F E A T U R E A R T
The Duval Triangle for Load Tap
Changers, Non-Mineral Oils and Low
Temperature Faults in Transformers
Key Words: Transformer, dissolved gas analysis, load tap changers, non-mineral oils, low-
temperature faults
Introduction
Dissolved gas analysis (DGA) is widely used to detect incipient
faults in oil-filled electrical equipment. IEC Standard 60599-1999
[1] and IEEE Standard C57.104-1991 [2] provide guidance for
the interpretation of DGA results in service. Several diagnosis
methods, such as the Rogers and Duval Triangle methods, are
available to identify the different types of fault occurring in service
(arcing, partial discharges, or hot spots). These methods apply to
transformers filled with mineral oils, but not directly to load tap
changers (LTCs) of the oil type, where normal operation involves
arcing in oil, and to equipment filled with non-mineral oils (e.g.,
natural or synthetic esters and silicones). Also, diagnosis for
low-temperature faults may be affected by the “stray gassing” of
some types of oils. The present paper proposes new versions of
the Duval Triangle for such cases.
The Classical Duval Triangle 1
for Transformers
The classical Duval Triangle 1, widely used for transformers
filled with mineral oils is shown in Figure 1 [3]. Fault zones in
the classical Duval Triangle 1 are: PD = Partial discharges; D1 =
Discharges of low energy; D2 = Discharges of high energy; T1
= Thermal faults of temperature < 300ºC; T2 = Thermal faults of
temperature 300ºC < T < 700ºC; T3 = Thermal faults of tempera-
ture > 700ºC; DT = mixtures of electrical and thermal faults.
The Triangle coordinates corresponding to DGA results in ppm
can be calculated as follows : % C2H2 = 100 x /(x+y+z) ; %C2H4
= 100y /(x+y+z); %CH4 = 100z /(x+y+z), with x = (C2H2); y
= (C2H4) ; z = (CH4), in ppm. A free algorithm for calculating
triangular coordinates is available from the author (duvalm@ireq.
ca), as well as triangular graphical paper for a better precision
when using the triangle manually.
22 0883-7554/07/$25/©2008IEEE
I C L E
Michel Duval
IREQ, Varennes, QC, Canada
New versions of the Duval Triangle
for equipment filled with mineral oil
are proposed for load tap changers of
the oil type, equipment filled with non-
mineral oils, and for low-temperature
faults where stray gassing of oils may
interfere with diagnostics.
The Duval Triangle 2 for Load Tap Changers
of the Oil type
The normal operation of load tap changers (LTCs) of the oil
type involves arcing in the oil. The “Duval Triangle 2 for LTCs
of the oil type”, taking this into account in a more user-friendly
manner than in a previous paper [3], is presented in Figure 2.
Zone boundaries in the Duval Triangle 2 for LTCs of the oil
type are based on the published examples of inspected cases of
faults indicated in Figure 3. DGA results and references for these
inspected cases are given in Table V of ref. [3]. Other cases, re-
ported in ref. [4], [5], fit also nicely in it. Additional cases of faulty
or normally operating LTCs, also fitting nicely in Figure 3, will
be given in the final report of CIGRE TF D1-01-15 [6].
IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine

Figure 1: The Duval Triangle 1 for transformers filled with
mineral oils.
The identification of fault zones in Figures 2 and 3 is indicated
in Table 1. In the second column of Table1, the types of faults
mentioned are: D1 = Discharges of low energy; D2 = Discharges
of high energy; T2 = Thermal faults of temperature 300ºC < T <
700ºC; T3 = Thermal faults of temperature > 700ºC.
Numerical zone boundaries in Figures 2 and 3 are indicated
in Table 2.
The numerical zone boundaries indicated in Table 2 for the N
(normal operation) zone cover all types of LTCs of the oil type and
may be used by default. However, the N zone may be smaller for
Figure 2: The Duval Triangle 2 for LTCs of the oil type.
November/December 2008 — Vol. 24, No. 6 23
some individual types or brands of LTCs of the oil type, and its
actual boundaries can be determined by using DGA results from
such individual units which have been newly installed or where
normal operation is ascertained.
Fault diagnoses should not be attempted in LTCs if concentra-
tions of C2H2 and C2H4 are < 10 ppm, because of possible contami-
nation and uncertainty of laboratory results. When oil in an LTC is
removed and replaced by new oil, some of the removed (previous)
oil remains on metallic parts and can be evaluated by extracting
it with a solvent, then evaporating the solvent and measuring the
amount of extracted oil (typically 0.2% of the LTC oil volume but
this may depend on the type of LTC used). This contamination by
the previous oil may need to be subtracted from DGA results in
the new oil, depending on the respective gas concentrations in the
previous and the new oil. For example, if the concentration of a
gas was 10,000 ppm in the previous oil, contamination by this gas
in the new oil will be 20 ppm and may need to be subtracted from
the concentration measured in the new oil if the latter is relatively
low (e.g., < 10 times the contamination, or 200 ppm).
The Duval Triangle for LTCs of the Vacuum
Bottle Type
For LTCs of the vacuum bottle type, the Duval Triangle 1 for
transformers should be used (and not the Duval Triangle 2 for
LTCs of the oil type), because in LTCs of the vacuum bottle type,
the arc-breaking operation occurs in the vacuum bottle and not
in the cooling oil around it (from which the oil sample is taken
for DGA).
Gas concentrations in the cooling oil of LTCs of the vacuum
bottle type are usually very low, and the rarely formed gases are
mainly of the overheating type (T1 to T3). However, some LTCs
Figure 3: Published examples of inspected cases of faults in
the Duval Triangle 2 for LTCs of the oil type.
 Table 1. Identification of fault zones in Figures 2–3.

Zone Identification Recommended actions

N Normal operation

Severe thermal fault T3

T3
(T>700°C), heavy coking
Change the oil.
Inspect the LTC for coking of contacts
Severe thermal fault T2
T2
(300<T<700°C), coking

Fault T3 or T2 in progress (mostly)

Test or inspect the LTC for signs of
with light coking or increased
X3 light coking or resistance of contacts,
resistance of contacts.
or of severe arcing.
Or, severe arcing D2.

Abnormal arcing D1
D1 Inspect the LTC for small signs of arcing.
(outside of zone N).

Abnormal arcing D1
X1 Area still under investigation.
or thermal fault in progress

Note: to distinguish D2 from T3, rinse and change the oil. Run a few LTC operations (~100) then a DGA.
If the DGA point remains at the same place as before changing the oil, this may indicate a fault D2. If the
DGA point has moved to the left, a fault T3 is more likely.

of the vacuum bottle type may have sparking D1 in the selector
switch (located in the cooling oil) as part as their normal opera-
tion.
The Duval Triangle 3 for Non-Mineral Oils
Mineral oil is the most widely used insulating fluid in electrical
equipment. However, other non-mineral oils are increasingly used
because they are less flammable or more environmentally friendly.
This has raised the question of whether new DGA interpretation
methods are needed for them, or if existing methods used for
mineral oils can be adjusted for non-mineral oils.
Very few inspected cases of faults in equipment filled with
non-mineral oils are available, because these fluids have been
used only for a small number of years and in a limited quantity
of equipment. To evaluate gas formation patterns in these fluids,
therefore, one can only rely on tests simulating faults in the
laboratory, and performed in parallel on both mineral oils and
the new fluids.
Table 2. Numerical zone boundaries in Figures 2–3 (in %).
N CH4 