
I must buy a new pair of trousers.
7. Er hat seinen Hut in der Berg____________ liegen gelassen.
He left his hat behind in the mountain hut.
8. a) Ich nehme ein kleines ____________ ____________, bitte!
I’ll have a small glass of lager, please!
170 False friends
8. b) Sie haben ihr Lager im Tal aufgeschlagen.

They set up camp in the valley.
9. a) Ich brauche zum Einkaufen immer eine ____________.
I always need a list when I go shopping.
9. b) Er hat sie mit einer List überredet.
He persuaded them with a ruse.
10. a) Am Morgen gab es starken ____________.
There was a thick mist in the morning.
10. b) Im Hof lag ein Haufen Mist.
There was a heap of rubbish in the yard.
10. c) Das ist doch Mist, was du da sagst! (coll.)
What rubbish you are talking!
10. d) Hinter dem Bauernhof gab es einen Misthaufen.
There was a heap of dung behind the farm.
11. a) Sie war immer sehr ____________ in ihrer Haltung.
She was always very stern in her attitude.
11. b) Der Stern, den ich am meisten liebe, ist der Morgenstern.
The star I love most is the morning star.
12. a) Man muss die ____________ mit frischem Gemüse kochen, sonst schmeckt
sie nicht.
You have to make stock from fresh vegetables, otherwise it doesn’t
taste nice.
12. b) Der Manager hat den ____________ neu geordnet.
The manager has rearranged the stock.
12. c) Zum Spazierengehen braucht er jetzt einen Stock.
He now needs a stick to go for a walk.
12. d) Die Wohnung ist im dritten Stock.
The flat is on the third floor.
13. Die Berliner ____________ wurde in der DDR auch „antifaschistischer
Schutzwall“ genannt.
In the GDR the Berlin Wall was also called the ‘anti-fascist protective
barrier’.
14. Harry Potter hob den ____________, und die Wand öffnete sich.
Harry Potter lifted the magic wand and the wall opened.
There are a few words which are ‘false friends’ like the ones you have just
worked through (that is, the German nouns have exactly the same spelling as
their English counterparts), except that they have more than one meaning and
that one of them overlaps with the English meaning, so these words are genuine
cognates and false friends at the same time!
False friends 171
Exercise 3
Look at the example sentences and list of words. Write down the meanings of
the English word in German, writing first the one that overlaps with the English
meaning.
1. Er hat nur eine kleine Pension, und er verbringt seine Ferien in einer Pension
am Meer.
He’s only got a small pension and he takes his holidays in a guest house in
a seaside town.
pension – die Pension _____________ overlap

– die Pension _____________
2. Die Mutter nahm das Kind in den Arm. Die Familie war arm, aber glücklich.
The mother put her arm around the child. The family was poor but happy.
arm – der Arm _____________ overlap

– arm _____________
3.
a) Das Lied hat viele hohe Noten.
This song has many high notes.
b) Ich hatte in der Schule immer gute Noten.

I always had good marks in school.
note – die Note _____________ overlap

– die Note _____________
1.3 Different spelling, different meaning

This group of words is possibly the most confusing, as the English and German
versions despite differences in spelling still look quite alike, but their meaning is
so different.
Exercise 4
The following list is a selection of such words. There are many more, and again,
you can find them in course books and on the internet, but these are some of the
172 False friends
most common ones. We have grouped them into nouns, verbs and adjectives/
adverbs. First, put down the English word (the ‘false friend’) that sounds alike –
which may come to your mind first anyway. Check this in the answer key and if
necessary, correct your list. Then read the instructions that follow.
English translation FALSE FRIEND German translation

Nouns:
1. die Kritik, -en ________ ________ ________
2. der Mörder, - ________ ________ ________
3. das Publikum ________ ________ ________
(no pl.)
4. die Tablette, -n ________ ________ ________
Verbs:
5. bekommen ________ ________ ________
6. kontrollieren ________ ________ ________
Adjectives:
7. aktuell ________ ________ ________
8. brav ________ ________ ________
9. eventuell ________ ________ ________
10. ordinär ________ ________ ________
11. pathetisch ________ ________ ________
12. sympathisch ________ ________ ________
13. sensibel ________ ________ ________
Now read the following texts. They include the English translations of the list of
German words in the left column and the German translations of the ‘false friends’.
These words are underlined. Study both the German and the English versions of
these texts carefully, and then fill in the two ‘translation’ columns above.
Text 1:
Das neue Theaterstück wurde schließlich aufgeführt. Es war ein Krimi, und
im Zentrum stand ein Mord. Die Handlung basiert auf einem Verbrechen,
das vor zwei Jahren sehr aktuell war. Der Mörder war sehr sympathisch,
aber er hatte sein Opfer mit Tabletten vergiftet. Das Publikum applaudierte
am Schluss enthusiastisch, und die Kritiken in den Zeitungen waren sehr
positiv; ein Kritiker sagte, das Stück sei das beste dieses Jahr.
Eventually, the new play was performed. It was a crime story, and it
centred around a murder. The plot is based on a crime which was very
topical two years ago. The murderer was very likeable, but he had
False friends 173
poisoned his victim with pills. The audience clapped enthusiastically

at the end, and the reviews in the papers were very positive. One critic
said that the play was the best this year.
Text 2:
Anja war wochenlang sehr brav, weil sie einen Tablet-PC wollte. Jetzt
hat sie einen bekommen, und sie versucht wirklich, ihn jeden Tag nur
eine Stunde zu benutzen. An gewöhnlichen Schultagen geht das, aber
an den Wochenenden ist es unmöglich. Als Mutter sollte ich das immer
überprüfen.
For weeks, Anja was very good (obedient), because she wanted to have
a tablet PC. Now she has got one and she is really trying not to use it
more than one hour every day. That’s okay on ordinary school days,
but it’s impossible to enforce this at the weekends. As mother I should
always check this.
Text 3:
Das ist doch lächerlich, jedes Mal, wenn sie anruft, wirst du pathetisch.
Deine Freundin erwartet zu viel von dir, und du bist viel zu sensibel. Du
musst vernünftig sein und eventuell den Kontakt zu ihr ganz abbrechen
oder nicht so mitfühlend sein. Sie sagt manchmal ordinäre Sachen in der
Öffentlichkeit, und das ist schrecklich für dich. Sei mutig und sag, was du
wirklich denkst!
But that’s pathetic, every time she rings you become emotional. Your
friend expects too much of you, and you are much too sensitive. You
have to be sensible and possibly break off all contact with her or not
be quite so sympathetic with her. She sometimes says vulgar things
in public and that’s terrible for you. Be brave and say what you really
think!
The following exercises give you more practice on what you have learned so far
and will help consolidate your command over this complex vocabulary.
Exercise 5
Fill in the gaps. If you need help, look over what you have learned so far.
1. Mein Bruder und ich sind altersmäßig weit ______________. Er ist schon in
______________, während ich noch arbeite.
My brother and I are far apart in age. He is already getting his pension while
I’m still working.
174 False friends
2. Mein Sohn hat bald Geburtstag, aber ich weiß nicht, welches ______________
ich für ihn kaufen soll. Vielleicht eine Levis-Jeans? Die ______________
liebt er.
It’s my son’s birthday soon, but I don’t know what to get him for a present.
Maybe a pair of Levis jeans? He loves that brand.
3. Ich ______________ jeden Tag von ihr eine ______________ mit Dingen, die
ich machen muss, aber die Dinge ______________ immer schwieriger!
Every day, I’m getting a list of things I have to do from her, but the things are
becoming ever more difficult!
4. Wir haben ______________ eine Wohnung gemietet, aber sie ist im fünften
Stock, ohne Lift. ______________ müssen wir viele Treppen steigen!
We’ve also rented a flat, but it’s on the fifth floor, without a lift. So we’ll have
to climb many stairs!
2 Confusing word pairs: genders

and meanings
There are a number of confusing word pairs – or even triplets! – in German.

These are nouns that come with different genders and consequently different
meanings. They are therefore also ‘false friends’ which need special attention.
Here are ten pairs, but as with all the vocabulary we have looked at so far, there
are always more examples to be found.
Exercise 6
Look at the following sentences and identify the translation and gender of the
respective nouns. If you need help, consult the ‘Noun declension’ table in
Chapter 1.
translation gender
1.
Ich habe einen alten Band mit Grimms a) ________ ________
Märchen.
I have an old volume with Grimm’s fairy tales.
Ich benutze ein Band, um das Geschenk zu b) ________ ________
verpacken.
I need a ribbon in order to wrap the present.
False friends 175
Die Band spielt heute c) ________ ________

Abend im Stadtpark.
The band are playing in the city park tonight.
2.
Sie verkaufte ihr Erbe, um a) ________ ________
ihre Schulden zu bezahlen.
She sold her inheritance in order to pay off her debts.
Er war der alleinige Erbe b) ________ ________
eines großen Vermögens.
He was the sole heir of a large fortune.
3.
Sie hatte einen großen a) ________ ________
Ekel, als die Schlange eine
Maus fraß.
She felt great revulsion when the snake was eating a mouse.
Sei nicht so ein Ekel! b) ________ ________
Don’t be such a pest/pain in the neck!
4.
Der Maler stand weit oben a) ________ ________
auf der Leiter.
The decorator stood high up on the ladder.
Er war lange der Leiter b) ________ ________
dieser Abteilung.
He was the head of this department for a long time.
5.
Wir lieben den Strand und schwimmen gerne
in der See. a) ________ ________
We love the beach and like to swim in the sea.
Der kleine See im Wald ist b) ________ ________
sehr romantisch.
The little lake in the forest is very romantic.
6.
Sie saß am Steuer ihres a) ________ ________
neuen Autos.
She sat at the wheel of her new car.
Ich muss dieses Jahr nicht b) ________ ________
viel Steuer zahlen.
This year, I don’t have to pay much tax.
176 False friends
7.
Dieser Teil des Romans ist a) ________ ________
am spannendsten.
This part of the novel is the most exciting.
Er hat sein Erbteil sofort ausgegeben. b) ________ ________
He spent his share of the
inheritance immediately.
8.
Ein altmodisches a) ________ ________
deutsches Wort für einen
dummen Menschen ist
‚der Tor‘.
An archaic German word for a foolish person is ‘der Tor’ (fool).
Er ging durch das Tor ins b) ________ ________
Haus.
He went through the gate into the house.
Am Ende des Fußballspiels c) ________ ________
hat er das vierte Tor
geschossen!
At the end of the football match, he scored the fourth goal!
Exercise 7
Here are some more false friends for you to become familiar with, in groups
of nouns, verbs and adjectives. We have given you the translation for both the
German and the English word. Your task is to sort the words in this list into the
three different categories of ‘false friends’ which are used in this chapter:
A) Same spelling – different meaning

B) Almost the same spelling – different meaning
C) Different spelling, different meaning
Put the capital letter referring to the category (above) for each of the following
words:
Nouns:
1. alley (die Gasse) – die Allee (avenue of trees): _____

2. ambulance (der Krankenwagen) – die Ambulanz (A&E Department): _____
3. circle (der Kreis) – der Zirkel (pair of compasses): _____
4. college (das College) – der Kollege (colleague): _____
5. dome (die Kuppel) – der Dom (cathedral): _____
6. dose (die Dosis) – die Dose (tin): _____
False friends 177
7. fabric (der Stoff) – die Fabrik (factory): _____

8. floor (der Fußboden) – der Flur (hall, corridor): _____
9. formula (die Formel) – das Formular (form): _____
10. glance (der Blick) – der Glanz (glamour): _____
11. physician (der Arzt) – der Physiker (physicist): _____
12. public (die Öffentlichkeit) – das Publikum (audience): _____
13. rock (der Fels) – der Rock (skirt): _____
14. sin (die Sünde) – der Sinn (sense): _____
15. sect (die Sekte) – der Sekt (sparkling wine): ____
16. tag (das Etikett) – der Tag (day): _____
Verbs:
17. to fasten (befestigen) – fasten (to fast): _____

18. to grab (nach etwas greifen) – graben (to dig): _____
19. to spend (Geld ausgeben) – spenden (to donate): _____
20. to taste (schmecken) – tasten (to feel around for sth.): _____
21. to wink (zwinkern) – winken (to wave): _____
Adjectives:
22. engaged (verlobt; besetzt) – engagiert (committed): _____

23. genial (angenehm, verbindlich) – genial (brilliant): _____
24. to oversee (beaufsichtigen) – übersehen (to overlook): _____
25. wide (breit) – weit (far): _____
26. vital (lebensnotwendig) – vital (full of life): _____
Exercise 8
To finish, here is a test of your overall knowledge of false friends. The following
list is a medley of false friends you have encountered throughout this chapter.
Your task is to give the English translations.
German to English:
1. aktuell: __________; 2. das Bad: __________ ; 3. das Band: __________;
4. bekommen: __________ ; 5. die Dose: __________; 6. eventuell:
__________;
7. das Gift: __________; 8. die Hose: __________; 9. die List: __________;
10. die Rente: __________; 11. der See: __________; 12. der Sekt: __________;
13. sensibel: __________; 14. der Stern: __________; 15. spenden: __________;
16. sympathisch: __________; 17. vernünftig: __________; 18. winken:
__________
12 Spelling and
punctuation
1 Spelling 179
1.1 Capitalization 179
1.2 ‘ss’ versus ‘ß’ 183
1.3 Compound nouns 185
2 Punctuation 187
2.1 Quotation marks 187
2.2 The comma 189
Spelling and punctuation 179
Introduction
Making a good impression counts. And that doesn’t just go for the overall look,
but for the details as well. It’s the same when writing a foreign language: wrong
details don’t necessarily hinder effective communication, but they definitely
won’t please the reader. In this book, we talk a lot about how to avoid errors in
grammar. But students often forget that in spelling and punctuation there are
details that should be correct. In a way, they are the icing on the cake: get them
right, and a few extra points should make it your way.
1 Spelling
Obviously, spelling should be learned with every new word you come across.
Spelling is admittedly an area where there can be a lot of variation, but there are
certain rules which should be followed. We concentrate on some important ones
here, but don’t forget that there are distinctive features like the ‘umlaut’ which
are an integral part of the spelling of some German words: the two little dots are
not optional. Sometimes they can even indicate plural (see Chapter 1, Nouns).
1.1 Capitalization
Capital letters are used a lot more in German than they are in English. You will
know the reason why: German nouns always start with a capital letter, while
English nouns normally don’t. As in English (and the other European lan-
guages), the word that starts a sentence has an initial capital letter, regardless of
whether that word is a noun. Adjectives in proper names (der Deutsche Bundes
tag, die Europäische Union), titles (Friedrich der Große), geographical places
(die Kanarischen Inseln) and adjectives in -er that are derived from cities and
areas (der Hamburger Hafen, der Thüringer Wald) are written with a capital letter
in both German and in English.
1.1.1 Nouns
Obviously, nouns are the biggest group of words written with a capital letter in
German: ‘der Tisch’ (table), ‘die Lampe’ (lamp), ‘das Buch’ (book), so there’s no
difficulty here. But there are words in German that act like nouns and want to be
treated like nouns, so they have a capital letter, too. Let’s look at some of them.
Note that in the English translation it’s not necessarily a noun that’s used for a
word which counts as a noun in German.
180 Spelling and punctuation
Exercise 1
Study the example sentences, and in each one underline the word that counts
as a noun.
1. Nouns made from adjectives:

Der Arbeitslose hatte keine Wohnung und kein Geld.
The unemployed man had no flat and no money.
2. Nouns made out of verbs:
Beim Lesen schlafe ich oft ein.
I often fall asleep when reading.
3. Nouns as part of fixed phrases:
Ich habe als Kind Rad fahren gelernt.
I learned to ride a bike when I was a child.
Other such phrases are, for example: ‘Recht haben’ (to be in the right), ‘Angst
haben’ (to be afraid), ‘Eis laufen’ (to go ice skating), ‘Schlange stehen’ (to
queue up); also times of the day after ‘gestern’, ‘heute’, ‘morgen’ (yesterday,
today, tomorrow): ‘heute Morgen’ (this morning), ‘morgen Mittag’ (tomorrow
lunchtime) etc.
4. Cardinal and ordinal numbers used as nouns:

a) Ich habe für meinen Essay eine Eins bekommen! Letztes Mal hatte ich
eine Zwei.
I got an A for my essay! Last time I got a B.
b) Er wurde beim Wettkampf Zweiter. Der Erste war ein Athlet aus den USA.
He came second in the competition. An athlete from the USA came first.
Exercise 2
In each of the following sentences, a word that counts as a noun is used but
wrongly spelled without a capital letter. Find it and give it a capital letter:
1. Gestern morgen hat es geregnet.

It rained yesterday morning.
2. Das tägliche schwimmen ist gut für dich.
The daily swim is good for you.
3. Er hat mit ihr eis laufen gelernt.
He learned ice skating with her.
4. Ich hörte die fremde abends fröhlich singen.
I heard the foreign woman sing cheerfully in the evenings.
5. Sie war immer die erste, wenn sie wollte.
She always came first when she wanted to.
6. Du hast recht, ich muss sie anrufen.

You are right, I have to call her.
7. Er hat leider nur eine drei bekommen.
Unfortunately, he only got a C.
The next exercise is a challenging but useful test.
Exercise 3
Correct this text (a freely imagined bit of ‘Cinderella’): strike out small letters and
write capital letters above where needed.
aschenputtel wollte zum ball gehen, aber sie hatte kein kleid und keine
schuhe. sie war beim putzen, als die böse stiefmutter kam. „du arme, du
hast nichts zum anziehen“, sagte sie mit einem hinterlistigen lächeln.
„dann kannst du heute abend nicht zum tanzen gehen.“ die stiefmutter
hatte leider recht. was sollte aschenputtel tun? sie hatte angst vor der stief-
mutter und sie hatte kein geld, um ein kleid und schuhe zu kaufen. sie
weinte bittere tränen.
Cinderella wanted to go to the ball, but she had no dress and no shoes.
She was cleaning when the wicked stepmother arrived. “Oh, you poor
thing, you have nothing to wear”, she said with a deceitful smile. “Then
you can’t go to the ball tonight”. Unfortunately, she was right. What
was Cinderella to do? She was afraid of the stepmother and she had no
money to buy a dress and shoes. She cried bitter tears.
1.1.2 Adjectives
This is fairly straightforward because most adjectives that are spelled with cap-
itals in German are also spelled with capitals in English, for example, proper
names or titles (s.a. point 1.1), but there is one group where usage in German
and English differs, and that is adjectives of nationality.
Exercise 4
Nach zwei Weltkriegen im 20. Jahrhundert war die Sicherung des Friedens
in Europa eine absolute Priorität. Deshalb haben wir heute die Europäische
Union. Das Reisen in den europäischen Ländern ist jetzt sehr einfach, und
der Tourismus ist ein großes Geschäft: die Touristen mögen die englische
Küste, holländische Fahrradwege, italienische Städte, den spanischen

Süden. Auch das Studium in Europa ist sehr einfach; es gibt heute zum
Beispiel viele junge Deutsche an britischen Universitäten und viele junge
Briten an deutschen Universitäten.
After two World Wars in the twentieth century, securing peace in

Europe was the highest priority. That’s why we have the European
Union today. Travelling in European countries is very easy and tourism
is big business: tourists like the English coast, Dutch biking trails, Italian
cities, the Spanish south. Studying in Europe is also very easy; for exam-
ple, there are many young Germans at British universities and many
young Britons at German universities.
Which is true, which is false? Delete as appropriate.
1. Disregarding proper names, adjectives true/false

of nationality are spelled with a capital
letter in English and lower case letter
in German.
2. Adjectives of nationality are spelled true/false
with lower case letter in English and
capital letter in German.
3. Adjectives of nationality are spelled true/false
with capital letters both in German
and in English.
1.1.3 Sie – du

In English, addressing someone is easy: you use the personal pronoun ‘you’
and the context will make it clear whether you mean the singular or the plural.
Degrees of formality are expressed in different ways, for example, through the
use of titles or first/family names.
In German, things are clearer, but at the same time grammatically more compli-
cated. The formal version of ‘you’, both in the second person singular and in the
second person plural in German is ‘Sie’ (you); the informal is ‘du’ (you) for the
singular and ‘ihr’ (you) for the plural. The formal ‘Sie’ (and its possessive ‘Ihr’)
are always written with a capital letter, for ‘du’ and ‘ihr’ the spelling is variable.
In older texts, you will often find ‘du’ spelled with a capital letter, especially in
letters. There is some scope for confusion here, especially between ‘ihr’ and ‘Ihr’
and ‘sie’ and ‘Sie’.
The second issue is of course when to use ‘Sie’ and when to switch to ‘du’.
As always, context matters the most, and there are some contexts where you
have no choice but to use ‘Sie’: when addressing persons unknown to you and
persons whom you meet or talk to in a formal situation, for example, a university
lecture room or a shop. Family, relatives and friends of course use ‘du’, and for
Germans, although ‘du’ has become more widely used as a first choice address
in certain contexts (mainly youth culture, the media, student life), the switch from
‘Sie’ to ‘du’ still signifies a step towards greater familiarity with the other person
and is of some significance. Using first name plus ‘Sie’ has recently become an
ever more popular in-between choice.
1.2 ‘ss’ versus ‘ß’

One very successful part of the recent spelling reform for the German language
was the introduction of a consistent rule regarding the use of ‘ss’ and ‘ß’. You
will hear German speakers refer to ß as ‘scharfes S’ or sometimes ‘Esszett’.
The latter is a combination of the names for the letters ‘s’ and ‘z’ describing the
way it was written in a particular archaic writing style. In English, it is sometimes
referred to as ‘character s’.
You should know first of all that in Swiss German this ‘ß’ is virtually never
used, so words that would be spelled with an ‘ß’ would have an ‘ss’ in Swiss Ger-
man. For the sake of clarity, we will leave this aside. You always know whether
you are dealing with a standard Swiss text if there is no ‘ß’ (although individual
writers may choose to use it).
In Austrian and ‘German’ German, however, ‘ss’ and ‘ß’ are used. The distinguishing
factor is easy enough: ‘ss’ after short vowel, ‘ß’ after a long vowel, so it’s ‘der Fuß’
(foot), but ‘der Fluss’ (river). You can hear this, but if you are not sure how to spell
a word that has an ‘s’ in the middle and can’t listen to it being spoken, you need to
look it up. The best way, as so often, is to learn the spelling with every new word.
With some words you will know even if you don’t hear them that you need to
write them with an ‘ß’.
Exercise 5
Work out the principle which determines that the following words are spelled
with an ‘ß’ and not an ‘ss’. The clue is that this has to do with vowels.
• außer (except)
• beißen (to bite)
• draußen (outside)
• fließen (to flow)
• heißen (to be called)
• reißen (to tear)
• schließen (to close)
• ich weiß; er, sie es weiß (I know; he, she, it knows)
Complete: ‘ß’ always follows _________________.

When you look at the simple past tense forms of most of these verbs, you will
find that they change to a short vowel: beißen – biss; fließen – floss; reißen – riss;
schließen – schloss.
The best-known example for ‘ss’ after a short vowel is probably the conjunction
‘dass’ (that). It used to be spelled ‘daß’ – a version that you will find in many older
texts and even in some contemporary texts (some German writers have chosen
to continue to use ‘daß’). But apart from this poetic licence, ‘dass’ is now firmly
rooted in standard modern German.
It’s obvious that there is potential for confusion of ‘dass’ with the definite arti-
cle ‘das’ for neuter nouns, which can also act as a relative pronoun, just as the
English ‘that’ can. How to keep these apart?
• Du sagst, dass das Buch spannend ist.

You say that the book is exciting.
• Ich mag das Buch, das du gelesen hast.
I like the book which/that you have read.
One way is to substitute ‘welches’ for ‘das’. If it works, then the relative pronoun
‘das’ must be the right choice: ‘Das Buch, welches du gelesen hast, ist spannend’.
‘Dass’ sends the finite verb to the end of the clause (See Chapter 5, Word order),
but that happens also in relative clauses, so word order is not much help here.
But ‘das’ can also be the definite article for a neuter noun in the nominative
and accusative. How to sort this apart from ‘dass’? It’s quite easy: in English,
‘the’ is the translation for ‘das’: ‘das Buch’ = ‘the book’, and ‘the’ cannot be the
translation of the conjunction ‘that’. Try to substitute ‘the’ for ‘that’ in the sen-
tence ‘She said that she was very happy’ and you will see that it doesn’t work.
There is the added complication that the same thing can be expressed by not
using a ‘dass’-clause and instead two main clauses. The latter is a slightly more
colloquial option. This can cause confusion if the subject of the subordinate or
second main clause is a neuter noun. In the example that follows this is ‘das
Buch’. The key to understanding this is word order: if ‘dass’ is used, the verb
must be at the end of the clause:
• Du sagst, dass das Buch spannend ist.

You said that the book is exciting.
• Du sagst, das Buch ist spannend.

You say the book is exciting.
Another point is that, in a similar way, ‘das’ is also used as demonstrative pro-
noun, meaning ‘that’ or ‘this’. Compare:
• Er sagt: „Das ist sehr gut.“

He says: “This is very good.”
• Er sagt, dass das sehr gut ist.
He says that this is very good.
• Er sagt, das ist sehr gut.
He says this is very good.
Although the exercise that follows is strictly speaking not a spelling exercise,
but one that tests this grammar, we feel it’s justified to include it here, because
confusing ‘das’ with ‘dass’ is such a common error.
Exercise 6
Put ‘dass’ or ‘das’ into the gaps in the following text.
E-Mail von einer Mutter an ihre Tochter:

Hallo, ich hoffe, das Projekt, (1) ______ so viel Arbeit kostet, ist bald
fertig. Ich hoffe auch, (2) ______ wir morgen Abend kommen können.
Du hast gesagt, (3) ______ ist in Ordnung und (4) ______ du morgen Zeit
hast. Ich weiß, (5) ______ Kochen ist schwierig für dich, aber vergiss nicht,
(6)______ wir deine Eltern und keine anspruchsvollen Gäste sind. Das
Wichtigste ist, (7) ______ wir dich sehen. Wir bringen auch das Buch mit,
(8) ______ du uns geliehen hast.
Hello, I hope the project that costs so much work is finished soon. I also
hope we can come tomorrow night. You said that this is okay and that
you have time tomorrow. I know, cooking is difficult for you, but don’t
forget that we are your parents and not demanding guests. The most
important thing is that we see you. We’ll also return the book that you
have lent us.
1.3 Compound nouns
Compound words, that is words that are made up of combinations of different
types of words (nouns, adjectives, verbs) are a well-known feature of the Ger-
man language. They are normally written as one word. Compound nouns take
their gender from the ‘lead noun’, which is the second one of two or the last one
of more than two. The possibility of making very long compound nouns has long
been the stuff of comedy. Mark Twain, in his much-quoted and much-loved essay
on ‘The Awful German Language’ comments on this at length. Every German
schoolchild knows the example of the ‘Donaudampfschifffahrtsgesellschaftska-
pitänswitwe’ (Widow of a Danube Steamship Navigation Company Captain).
We wouldn’t have used this well-trodden example here, if it weren’t for the fact
that it perfectly demonstrates the following (new) rule in German spelling: in
compound words where one word ends with the same two letters and the next
one starts with a letter that is also the same, all three letters stay! This looks
odd, but is correct. Look at the example above and you will see three ‘f’s. Exam-
ples for other combinations are, for two adjectives: ‘schnelllebig’ (fast moving),
for noun + present participle: ‘fetttriefend’ (dripping with fat), for verb + noun:
‘die Brennnessel, -n’ (stinging nettle). Sometimes, for clarity’s sake, compound
nouns can be written with a hyphen, for example, ‘Kaffee-Ersatz’ (substitute cof-
fee), ‘das Tee-Ei’ (egg-shaped tea infuser), but this is not common.
Exercise 7
Make up compound nouns from the following list, with their correct gender and
English translation. The combinations should be obvious. They all involve triple
letters and for each, there is only one option.
der Fußball, -ë (football), die Schokolade, -n (chocolate), die Nummer, -n

(number), der Kaffee (coffee), der Kongress, -e (congress), die Truppe, -n
(troupe), der Tee (tea), -s, der Zoo (zoo), -s, das Geschirr (crockery), der
Ersatz (substitute), das Ballett, (ballet), die Stadt, -ë (city), der Reiniger,
(cleaning substance), der Gewinn, -e (win), das Länderspiel, -e (interna-
tional match), die Nuss, -ë (nut)
A word of warning: it’s fairly easy (and fun) to combine two nouns into new
ones, but sometimes you need a linking ‘s’ in the middle: for example, ‘der
Glückspilz’ (a lucky person), or one of the nouns is in the plural; for example,
‘die Hundehütte’ (a dog’s kennel), so perhaps it’s not such a good idea to invent
compound nouns – just use the ones you are familiar with.
Exercise 8
This is an overall test on what you have learned on spelling in this chapter. Correct
the spelling in this text, following standard German (not Swiss German) conven-
tions. There are 16 mistakes. This is a (freely imagined) continuation of ‘Cinderella’.
Aschenputtel war auf dem ball. Draussen schienen die hellen Sterne. im Ball-
saal brannten so viele Kerzen, das der ganze Saal hell war. Das Kleid, dass
Aschenputtel durch ein Wunder bekommen hatte, glitzerte in den Spiegeln.

ihre Schuhe waren aus Glas, das im Licht schimmerte. Das tanzen war eine
Freude für sie. Sie tanzte so gut, dass der Prinz mit ihr tanzen wollte. „Wie
heisst du, schöne?“, fragte er, aber sie antwortete nicht. „Warum darf ich
das nicht wissen? Warum hasst du Angst? Hasst du mich? Bist du eine Ara-
bische Prinzessin?“ Aschenputtel schwieg, aber sie hatte ein lächeln auf dem
Gesicht. Die Uhr schlug elf. Bald war Mitternacht, und Aschenputtel mußte
gehen. Der Prinz sagte: „Ich komme morgen abend zu deinem Haus.“ Dass
war der Anfang eines wunderschönen Endes.
Cinderella was at the ball. Outside the bright stars were shining. In the
ballroom so many candles were burning that the whole room was lit
up. The dress, which Cinderella got through a miracle, was glistening in
the mirrors. Dancing was a joy for her. She was dancing so well that the
Prince wanted to dance with her. “What is your name, beautiful one?”,
he asked, but she didn’t answer. “Why am I not allowed to know this?
Why are you afraid? Do you hate me? Are you an Arabian princess?”
Cinderella was silent, but she had a smile on her face. The clock struck
eleven. Soon it would be midnight, and Cinderella had to go. The Prince
said: “I will come to your house tomorrow night.” This was the begin-
ning of a beautiful ending.
2 Punctuation
It is as important to get the finishing touches right when it comes to punctuation
when writing in a foreign language as it is when writing in your own. You need
to be aware of a few differences between English and German usage. In this
part, we will concentrate on two areas which tend to cause difficulty: the use of
quotation marks and the use of the comma.
2.1 Quotation marks
For direct quotations, German uses quotation marks in much the same way as
they are used in English: someone has said something and you would like to
relay it in direct speech.
Not much of a difficulty, apart from the fact that in standard German writing
double quotation marks are used in the German convention, that is, the opening
quotation mark is put below and the closing quotation mark is put above the
words set in direct speech:
Er sagte: „Ich habe keine Lust, ins Kino zu gehen.“

He said: “I’m not in the mood to go to the cinema.”
Many German authors today also use quotation marks in the international con-
vention, with both the opening and the closing quotation marks above (“…”), a
usage increasingly common in online editions of some newspapers or maga-
zines, such as Der Spiegel. You can also come across the use of ‘chevrons’ (»
… «) as quotation marks (but note that the Swiss use them the other way round:
«…»).
Exercise 9
Put the quotation marks into the German version:
Eines der bekanntesten Märchen erzählt von einem schönen jungen Mäd-
chen. Es lebt im Haus der bösen Stiefmutter, die jeden Tag vor dem Spiegel
steht und fragt: Spieglein, Spieglein an der Wand – wer ist die Schönste im
ganzen Land?
One of the best-known fairy tales is about a beautiful young girl. She lives
in the house of her wicked stepmother who every day looks into the mir-
ror and asks: “Mirror, mirror on the wall, who is the fairest of them all?”
Quotation marks are also used to draw the attention of the reader to an expres-
sion in the text:
Das Sprichwort „Reden ist Silber, Schweigen ist Gold“ gibt es in vielen Sprachen.
The proverb “Speech is silver, silence is golden” exists in many languages.
By looking at this sentence and its translation, you can spot the difference
between English and German usage and answer the question below.
Exercise 10
Fill in the missing words:

German uses 1. ____________quotation marks to emphasize expressions in a text,
whereas English uses 2. ____________ones.
Now look at this sentence. This is a little bit more complicated, as here the direct
quotation includes another quotation:
Exercise 11
Schneewittchen sagte: „Meine Stiefmutter steht jeden Tag vor dem Spie-
gel und fragt: ,Spieglein, Spieglein an der Wand – wer ist die Schönste im
ganzen Land?’ Sie ist sehr eitel.“
Snow White said: “My stepmother stands in front of the mirror every
day and asks: ‘Mirror, mirror on the wall – who is the fairest of them all?’
She is very vain.”
Fill in the gap:
Quotations within quotations in direct speech are put in ____________ quota-

tion marks in both German and English.
Exercise 12
Now put in the missing quotation marks in the German text. Here, the traditional
ending of a fairy tale is quoted within a direct quotation.
Ein Kinderpsychologe sagte: Viele Kinder lesen Märchen gerne, obwohl

die Geschichten oft grausam sind. Aber die Guten siegen, und das Ende ist
immer dasselbe: … und wenn sie nicht gestorben sind, so leben sie noch
heute – das wissen die Kinder natürlich.
A child psychologist said: “Many children like to read fairy tales,

although the stories are often cruel. But the good people always win and
the ending is always the same: ‘… and they lived happily ever after’ –
the children know this, of course.”
2.2 The comma
2.2.1 The use of the comma when connecting clauses
The use of the comma in English and German is generally similar, but there are
a couple of differences which you should always be aware of.
Exercise 13
Look at these sentences. It’s obvious that there’s a comma in the German where
there is none in the English. In German, there must be a comma before a certain
type of conjunction.
1. Ich würde nicht kommen, wenn ich er wäre.

I wouldn’t come if I were he.
2. Du weißt, dass ich anrufen werde.
You know that I will ring up.
3. Wir werden handeln, sobald es nötig ist.

We will act as soon as it’s necessary.
4. Ich habe keine Zeit, weil ich so viel Arbeit habe.
I have no time because I have so much work.
5. Sie werden das machen, obwohl sie bald verreisen.
They will do this although they will soon go away.
Now complete the rule by deleting as appropriate. Remember the coordinating

and subordinating conjunctions? (See Chapter 5, Word order). The latter send
the finite verb to the end of the clause.
Rule: in German, there must be a comma before a coordinating/subordinating

conjunction.
To finish, underline the relevant conjunctions in the examples above and put a
circle around the comma.
Exercise 14
Here’s a similar rule. You can work it out by looking at the following examples
(looking over Chapter 4, Pronouns, will help). Put a circle round the comma and
underline the word that comes after it.
1. Der Junge, der zur Tür kam, sah sehr glücklich aus.

The boy who came to the door looked very happy.
2. Die Frau, die mich gestern angerufen hat, war seine Schwester.
The woman who rang me yesterday was his sister.
3. Die Touristen, die an der Information warteten, wurden unruhig.
The tourists waiting at the information desk became restless.
What type of clause do these words introduce?
Rule: in German, a comma must be put before a ___________ clause.
2.2.2 The use of the comma with adverbial conjunctions

As an English speaker, you will have to ‘unlearn’ a punctuation rule which is very
natural in English but, when applied to German, is quite wrong.
Look at these sentences. They all start with an adverbial expression which
acts as a logical connector (see also Chapter 5, Word order):
1. Kurzfristig konnten wir noch auf eine Fahrradtour gehen.

At short notice, we could still go on a bike-tour.
2. Außerdem hatten wir das Glück billige Hotels zu finden.
Furthermore, we were lucky to find cheap hotels.
3. Trotzdem hatte meine Schwester die ganze Zeit schlechte Laune.

Despite that, my sister was in a bad mood the whole time.
4. Im Gegensatz dazu war mein Bruder sehr begeistert.
By contrast, my brother was very enthusiastic.
5. Jedoch erinnern wir uns heute nur an die schöne Fahrradtour!
Nevertheless, today we only remember the nice bike-tour!
Exercise 15
Compare the English and German versions of the sentences above and then
delete a) or b) as appropriate:
Rule: in German sentences
a) there is no comma
b) a comma must be put
after an adverb or adverbial phrase in first position.
Exercise 16
Now, to finish, look at this text. The quotation marks and commas are missing
from the German text – your job is to put them back.
Der Präsident sagte in einer Rede vor dem Europaparlament: In der

deutschen Verfassung steht dass alle Deutschen in einem vereinten Europa
dem Frieden der Welt dienen sollen. Dies ist das Ziel das wir alle erreichen
wollen. Außerdem müssen wir die Menschenrechte immer an die erste
Stelle setzen.
The President said in a speech before the European Parliament: “It says
in the German constitution that ‘to support peace in a unified Europe’ is
the duty of all Germans. This is the goal we all want to reach. Moreover,
we must always put human rights first.”
Answer key to
exercises
Chapter 1
EXERCISE 1
1. der, die, die; 2. die, der, der; 3. das, der, die; 4. das, die, das; 5. die, das, der; 6. der, die,
die; 7. der, die, die; 8. das, die, der; 9. die, das, der; 10. der, das, das
EXERCISE 2
1. die Katze; 4. der Osten; 7. die Gesundheit; 8. der April; 11. die Sieben;
EXERCISE 3
answer: c)
EXERCISE 4
3.- ent: der Student, der Dirigent; 4. -ant: der Doktorand, der Fabrikant, der Diamant; 5.
-af : der Fotograf, der Paragraf; 6. -e: der Affe, der Psychologe, der Jude, der Russe,
der Franzose; 7. - ist: er Polizist, der Komponist
EXERCISE 5
genitive -s ending in the singular.
EXERCISE 6
1. neuter; 2. no endings for nominative and accusative, but endings as for ‘almost’ weak
masculine nouns in the genitive and dative; 3. -en for all cases
EXERCISE 7
1. Friedens; 2. Willens; 3. Journalisten; 4. Funken; 5. Buchstaben; 6. Glauben; 7. Namen;
8. Glaubens; 9. Herzen; 10. Fotografen
EXERCISE 8
1. B; 2. E; 3. F; 4. A; 5. B; 6. F; 7. A; 8. C; 9. B; 10. A; 11. D; 12. E; 13. D; 14.F; 15.B; 16. F
EXERCISE 9
1. genitive; 2. masculine and neuter; 3. -(e)s; 4. dative; 5. masculine and neuter; 6. -n 7.
MasculineNeuterSingular-s (= add ‘-s’ or ‘-es’); 8. MasculineNeuterPlural-n (=add
‘-n’)
EXERCISE 10
1.-s; 2. – ; 3. n; 4. –; 5. -es; 6. -es; 7. -en; 8. –
EXERCISE 11
1. A dative plural object stands in first position.
2. This is clear because of the article, ‘den’, which in conjunction with the plural ‘-n’ (‘den
Kindern’) can only mean dative plural (and not acc. sing. masc.)
3. The subject in the nominative stands in first position.
4. This is clear because of the article ‘die’. Theoretically, this could also be an accusative
object, but the verb (‘bekommen’ = to get) makes this impossible.
Chapter 2
EXERCISE 1
1. Two; 2. -en; 3. -em/ -es; 4. -en; 5. The six are: masc. acc. and gen., n. gen., fem. nom.
and acc. and pl. dat.
EXERCISE 2
All endings are: -en
EXERCISE 3
1. -e ; -e ; 2. -em; -e ; 3. -e; -en ; 4. -en; -e
EXERCISE 4
The strong endings are:
Masculine Neuter
Nom. ein guter Freund ein gutes Buch
Acc. ein gutes Buch
1. -er, -en; 2. -e, -es; 3. -en, -es; 4. -e, -en

194 Answer key to exercises
EXERCISE 5
W: wenige, A: andere, V: viele, E: einige, M: mehrere
EXERCISE 6
1. die vielen guten Ideen; 2. wenige verlässliche Kollegen; 3. die anderen großen Fir-
men; 4. mehrere gute Initiativen; 5. einige gute Freunde
EXERCISE 7
1. -e; 2. -e; 3. -er; 4. -es; 5. -em; 6. -es
EXERCISE 8
All endings are -er
EXERCISE 9
1. d. Neuen; 2. a. Gutes; 3. b. Alte; 4. c. Interessante
EXERCISE 10
1. AN Angestellter; 2. WM Franzose; 3. AN Deutscher; 4. AN Erwachsener; 5. WM
Junge; 6. AN Fremder; 7. AN Jugendlicher; 8. WM Mensch; 9. AN Verwandter; 10.
AN Bekannter
EXERCISE 11
1. größer; 2. groß; 3. interessant; 4. interessanter; 5. anstrengender; 6. anstrengend
EXERCISE 12
1. interessantesten; 2. anstrengendsten; 3. schönsten; 4. langweiligsten
EXERCISE 13
1. c; 2. d; 3. a; 4. e; 5. b
EXERCISE 14
1. arm, ärmer, am ärmsten; 2. sauer, saurer, am sauersten; 3. heiß, heißer, am heißesten; 4.
dumm, dümmer, am dümmsten; 5. hart, härter, am härtesten; 6. kalt, kälter, am käl-
testen; 7. locker, lockerer, am lockersten; 8. nett, netter, am nettesten; 9. jung, jünger,
am jüngsten; 10. spät, später, am spätesten; 11. einfach, einfacher, am einfachsten;
12. lang, länger, am längsten; 13. nass, nasser, am nassesten; 14. scharf, schärfer, am
schärfsten; 15. schwach, schwächer, am schwächsten; 16. sauber, sauberer, am saub-
ersten; 17. stark, stärker, am stärksten; 18. alt, älter, am ältesten; 19. sanft, sanfter, am
sanftesten; 20. stolz, stolzer, am stolzesten
EXERCISE 15
1. netteste; 2. heißeste; 3. kälteres; 4. schärfste; 5. jüngere; 6. späteren
EXERCISE 16
1. ärmer; 2. stärkeren; 3. einfacheren/leichteren; 4. älteste; 5. längsten; 6. sauerste; 7.
härtesten/schwersten; 8. sanftesten; 9. sauberer; 10. stolzeste
EXERCISE 17
1. das größte; 2. der beste; 3. die schwächste; 4. die meisten
EXERCISE 18
1. er; 2. sie; 3. ich; 4. er; 5. sie; 6. wir
EXERCISE 19
1. schlechtesten; 2. minderwertigsten; 3. schwächer; 4. bösesten; 5. übler; 6.
unangenehmsten
EXERCISE 20
1. besten; 2. ausgezeichneter; 3. hervorragender; 4. positivsten; 5. angenehmsten; 6.
erfreulichsten
Chapter 3
EXERCISE 1
2. sie tun, a; 3. sie wandern, a; 4. wir opfern, a; 5. du wartest, b; 6. ihr öffnet, b; 7. er redet,
b; 8. du atmest, b; 9. wir bügeln a; 10. es findet, b; 11. wir klingeln, a; 12. er arbeitet,
b; 13. wir tun, a; 14. du küsst, d; 15. du reist, d; 16. ich bügle, c; 17 du weißt, d; 18. ich
klingle, c; 19. du sitzt, d; 20. du faxt, d; 21. du grüßt, d
EXERCISE 2
2. steht, stehen; 3. gibt, geben; 4. nimmt, nehmen; 5. bewegt, bewegen; 6. isst, essen; 7.
geht, gehen; 8. hebt, heben
EXERCISE 3
2, dachte, gedacht; 3. brachte, gebracht; 4. schaffte, geschafft; 5. wusste, gewusst; 6.
brannte, gebrannt; 7. rannte, gerannt; 8. verbrachte, verbracht
EXERCISE 4
1. e; 2. c; 3. a; 4. d; 5. b
EXERCISE 5
1. gewusst; 2. ist; 3. gekannt; 4. geschafft; 5. siehst; 6. weiß; 7. bin; 8. weiß; 9. tun;
10. arbeitet; 11. wird; 12. findest
EXERCISE 6
1. sep.; 2. sep.; 3. sep.; 4. sep.; 5. non-sep.; 6. non-sep.; 7. sep.; 8. non-sep.
EXERCISE 7
a i); b ii); 4. verkauft; 5. erleichtert; 6. vorgelesen
EXERCISE 8
3. separate; 4. verkauft; 5. einkaufe; 6. vorlese
EXERCISE 9
1. besucht; 2. angekommen; 3. abgeholt; 4. ausgegangen; 5. verbracht; 6. vergessen; 7.
einkaufe
EXERCISE 10
1. c, non-sep.; 2. a, sep.; 3. d, sep.; 4. b, non-sep.
EXERCISE 11
1. b); 2. a) dat.; 3. In sentence 2, there is already an accusative object (‘die Hände’), there-
fore the reflexive pronoun must be in the dative.
EXERCISE 12
1. mir (dat.); 2. sich (acc.); 3. sich (acc.); 4. sich (dat.); 5. euch (dat.); 6. dir (dat.); 7. uns
(acc.); 8. dich (acc.)
EXERCISE 13
a) after the subject; b) finite verb
EXERCISE 14
a); 2. sich freuen über (+ acc.); 3. sich entschuldigen bei (+ dat.); 4. sich interessieren für
(+ acc.); 5. sich konzentrieren auf (+ acc.); 6. sich entschließen zu (+ dat.)
EXERCISE 15
1. sich, x; 2. x, sich; 3. sich; 4. mich, x; 5. dir/x, x; 6. sich; 7. sich, x; 8. x, sich; 9. x, sich
EXERCISE 16
1. sollen; 2. no ‘-e’; 3. no ‘-t’
EXERCISE 17
dürfen, können, mögen, müssen; 2. sollen, wollen; 3. modal verb: mögen; change: g →
ch (mögen → mochte)
EXERCISE 18
A 1. kann; 2. muss; 3. soll; 4. Kannst; 5. will; 6. Könnt; 7. darf; 8. mögen; 9. kann;
10. willst
B 11. konnte; 12. musste; 13. sollte; 14. konnte; 15. musste; 16. wollte; 17. konnten; 18.
wollten
EXERCISE 19
1. dürfte, könnte, möchte, müsste; 2. sollte, wollte; 3. könnte, konnte: could; 4. sollte:
should, to be supposed to
EXERCISE 20
1. könnte; 2. kannst; 3. konnten; 4. sollten; 5. sollte; 6. müsste; 7. sollte; 8. wollte
EXERCISE 21
1. d; 2. f; 3. e; 4. a; 5. c; 6. b
EXERCISE 22
gekonnt, können
Note: In compound tenses (perfect and pluperfect), modal verbs use their infinitive
form instead of their regular past participle. For the future, they use the modal in
the infinitive as expected. This is sometimes called a ‘double infinitive’.
EXERCISE 23
1. müssen, wollte; 2. können, durftest; 3. dürfen, konnte; 4. wollen, musste
EXERCISE 24
before
EXERCISE 25
1. werden verkaufen müssen; 2. hast sehen können; 3. hatte vergessen wollen
EXERCISE 26
1. transitive verb; 2. reflexive verb; 3. verb denoting continuous action; 4. impersonal
verb; 5. modal verb
EXERCISE 27
1. c) intransitive verb of motion; 2. a) intransitive verb indicating change of state;
3. d) verb meaning ‘to happen’; 4. d) verb meaning ‘to fail’; 5. d) verb meaning ‘to
occur’; 6. b) ‘sein’; 7. b) ‘bleiben’; 8. b) ‘werden’
EXERCISE 28
1. hatte gebracht; 2. hatte fortgeschickt; 3. gewesen war; 4. haben verloren; 5. habe
geworfen; 6. gegangen waren; 7. hat gedauert; 8. gekommen seid; 9. seid gewesen;
10. habe gefreut; 11. hatte wissen können; 12. hatte gemacht; 13. hatte ausgedacht;
14. war geschmolzen; 15. war misslungen
EXERCISE 29
1. a) sind, 1. b) hatte; 2. a) Bist, 2. b) habe; 3. a) waren, 3. b) hat; 4. a) Habt, 4. b) ist; 5. a)
waren, 5. b) hatte; 6. a) bin, 6. b) hat
Chapter 4
EXERCISE 1
Ich habe einen neuen Computer. Er steht auf meinem Schreibtisch, und ich finde ihn
wunderbar. Ich hole dich gleich ab, und dann können wir ihn gemeinsam ausprobi-
eren. Dir wird er sicher auch gefallen.
Die Kinder haben eine Pflanze in den Garten gebracht. Sie graben ein Loch für sie,
stecken sie hinein und dann geben sie ihr viel Pflanzendünger. Der Gärtner hat
ihnen dabei geholfen. Wir haben auch eine kleine Pflanze für euch – nun könnt ihr
auch im Garten arbeiten!
EXERCISE 2
1. ich; 2. er; 3. sie; 4. wir; 5. ihr; 6. sie; 7. dich; 8. ihn; 9. euch; 10. dir; 11. ihr; 12. ihnen
EXERCISE 3
1. ihrer; 2. euer; 3. seiner; 4. unser
EXERCISE 4
1. euch; 2. dir; 3. mir; 4. ihm; 5. ihr; 6. ihnen
EXERCISE 5
1. ihn; 2. ihm; 3. ihm; 4. es; 5. sie; 6. ihr
EXERCISE 6
1. Er; 2. ihn; 3. sie; 4. sie; 5. es; 6. es
EXERCISE 7
1. euch; 2. dich; 3. mich; 4. uns
EXERCISE 8
1. dich; 2. dir; 3. -8. sich, 9. uns; 10. uns; 11. euch; 12. euch; 13. sich; 14. sich
EXERCISE 9
1. d; 2. g; 3. c; 4. f; 5. a; 6. e; 7. b; 8. i; 9. j; 10. k; 11. h
EXERCISE 10
1. sich; 2. mir; 3. uns; 4. euch; 5. dir; 6. sich
EXERCISE 11
1. mir/mich; 2. dir/dich; 3. mir/mich; 4. dir/dich
EXERCISE 12
1. c; 2. e; 3. d; 4. b; 5. a
EXERCISE 13
1. mein; 2. dein; 3. Ihr; 4. sein; 5. ihr; 6. sein; 7. unser; 8. euer; 9. ihr
EXERCISE 14
1. ihre; 2. meiner; 3. deine; 4. unseren; 5. Eure; 6. seine; 7. ihren; 8. Ihren
EXERCISE 15
1. meine; 2. deinen; 3. meiner; 4. meinen; 5. unsere; 6. ihre; 7. ihren; 8. sein
EXERCISE 16
1. Unsere; 2. Euer; 3. Sein; 4. Ihre; 5. seine; 6. ihr; 7. euren; 8. unsere; 9. eurer; 10. unserem; 11.
ihrem; 12. seinen; 13. ihrer; 14. seines; 15. unseres; 16. eurer
EXERCISE 17
1. der; 2. dessen ; 3. der; 4. denen; 5. den; 6. deren; 7. dessen; 8. die
EXERCISE 18

Nominative der das die die
Accusative den das die die
Dative dem dem der denen
Genitive dessen dessen deren deren
EXERCISE 19
1.; 2.; 4.
EXERCISE 20
1. dem; 2. den; 3. dessen; 4. der; 5. deren; 6. denen
EXERCISE 21
1. deren; 2. dessen; 3. deren; 4. dessen
EXERCISE 22
1. Er hat mir gesagt, dass er später kommen wird, was mich ärgerte.; 3. Er hat seine
Führerscheinprüfung bestanden, was mich erstaunt.; 6. Ich bin zu der Party einge-
laden, was mich überrascht.
EXERCISE 23
1. Das ist dasselbe, was du letzte Woche erklärt hast.; 2. Ich muss etwas kaufen, was
ich für den Urlaub brauche.; 4. Alles, was ich brauche, ist hier.; 5. Das Beste, was
ich je gemacht habe, ist ins Ausland zu gehen.; 7. Vieles, was du gesagt hast,
ist wahr.
EXERCISE 24
1. wo; 2. vowel
CHAPTER 5
EXERCISE 1
1 b; 2 c; 3 c; 4 a; short word (pronoun object) before long word (noun object) – rule
c – examples 2 and 3; PAD rule a – example 4 (if pronoun objects then accusative
before dative: PAD); DAN rule b – example 1 (dative before accusative if noun
objects: DAN)
EXERCISE 2
1. Ich gebe ihr einen Regenschirm.; 2. Ich gebe meiner Tochter einen Regenschirm.; 3.
Ich gebe ihn ihr.; 4. Ich gebe ihn meiner Tochter.
EXERCISE 3
1. Er schreibt seinem Bruder eine Mail.; 2. Er schreibt ihm eine Mail.; 3. Er schreibt sie
ihm.; 4. Er schreibt sie seinem Bruder.
EXERCISE 4
1. heute; 2. leider; 3. herzlich; 4. schnell
EXERCISE 5
b)
EXERCISE 6
a) 1; b) 2; c) 3; d) 4; e) no match; f) no match
EXERCISE 7
1. Eine Telefonnummer kann er dir morgen geben.; 2. Wegen des schlechten Wetters
kauft sie dem Kind einen Anorak.; 3. Morgen Abend rufe ich meine Mutter an.; 4.
Dem späten Bewerber können wir kein Interview anbieten.
EXERCISE 8
1. t: morgen um 19.00 Uhr; r: wegen des schlechten Wetters; m: mit dem Zug; p:
am Bahnhof; 2. t: nächste Woche; r: aus Zeitmangel; m: mit dem Auto; p: nach
Berlin; 3. t: gestern; m: fröhlich; p: in die Stadt; 4. t: seit ihrem Umzug; p: nach
Deutschland
EXERCISE 9
time – reason – manner – place
There is another way of remembering this pattern, by using the German words describing
the function of the adverbials: time (when?): temporal; reason (why?): kausal; manner
(how?): modal; place (where?): local → te-ka-mo-lo
EXERCISE 10
1. Ich fahre heute wegen des schlechten Wetters mit dem Taxi zum Bahnhof.; 2. Ich
nehme am Mittag einen ICE nach München.; 3. Ich treffe meine alte Schulfreun-
din heute Abend im Hotel.; 4. Wir gehen dann zusammen zum Abendessen in ein
Restaurant.; 5. Ich komme morgen aufgrund des günstigen Fahrplans ohne Zeit-
druck zurück nach Berlin.
EXERCISE 11
1. Wegen des schlechten Wetters fahre ich heute mit dem Taxi zum Bahnhof.; 2. Am
Mittag nehme ich einen ICE nach München.; 3. Meine alte Schulfreundin treffe
ich heute Abend im Hotel.; 4. Zum Abendessen gehen wir dann zusammen in ein
Restaurant.; 5. Aufgrund des günstigen Fahrplans komme ich morgen ohne Zeit-
druck zurück nach Berlin.
EXERCISE 12
1. bist – gelaufen; 2. hast – gemacht; 3. habe – geachtet; 4. hast – erreicht;
EXERCISE 13
b)
EXERCISE 14
1. aber; 2. a; 3. denn; 4. d; 5. und; 6. u; 7. sondern; 8. s; 9. oder; 10. o → ADUSO words
EXERCISE 15
1c, 2b/e, 3b, 4a/c/e, 5d; ADUSO words: 1. denn; 2. und, aber; 3. und; 4. denn; 5. sondern
EXERCISE 16
1. aber; 2. denn; 3. und; 4. und; 5. aber; 6. sondern; 7. aber; 8. und; 9. oder; 10. und
EXERCISE 17
1. a) und, d) sondern, e) oder; 2. c) denn; 3. b) aber
Explanations:
a) After ‘und’: if a sentence element (subject or verb or both) is the same in the two
main clauses it can be omitted.
b) After ‘aber’: in main clauses connected with a linking word expressing contrast, sub-
ject and verb have to be the same (in both main clauses) if they are to be omitted
(here: ‘er rennt’).
c) After ‘denn’: no element can be left out if ‘denn’ is the conjunction between two
main clauses.
d) After ‘sondern’: if a sentence element (subject or verb or both) is the same in the two
e) After ‘oder’: if a sentence element (subject or verb or both) is the same in the two
Overall conclusion: This means that the coordinating conjunctions remain

firmly in Zero position even if it doesn’t look like it!
EXERCISE 18
1. oder (wir müssen); 2. aber (ich habe); 3. und (ich); 4. denn; 5. sondern (wir fahren)
EXERCISE 19
Rotkäppchen wohnte mit ihrer Mutter in einem Dorf. Sie hatte keinen Vater mehr, aber
(sie hatte) eine liebe Großmutter. Rotkäppchen war glücklich, denn die Großmutter
liebte sie sehr. Eines Tages sagte die Mutter zu Rotkäppchen: „Die Großmutter ist krank
und (sie) braucht unsere Hilfe. Du musst zu ihr gehen und (du musst) ihr Wein und
Kuchen bringen, aber (du) darfst im Wald nicht stehen bleiben, sondern (du) musst
immer schnell weiter gehen!“ Das Mädchen kam zum Haus der Großmutter. Alles war
still, aber (alles war) anders als sonst. Sie hatte Angst, und (sie) dachte: Ich kann wieder
nach Hause gehen oder (ich kann) hineingehen und (ich kann) der Großmutter helfen.
EXERCISE 20
in first or third position
EXERCISE 21
1. ..., du bist sonst traurig.; 2. ..., außerdem sind wir einkaufen gegangen.; 3. ..., dadurch
hat er auch neue Leute kennengelernt.; 4. ..., ich kann dann nicht im Garten arbei
ten.; 5. ..., sie haben jedoch viele Probleme.
EXERCISE 22
1. dadurch; 2. deswegen; 3. jedoch; 4. außerdem; 5. trotzdem; 6. sonst; 7. dennoch; 8.
dann; 9. deshalb
EXERCISE 23
1. deshalb, deswegen; 2. dadurch; 3. jedoch, trotzdem, dennoch; 4. außerdem; 5. sonst;
6. dann
EXERCISE 24
a) und (0), dann (1), haben (2); b) und (0), wir (1), haben (2)
It is clear that the coordinating conjunction is fixed in Zero position and that the verb
must remain in second position no matter what comes before it in first position. Not
recognizing the difference between ADUSO words in Zero position and conjunc-
tional adverbs in first or third position can cause problems.
EXERCISE 25
1. a) Ich bin krank, und ich komme deswegen morgen nicht.
1. b) Ich bin krank, und deswegen komme ich morgen nicht.
2. a) Sie hat wenig Zeit, aber sie kommt trotzdem heute Abend.
2. b) Sie hat wenig Zeit, aber trotzdem kommt sie heute Abend.
3. a) Du musst mehr auf Deutsch lesen, denn dadurch lernst du viele neue Wörter.
3. b) Du musst mehr auf Deutsch lesen, denn du lernst dadurch viele neue Wörter.
4. a) Ich muss bis drei Uhr arbeiten, und dann kannst du kommen.
4. b) Ich muss bis drei Uhr arbeiten, und du kannst dann kommen.
EXERCISE 26
(1) aber dennoch war sie/aber sie war dennoch; (2) und du musst deswegen/und des-
wegen musst du; (3) denn sonst kommt der große böse Wolf/denn der große böse
Wolf kommt sonst; (4) aber sie ging trotzdem weiter/aber trotzdem ging sie weiter;
(5) aber dann hörte sie/aber sie hörte dann
EXERCISE 27
1. ..., weil ihre große Schwester am Abend nicht da war.; 2. ..., obwohl ihre große
Schwester am Abend nicht da war.; 3. ..., wenn ihre große Schwester am Abend nicht
da war.; 4. ..., bis ihre große Schwester am Abend da war.; 5. ..., während ihre große
Schwester am Abend da war.
EXERCISE 28
1. weil, da; 2. als, wenn, nachdem, bevor, bis, seit, während; 3. wenn; 4. falls; 5. damit;
6. obwohl; 7. dass, ob
EXERCISE 29
1. Weil ihre große Schwester am Abend nicht da war, hatte Britta Angst.; 2. Obwohl
ihre große Schwester am Abend nicht da war, hatte Britta keine Angst.; 3. Wenn
ihre große Schwester am Abend nicht da war, hatte Britta Angst.; 4. Bis ihre große
Schwester am Abend da war, hatte Britta Angst.; 5. Während ihre große Schwester
am Abend da war, hatte Britta keine Angst.
EXERCISE 30
main clause verb in second position: italics; subordinating conjunctions: bold; finite
verb at the end of subordinate clause: underlined.
Rotkäppchen wohnte mit ihrer Mutter in einem Dorf. Weil sie keinen Vater mehr hatte,
ging sie oft ihre liebe Großmutter besuchen. Eines Tages sagte die Mutter zu Rotkäp-
pchen: „Du musst die Großmutter besuchen, weil sie krank ist. Sie braucht guten Wein
und süßen Kuchen, dass sie wieder gesund wird.“ Rotkäppchen antwortete: „Ich
gehe gern, obwohl ich Angst vor dem großen, bösen Wolf im Wald habe.“ Während
sie schnell durch den Wald lief, klopfte ihr Herz laut. Als sie am Haus der Großmutter
ankam, war alles still. Bevor sie hineinging, hörte sie drinnen ein lautes Schnarchen ...
EXERCISE 31
1. nachdem; 2. war; 3. weil; 4. war; 5. Als; 6. aufwachte; 7. da; 8. aussah; 9. bis; 10. sagte;
11. dass; 12. war
EXERCISE 32
1. ..., dass sie nicht im Garten spielen können, wenn das Wetter schlecht ist.; 2. ..., weil
ich gehen werde, wenn du mich nicht mehr liebst.; 3. ..., obwohl du mit ihm spre-
chen musst, wenn er jetzt anruft.; 4. ..., weil er die ganze Zeit lächelte, als ich ihn
sah.; 5. ..., dass eure Beziehung einfacher sein wird, weil du jetzt hier bist.
EXERCISE 33
coordinating conjunctions and main clause verb are in bold; subordinating conjunc-
tions and verb are underlined:
1. Er hat hart gearbeitet, und wenn alles klappt, bekommt er eine Eins.; 2. Sie hat mich
betrogen und obwohl ich sie liebe, werde ich sie verlassen.; 3. Heute Nachmittag
oder bevor du morgen weg musst, können wir einkaufen gehen; 4. Der Hund bellte
und als die Katze auf dem Baum blieb, wurde er immer wütender.; 5. Ich bin heute
zu Hause, aber wenn du erst morgen kommst, gehe ich ins Kino.
EXERCISE 34
coordinating conjunctions and verb are in bold; subordinating conjunctions and verb
are underlined:
Als ich angefangen habe, Deutsch zu lernen, war ich sehr begeistert, und obwohl die
Wortstellung manchmal sehr schwer ist, finde ich die Sprache noch immer faszinie-
rend, denn ich weiß, dass die Grammatik nicht immer einfach ist. Aber wenn man
etwas lernen will, ist das alles gar kein Problem. Man muss nur geduldig sein, und
wenn es schwierig wird, muss man darauf vertrauen, dass man bald Deutsch spre-
chen können wird.
EXERCISE 35
1. nachdem; 2. und; 3. und; 4. aber; 5. dass; 6. weil; 7. obwohl; 8. als; 9. und; 10. wenn
Chapter 6
EXERCISE 1
1.; 3.; 4.; 7.; 8.
EXERCISE 2
1. arbeite; 2. fährt; 3. verbringen; 4. wohnt
EXERCISE 3
1. I have been living on my own for two years already.; 3. He has already been sleeping
for three hours.; 5. She will give the talk next week.; 7. I will do this immediately.
EXERCISE 4
1. ‘schon’ and ‘seit’; 2. ‘nächste (Woche)’ and ‘sofort’
EXERCISE 5
1. bin … gegangen; 2. Hast … gekauft; 3. habe … gekauft; 4. gesagt hast; 5. habe …
gewusst; 6. habe … getroffen; 7. Hast … gesprochen; 8. ist … vorbeigegangen
EXERCISE 6
1. ging; 2. kaufte; 3. sagtest; 4. traf; 5. ging … vorbei
EXERCISE 7
Ich habe gestern deine Freundin Anne getroffen. Ich wollte sie etwas fragen, aber sie
war zu beschäftigt. Sie hat mich nur kurz angelächelt. Das war im Supermarkt, ich
hatte meinen Einkauf schon erledigt. Dann bin ich nach Hause gefahren, denn
ich musste ja noch arbeiten. Ich habe dann mit Peter darüber gesprochen. Er war
erstaunt.
EXERCISE 8
1. trainiert hatte, war; 2. gefahren war, begrüßte; 3. trafen, gemacht hatten
EXERCISE 9
1. Nachdem Monika das Ticket gekauft hatte, nahm sie den Bus.; 2. Nachdem sie bei der
Arbeit ankommen war, schaltete sie den Computer an.; 3. Nachdem sie ihre E-Mails
gelesen hatte, machte sie eine Pause. OR Nachdem sie eine Pause gemacht hatte,
las sie ihre E-Mails.; 4. Nachdem sie mit einem Kollegen gesprochen hatte, fuhr sie
nach Hause.
EXERCISE 10
‘werden + infinitive’ is used in sentences 1, 2, 4, 6, 7 and 9
1. Ich werde ganz sicher vor fünf Uhr zurück sein.; 2. Er wird bestimmt mitkommen. 3.
Ich fahre heute Abend nach Dresden.; 4. Ich werde dir vielleicht ein Souvenir aus
Dresden mitbringen, mal sehen.; 5. Sie kann nächste Woche bei uns wohnen.; 6. Das
wird wahrscheinlich kein gutes Ende nehmen.; 7. Er kann das eventuell machen.; 8.
Sie fährt heute Abend nach München zurück.; 9. Sie wird vermutlich einen Monat
bleiben.
EXERCISE 11
1. ganz sicher (definitely); 2. bestimmt (certainly); 3. wahrscheinlich (probably);
4. vermutlich (presumably); 5. vielleicht (perhaps); 6. eventuell (maybe)
EXERCISE 12
1. gerade + present tense; 2. war gerade dabei = ‘sein’ + ‘gerade’ + ‘zu’ + infinitive; 3.
waren beim Einkaufen = ‘sein’ + ‘bei’ + noun; 4. gerade + present tense
EXERCISE 13
3. We are taking part in a tour of Berlin.; 4. She was driving past the supermarket exactly
at the moment when the police arrived.; 5. He is getting dressed.; 6. They were just
leaving the house when he called.
EXERCISE 14
1. the same as / different; 2. have / have no vowel changes.; 3. sein
EXERCISE 15
1. werde; 2. seien; 3. gebe; 4. wisse, sei; 5. komme; 6. sei; 7. habe
EXERCISE 16
1. wird; 2. sind; 3. gibt; 4. weiß, ist
EXERCISE 17
1. Ich sagte; 2. Wir kämen; 3. Er sähe; 4. Du gäbest; 5. Sie hätten; 6. Ihr wüsstet
EXERCISE 18
2.; 3.; 6.; 7.
EXERCISE 19
1. b; 2. a; 3. a; 4. b
EXERCISE 20
1. ist, werde; 2. ist, ruft; 3. haben, mache; 4. weiß, sage
Chapter 7
EXERCISE 1
1. werde; 2. wird; 3. werden; 4. wurdest; 5. wurden; 6. wurdet
EXERCISE 2
1. Das Haus wird von der Firma Konstrukt gebaut.; 2. Die Projekte wurden zu früh
aufgegeben.; 3. Das Festival wurde von einem professionellen Team organisiert.; 4.
Die Kinder werden nach der Schule abgeholt.; 5. Du wirst von einem fantastischen
Trainer trainiert.; 6. Die Stühle wurden vor drei Wochen geliefert.
EXERCISE 3
1. f.; 2. c.; 3. a.; 4. d.; 5. e.; 6. b
EXERCISE 4
1. Das Haus ist von der Firma Konstrukt gebaut worden.; 2. Die Projekte sind zu früh aufge-
geben worden.; 3. Das Festival ist von einem professionellen Team organisiert worden.;
4. Die Kinder sind nach der Schule abgeholt worden.; 5. Du bist von einem fantastischen
Trainer trainiert worden.; 6. Die Stühle sind vor drei Wochen geliefert worden.
EXERCISE 5
2. Susi kocht Suppe.; 4. Die Polizei beobachtet den Mann seit drei Stunden.; 5. Die
Schüler machen die Hausaufgaben.
EXERCISE 6
1. Suppe wird von Susi gekocht; 2. Der Mann wird von der Polizei seit drei Stunden
beobachtet.; 3. Die Hausaufgaben werden von den Schülern gemacht.
EXERCISE 7
1. wird; 2. wird; 3. wird; 4. wird; 5. werden; 6. werden; 7. werden; 8. werden
EXERCISE 8
1. Den Kindern – a The children; 2. Der Schülerin – a The pupil; 3. Den Touristen – a The
tourists; 4. Ihr – a She
EXERCISE 9
1. von der Frau; 2. von dem Lehrer; 3. von dem Mechaniker; 4. von meinen Eltern
EXERCISE 10
1.; 3.; 4.; 5
EXERCISE 11
1. Das Haus wurde durch den Wind zerstört.; 2. Die Straße wurde von den Soldaten
gebaut.; 3. Die Botschaft wurde durch den Boten übermittelt.; 4. Das Gras wurde
durch alte Blätter bedeckt.; 5. Wir wurden durch die Neuigkeit aufgemuntert.; 6. Der
Hund wurde von dem Kind gefunden.
EXERCISE 12
1. muss; 2. konnten; 3. können; 4. dürfen; 5. mussten; 6. will
EXERCISE 13
1. ist, eröffnet; 2. ist, veröffentlicht; 3. sind, verletzt; 4. ist, gewählt; 5. sind, gewaschen;
6. ist, beschädigt
EXERCISE 14
1. d; 2. f; 3. j; 4. b; 5. g; 6. e; 7. h; 8. i; 9. a; 10. c
EXERCISE 15
1.; 3.; 4.; 6.; 8
EXERCISE 16
1. Das weiß man schon lange/seit langer Zeit; 2. Meine Familie besitzt diese Burg.; 3.
Der Eimer beinhaltet drei Liter.; 4. Ich habe den Brief bekommen.; 5. Was bedeutet
dieses Wort?
EXERCISE 17
1. sagbar -b; 2. essbar -e; 3. denkbar -f; 4. verhandelbar -c; 5. erreichbar -d; 6. hörbar -a;
7. ersetzbar -h; 8. lösbar -g
EXERCISE 18
1. Das kann schnell erklärt werden. e; 2. Das kann sofort geändert werden. f; 3. Das
kann nicht verhindert werden. a; 4. Das kann eingerichtet werden. b; 5. Das kann
leicht gesagt werden. c; 6. Das kann nicht verstanden werden. d
Chapter 8
EXERCISE 1
1. zu; 2. mit; 3. aus/außer; 4. gegenüber; 5. seit; 6. bei; 7. aus/außer; 8. nach; 9. von
EXERCISE 2
Seit vielen Jahren kommt aus diesem Haus gegenüber dem Wald und bei dem Fluss
eine Fee mit ihrer Katze. Sie geht von ihrem Haus nach Süden und bringt den Früh-
ling zu allen außer dem fernsten Norden.
EXERCISE 3
1. c; 2. f ; 3. g; 4. h; 5. b; 6. i; 7. a ; 8. c; 9. e
EXERCISE 4
ohne/ für/ durch/ bis/ entlang/ um/ gegen
EXERCISE 5
1. c; 2. d; 3. a; 4. g; 5. f; 6. e; 7. b
EXERCISE 6
1. dem; 2. dem; 3. der; 4. mich; 5. die; 6. mich
EXERCISE 7
1. Statt dem richtigen Resultat; 2. Trotz ihren vielen Bemühungen; 3. Während dem
Wahlkampf; 4. Wegen meiner Arbeit
EXERCISE 8
1–4. in Bezug auf; 5–8. betreffend
EXERCISE 9
1. an dem; 2. auf dem; 3. hinter das; 4. in die; 5. neben der; 6. über die; 7. unter die; 8. vor
dem; 9. zwischen die anderen
EXERCISE 10
1. auf den; 2. in das; 3. vor den; 4. neben das
EXERCISE 11
Correct answers: 1. M; 2. L; 3. L; 4. M; 5. L; 6. M
EXERCISE 12
1. dem ; 2. der ; 3. dem; 4. dem
EXERCISE 13
1. Use aus; 2. Use nach or in; 3. use nach … use in
EXERCISE 14
1. bei; 2. auf; 3. in; 4. auf; 5. bei; 6. in; 7. auf; 8. in
EXERCISE 15
1. zum; 2. zur; 3. zum; 4. zur; 5. zum; 6. zum
EXERCISE 16
1. den; 2. die; 3. das; 4. die
EXERCISE 17
1. das; 2. den; 3. den; 4. die
EXERCISE 18
1. in den; 2. ins; 3. ins; 4. in die; 5. in den; 6. in die
EXERCISE 19
1. ans; 2. auf die; 3. in den; 4. ins; 5. in die; 6. an die
EXERCISE 20
1. damit; 2. Darauf; 3. davon; 4. darüber; 5. davor; 6. dadurch; 7. Danach; 8. dazu; 9.
daneben; 10. dazwischen
EXERCISE 21
1. ‘da’+ preposition is used for prepositions starting with a vowel. 2. ‘dar’+ preposition
is used for prepositions starting with a consonant.
EXERCISE 22
1. zu; 2. mit; 3. aus/außer; 4. gegenüber; 5. seit; 6. bei; 7. aus/außer; 8. nach;
9. von
EXERCISE 23
1. den; 2. der; 3. der; 4. den; 5. dem; 6. den
EXERCISE 24
1. dem; 2. dem; 3. Der
EXERCISE 25
1. dankte; 2. drohte; 3. gehört; 4. helfen; 5. begegnete; 6. vertrauen; 7. Folgen;
8. passte
EXERCISE 26
1. dich = dir; 2. mich = mir; 3. no error; 4. ihre = ihren; 5. no error; 6. die Autos = den
Autos
EXERCISE 27
1. c; 2. h; 3. d; 4. b; 5. f; 6. a; 7. g; 8. e
EXERCISE 28
wider
EXERCISE 29
1. dir; 2. dem Hund; 3. ihm; 4. Ihnen
EXERCISE 30
1. den meisten Vereinen; 2. meinen Freunden; 3. Litern; 4. den vielen Polizisten
EXERCISE 31
1. d; 2. n; 3. b; 4. a; 5. k; 6. l; 7. g; 8. i; 9. m; 10. j; 11. c; 12. f; 13. e; 14. h
EXERCISE 32
1. von; 2. zu; 3. von; 4. vor; 5. zu; 6. vor; 7. von; 8. zu; 9. zu; 10. vor; 11. zu
EXERCISE 33
1. mit; 2. aus; 3. zu; 4. nach; 5. an; 6. vor; 7. von
EXERCISE 34
1. dir; 2. ihm; 3. dir; 4. ihr; 5. uns; 6. Ihnen; 7. uns; 8. euch/dir
EXERCISE 35
danken/vertrauen/gehören/widersprechen/zuhören/Leid tun
EXERCISE 36
1. wird; 2. Dem Arzt; 3. Dieser Expertin; 4. wurde; 5. muss; 6. Dem Politiker
Chapter 9
EXERCISE 1
Errors are: 1. verspricht; 2. wollen; 3. sind; 4. sind
EXERCISE 2
1. versprechen; 2. will; 3. ist; 4. ist
EXERCISE 3
1. sind; 2. kamen; 3. sind; 4. sind; 5. sind
EXERCISE 4
1. sucht; 2. plant; 3. liegt; 4. ist; 5. kostet; 6. muss
EXERCISE 5
1. den Besuchern; 2. seine Freunde; 3. den Verbrechern; 4. den Bewerbern
EXERCISE 6
1. dich; 2. mir; 3. Freunde; 4. ihren Freunden; 5. ihm; 6. die Politiker
EXERCISE 7
1. D; 2. A; 3. A; 4. D: 5. D; 6. A; 7. D; 8. D
EXERCISE 8
1. vor der Reise; 2. auf die Fragen; 3. um einen Gefallen; 4. vor dir; 5. bei der Arbeit; 6.
für den Job; 7. nach dir; 8. an der Verlosung
EXERCISE 9
1. His sister resembles his father.; 2. Are you mad at me?; 3. It was too warm for the tour-
ists in California.; 4. We are very grateful to the nurse.; 5. We are very familiar with
this music.; 6. How important is the holiday for you?
EXERCISE 10
1. dem Bruder; 2. dir; 3. dieser Tatsache; 4. der erfahrenen Sekretärin; 5. dieses schwieri-
gen Dialekts; 6. dem anderen Auto
EXERCISE 11
1. dative; 2. accusative; 3. genitive; 4. dative; 5. accusative; 6. dative; 7. nominative
EXERCISE 12
1. Er; 2. sie; 3. ihn; 4. ihr; 5. es
EXERCISE 13
1. sein; 2. ihr; 3. sein
EXERCISE 14
1. dessen; 2. die; 3. dem; 4. deren; 5. die
Chapter 10
EXERCISE 1
1. e; 2. d; 3. f; 4. g; 5. b; 6. c; 7. a
EXERCISE 2
Group I: 2, 3, 6, 7; Group II: 1, 4, 5
EXERCISE 3
2. M: Ich kann heute nicht kommen.; 4. M: Ich kann heute das Auto von meinen Eltern
nicht bekommen, und die Busse fahren am Sonntag nicht.; 6. M: Da kann ich auch
nicht kommen.; 7. I: Wirklich?! Das verstehe ich nicht.; 8. M: Ich habe bei meinen
Examen nicht gut abgeschnitten und muss arbeiten!
EXERCISE 4
a) i) 3, 4, 6; ii) 1; iii) 2, 5; b) nicht ein – kein
EXERCISE 5
1. nicht einen, 2. kein; 3. keine; 4. keinen; 5. nicht eine; 6. nicht zwei
EXERCISE 6
1. überhaupt; 2. gar; 3. gar; 4. überhaupt; 5. absolut; 6. einfach; 7. answer: a)
EXERCISE 7
1. auf keinen Fall = überhaupt nicht; 2. keinesfalls = überhaupt nicht; 3. In keinem
Fall = nie; 4. keineswegs = gar nicht
EXERCISE 8
1. nicht; 2. keinesfalls/in keinem Fall/auf keinen Fall/keineswegs/überhaupt nicht/
gar nicht/absolut nicht; 3. einfach nicht; 4. nie; 5. überhaupt nicht/gar nicht/
auf keinen Fall/keineswegs/keinesfalls/in keinem Fall/absolut nicht; 6. abso-
lut nicht/überhaupt nicht/gar nicht/auf keinen Fall/keineswegs/keinesfalls/in
keinem Fall
EXERCISE 9
b)
EXERCISE 10
1. d; 2. g; 3. f; 4. e; 5. b; 6. c; 7. a
EXERCISE 11
i) 1. Don’t tell me; 2. do you; 3. is it; ii) no
EXERCISE 12
Sentence 1: b); sentence 2: a)
EXERCISE 13
a)
EXERCISE 14
1. nicht einmal; 2. nicht; 3. nicht etwa; 4. nicht einmal; 5. nie; 6. keine; 7. nicht; 8. kaum;
9. keinesfalls; 10. nicht einmal; 11. nicht
Chapter 11
EXERCISE 1
1. and so/and now; 2. auch; 3. fancy/chic 4. auseinander; 5. soon; 6. kahl; 7. almost; 8.
schnell; 9. bitter/tart; 10. das Kraut,-ër; 11. quiet; 12. noch
EXERCISE 2
1. bath; 2. fire; 3. boss; 4. poison; 5. cooker, range; 6. trousers; 7. hat; 8. camp; 9. ruse;
10. a. rubbish (also coll. fig.); b. dung; 11. star; 12. a. stick, b. floor (in building);
13. barrier; 14. wall
Sentences: 1. schlimm; 2. b. Marke; 3. Koch; 4. Geschenk; 5. a. Herde; 6. a. Schlauch,
6. b. Hose; 7. Berghütte; 8. a. helles Bier; 9. a. Liste; 10. a. Nebel; 11. a. streng; 12.
a. Brühe; 12. b. Vorrat; 13. Mauer; 14. Zauberstock
EXERCISE 3
1. pension – guest house; 2. arm – poor; 3. note (music) – mark
EXERCISE 4
1. review – critic – der Kritiker, -/die Kritikerin, -nen; 2. murderer – murder – der Mord,
-e; 3. audience – public – die Öffentlichkeit; 4. pill – tablet – der Tablet-PC; 5. to get –
become – werden; 6. to check – to control – überprüfen; 7. topical – actual – wirklich/
tatsächlich; 8. obedient/good – brave – mutig; 9. possible/possibly – eventually (adv.)
– schließlich; 10. vulgar – ordinary – gewöhnlich; 11. dramatic/emotional – pathetic
– lächerlich; 12. likeable – sympathetic – mitfühlend; 13. sensitive – sensible –
vernünftig
EXERCISE 5
1. auseinander, Pension; 2. Geschenk, Marke; 3. bekomme, Liste, werden; 4. auch, Also
EXERCISE 6
1. a) volume (of book), der; b) ribbon/string), das; c) band, die
2. a) inheritance, das; b) heir, der
3. a) revulsion, der; b) coll. pest, pain in the neck, das
4. a) ladder, die; b) director/head, der
5. a) sea, die; b) lake, der
6. a) steering wheel, das; b) tax, die
7. a) part, der; b) share, das
8. a) fool, der; b) gate, das; c) goal, das
EXERCISE 7
1. B; 2, C; 3. C; 4. B; 5. C; 6. B; 7. B; 8. C; 9. C; 10. C; 11. C; 12. C; 13. B; 14. C; 15. C; 16. B;
17. A; 18. C; 19. C; 20. C; 21. C; 22. C; 23. A; 24. C; 25. C; 26. A
EXERCISE 8
1. topical; 2. bath; 3. ribbon; 4. to get; 5. tin; 6. possibly; 7. poison; 8. trousers; 9. ruse; 10.
pension; 11. lake; 12. sparkling wine; 13. sensitive; 14. star; 15. to donate; 16. likeable;
17. sensible; 18. to wave
Chapter 12
EXERCISE 1
1. Arbeitslose; 2. Lesen; 3. Rad; 4. a. Eins, Zwei; b.) Zweiter, Erste
EXERCISE 2
1. Morgen; 2. Schwimmen; 3. Eis; 4. Fremde; 5. Erste; 6. Recht; 7. Drei
EXERCISE 3
aschenputtel = Aschenputtel; ball = Ball; kleid = Kleid, schuhe = Schuhe;
sie = Sie; putzen = Putzen; stiefmutter = Stiefmutter; du = Du; arme = Arme;
anziehen = Anziehen; lächeln = Lächeln; dann = Dann; abend = Abend;

tanzen = Tanzen; die = Die; stiefmutter = Stiefmutter; recht = Recht; was = Was;
aschenputtel = Aschenputtel; sie = Sie; angst = Angst; stiefmutter = Stiefmutter;
geld = Geld; kleid = Kleid; schuhe = Schuhe. sie = Sie; tränen = Tränen
EXERCISE 4
1. true; 2. false; 3. false
EXERCISE 5
‘ß’ always follows two vowels.
EXERCISE 6
1. das; 2. dass; 3. das; 4. dass; 5. das; 6. dass; 7. dass; 8. das
EXERCISE 7
Balletttruppe, Geschirrreiniger, Gewinnnummer, Fußballländerspiel, Kaffeeersatz, Kon-
gressstadt, Nussschokolade
EXERCISE 8
... ball = Ball; Draussen = Draußen; im Ballsaal = Im ... ; das = dass; dass = das;
ihre Schuhe = Ihre ... ; tanzen = Tanzen; heisst = heißt; schöne = Schöne;
hasst = hast; Arabische = arabische; lächeln = Lächeln; elf = Elf; mußte = musste;
abend = Abend; Dass = Das
EXERCISE 9
„Spieglein, ... Land?“
EXERCISE 10
1. double; 2. single
EXERCISE 11
answer: single
EXERCISE 12
... sagte: „Viele ... dasselbe: ‚ ... und ... heute’ – ... natürlich.“
EXERCISE 13
RULE: coordinating
1. kommen, wenn; 2. weißt, dass; 3. handeln, sobald 4. Zeit, weil; 5. machen, obwohl
EXERCISE 14
1. Junge, der; 2. Frau, die; 3. Touristen, die
answer: relative
EXERCISE 15
answer: b) a comma must be put
EXERCISE 16
... Europaparlament: „ In der ... steht, dass alle Deutschen ‚in … Welt’ …. Dies ist
das Ziel, das … setzen.”
Abbreviations
acc. accusative
coll. colloquial
dat. dative
fam. familiar
fem. feminine
gen. genitive
masc. masculine
n. neuter
nom. nominative
non-reg. non-regular
non-sep. non-separable
pl. plural
reg. regular
sb. somebody
sep. verb separable verb
sing. singular
so. someone
sth. something
Bibliography
Durrell, Martin. (2011) Hammer’s German Grammar and Usage, 5th edition, London and
New York: Routledge
Durrell, Martin, Kohl, Katrin and Loftus, Gudrun. (2011) Practising German Grammar, 3rd
edition, London and New York: Routledge
Durrell, Martin, Kohl, Katrin, Kaiser, Claudia and Loftus, Gudrun. (2015) Essential German
Grammar, 2nd edition, London and New York: Routledge
Fehringer, Carol. (2013) German Grammar in Context, 2nd edition, London and New York:
Routledge
Hall, Karin und Scheiner, Barbara. (2001) Übungsgrammatik für Fortgeschrittene, Ismanin-
gen: Hueber Verlag
Jubb, Margaret. (2016) Speed Up Your French: Strategies to Avoid Common Errors, Lon-
don and New York: Routledge
Künzl-Snodgrass, Annemarie and Mentchen, Silke. (2003) Upgrade Your German, reprint-
ed 2013, London and New York: Routledge
Melin, Charlotte, Oberlin, Adam and Zorach, Cecile. (2014) English Grammar for Students
of German, 6th edition, Ann Arbor: Olivia & Hill Press
Rug, Wolfgang and Tomaszewski, Andreas. (2009) Übungsgrammatik mit Sinn und Ver-
stand, Stuttgart: Ernst Klett Verlag
Schmitt, Richard. (2002) Weg mit den typischen Fehlern! Teil 1 und Teil 2, Ismaningen/
München: Verlag für Deutsch
Online resources
http://www.duden.de
http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/words/false_friends.htm
https://www.goethe.de/en/spr/ueb.html
http://www.langcen.cam.ac.uk/jtg/jtg.html
220 Bibliography
Online dictionaries
https://www.dict.cc
https://dict.leo.org/ende/index_de.html
http://www.wordreference.com
Index
accusative case 10, 41, 60, 72, 113–15, 117, ‘da’ + preposition 134–5
120, 125–6, 128, 130 dative case 10–11, 58, 61, 114–17, 124–5, 130,
adjectival endings 15–28; in comparisons 132, 135–44
25–8; plural 15–17, 18–19; strong 15–17, ‘du’ 182–3
19–20; weak 15–17, 18, 19
adjectives 10, 15–28, 151–2, 179, 181–2, 186; ‘etwa’ 163
see also adjectival endings
adverbials 76–8, 160–1, 190–1 false friends 167–77; confusing word pairs
agreement 146–55; adjectives and cases 174–7; different spelling, different
151–2; apposition 152–3; gender, of meaning 171–4; same/similar spelling,
nouns and pronouns 153–5; number, different meaning 167–71
of subject and verb 146–8; verbs and feminine gender 2–5, 9, 15, 26
objects 148–9; verbs and prepositions first position 75, 91
149–51 future 49, 71, 99, 103–4
auxiliary verbs 32, 49, 50–4
gender 2–9, 56, 58, 153–5 174–7, 185; see also
case 10–13, 27–8, 40–1, 124–44, 148–52; feminine gender; masculine gender;
see also accusative case; dative case; neuter gender
genitive case; nominative case gender agreement 153–5; see also
clauses see main clauses; subordinate agreement
clauses genitive case 10–11, 57, 66, 67, 127
comma 91, 189–91
comparative forms 21–2, 23, 25 ‘haben’ as auxiliary verb 32, 34, 50–4
comparisons 21–8
complements 74, 157 ‘kein’ 158–60
conjunctions: adverbial 83–6, 190–1; clash Konjunktiv 105–9
93–5; combining 95–7; comma 190–1;
coordinating 79–83, 86–8, 95–7, 190; main clauses 72–88, 91, 95, 164
subordinating 88–91, 95–7, 164, 190 ‘man’ as passive 120–1
222 Index
masculine gender 2–4, 6–9, 15, 21, 26 replace 127; genitive 127; prepositional
modal verbs 32, 44–50, 71, 118, 157 adverb 134–5; prepositional phrases 74;
reciprocal pronouns 61; reflexive verbs
negation 157–65; basic rules 157; double 42–3; ‘to’ equivalents 132–4
161–3; ‘etwa’ 163; ‘kein’ 158–60; ‘nicht present tense 30, 44–5, 99–100
ein’ 158–60; ‘nicht einmal’ 163–4; partial pronouns 56–69; agreement with nouns
sentence 157–8; particles and adverbial 153–5; ‘da’ + preposition as 134–5;
expressions 160–1; subordinate clauses demonstrative 185; personal 56–9,
164–5; whole sentence 157–8 153–4, 182; possessive 62–4, 154;
neuter gender 2–5, 9, 15, 68, 184 reflexive 59–62; relative 64–9, 154–5,
‘nicht ein’ 158–60 184; word order 71–4
‘nicht einmal’ 163–4 punctuation 187–91; comma 91, 189–91;
nominative case 10, 27 quotation marks 187–9
nouns 2–13; adjectival 20–1; adjective
juxtaposition 15; cases 10–13; ‘da’ quotation marks 187–9
replacement 134–5; false friends 167,
168, 174; genders 2–9; negation 158; reflexive pronouns 59–62
plurals 9–10; pronoun agreement 153–5; reflexive verbs 40–4
and relative pronouns 64–5; spelling relative pronouns 64–5, 66, 67, 184
179–81, 184, 185–7; word order 72–4 reported speech 105–9
number agreement 146–8; see also
agreement; plural; singular second person 31, 182–3
second position 71, 75, 77, 78, 91
object: agreement with verb 148–9; case ‘sein’ as auxiliary verb 32, 34, 50–4
2, 10; dative 135–44; passive 113–17; ‘Sie’ 182–3
reflexive pronouns 59–60; word order simple past 32, 47, 101–2, 103, 106, 108
71, 75, 76 singular: adjectives 19, 21, 26; nouns
7, 10; reflexive pronouns 59; reported
passive 111–22; alternatives to 120–2; speech 106; subject–verb agreement
modal verbs in 118; process 118–20; 146–8; third person 106; verbs 31, 32,
status 118–20; subject 113–17 33, 45
past participle 33, 37, 49, 71, 111, 118 spelling 179–87; adjectives 181–2;
past tense 32, 33, 45–6, 47, 100–3, 106 capitalization 179–87; compound nouns
perfect 49, 50–4, 71, 113 185–7; ‘du’ 182–3; nouns 179–81; 185–7;
person see second person; third person ‘Sie’ 182–3; ‘ß’ 183–5; umlaut 9–10, 23,
pluperfect 49, 50–4, 71, 102–3 108, 179
plural: adjectives 18–19; dative endings ‘ß’ 183–5
148–9; nouns 7, 9–10; reflexive pronouns strong endings, adjectives 15–17, 19–20
59; second person 182; subject–verb subject: agreement with verb 146–8; case
agreement 146–8; third person 106, 107; 2, 10; passive 113–17; reflexive 40;
umlaut spelling 179; verbs 34, 114 reflexive pronouns 59–60; word order
prepositional adverb 134–5 71, 72, 75, 76, 78–80
prepositional phrases 74 subordinate clauses 38–9, 64–5, 79, 88–97,
prepositions 124–44; accusative 125–6; ‘da’ 103, 165–5
and 134–5; dative 124–5, 135–6, 140–2; subordinating conjunctions 88–97
expressing space 128–32; expressions to superlative forms 22–4
Index 223
tenses 99–109: future 49, 71, 99, 103–4; 143–4; past tenses 100–3; present tense
Konjunktiv 105–9; past 100–3, 106; perfect 99–100; progressive 104–5; reflexive
49, 50–4, 71, 100–1, 113; pluperfect 49, 40–4; regular 30–1, 108; separable 35–40,
50–4, 71, 102–3; present 30, 44–5, 99–100; 71, 72; spelling 184; verbal bracket 71–2,
progressive equivalents 104–5; simple 77–8, 157; word order 71–2, 74–5, 77–80,
past 101–2, 103, 106, 108 89, 91, 94, 95
third person 31, 33, 34, 106, 107
‘to’ equivalents 132–4 weak endings, adjectives 15–17, 18, 19
‘werden’ verbal constructions 32, 34, 103–4,
umlaut 9–10, 23, 108, 179 111–12, 118–19
word order 72–97; adverbials 76–8; and
verbal bracket 71–2, 77–8, 157 case 10–11; complements 74; and ‘dass’
verbs: adjectives following 15; agreement 184; first position 75; main clauses
146–51; auxiliary 32, 49, 50–4; and dative 72–88, 95; second position 71, 75, 77,
case 136–44; finite 71; forms 30–54; 78, 91; subordinate clauses 79, 88–97;
future 103–4; Konjunktiv 105–9; modal subordinating conjunctions 88–97; Zero
32, 44–50, 71, 118, 157; non-regular position 79, 80, 84, 95
32–4, 45, 108; non-separable 35–40;
nouns derived from 5; passive 111–22, Zero position 79, 80, 84, 95

Speed Up Your German

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Speed Up Your German

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Speed Up Your German

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Speed Up Your German

Each of the twelve chapters focuses on a grammatical category where English

• An emphasis on the areas where students most commonly make mistakes

Annemarie Künzl-Snodgrass and Silke Mentchen are both Senior Language

SERIES EDITOR: Javier Muñoz-Basols, University of Oxford, UK

Books in the series are intended as primary or supplementary texts at the

Available Titles in the Series:

Speed Up Your Arabic

Speed Up Your Chinese

Speed Up Your French

Speed Up Your Korean

Speed Up Your Spanish

Annemarie Künzl-Snodgrass and

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2017 Annemarie Künzl-Snodgrass and Silke Mentchen

The right of Annemarie Künzl-Snodgrass and Silke Mentchen to be identified as the

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN: 978-1-138-83110-0 (hbk)

Typeset in Swiss and Zapf Calligraphic

1 Nouns: genders, plurals, cases 1

7 The passive 110

8 Prepositions and cases 123

11 False friends 166

12 Spelling and punctuation 178

Answer key to exercises 192

Speed Up Your German aims to help learners of German at an intermediate

prepositions, it is important to know which cases they take: dative, accusative

Masculine Weak masculine Feminine Neuter

1.1 Gender assignation by meaning and form

Error alert: where’s the difficulty?

1.1.1 Gender by form

• A large percentage of nouns ending in -e are feminine, but there’s a group

1.1.2 Gender by meaning

1. ___ Vater (father), ___ Freundin (friend), ___ Gemeinschaft (community)

1. das Katze (cat): ____

8. das April (April):___

1.2 Weak masculine nouns

Error alert: where’s the difficulty?

a) They have different endings for all cases.

Error alert: where’s the difficulty?

Here is the declension of one of them, ‘der Gedanke’ (thought):

1. its gender: _______________

1. um des lieben Frieden____ willen

4. viele Funke ____, aber kein Feuer

Error alert: where’s the difficulty?

Singular Plural Letter

3.1 Case endings in nouns

Error alert: where’s the difficulty?

Case Genders Ending

3.2 Case confusion

Error alert: where’s the difficulty?

Analyse sentence 1: what stands in first position and in what case?

Analyse sentence 2: what stands in first position and in what case?

1 Choosing the right ending 15

1 Choosing the right ending

Masc. Masc. Neuter Neuter Fem. Fem. Plural Plural

1 Nouns: genders, plurals, cases 1

7 The passive 110

8 Prepositions and cases 123

11 False friends 166

12 Spelling and punctuation 178

Answer key to exercises 192

1. _ Vater (father), _ Freundin (friend), ___ Gemeinschaft (community)

1 Choosing the right ending 15

1. Der interessant______ Gedanke (masc.) ist, dass dieses erstaunlich_

1. der Angestellte (employee) _ ein _______________

1. gut a. näher, am nächsten (nearer, the nearest)

1. arm (poor), , am ___

2. sauer (sour), , am ___

3. heiß (hot), , am ___

4. dumm (thick, stupid), , am ___

5. hart (hard), , am ___

6. kalt (cold), , am ___

7. locker (lose, relaxed), , am ___

8. nett (nice, friendly), , am ___

9. jung (young), , am ___

10. spät (late), , am ___

11. einfach (easy), , am ___

12. lang (long), , am ___

13. nass (wet), , am ___

14. scharf (sharp, spicy), , am ___

15. schwach (weak), , am ___

16. sauber (clean), , am ___

17. stark (strong), , am ___

18. alt (old), , am ___

19. sanft (gentle), , am ___

20. stolz (proud), , am ___

1. Das ist ________ (groß) der Schwimmbäder (n. pl).

4. Das sind ________ (viel) der Besucher (masc. pl.).

1. anfangen (to start), reg. sep./non-sep.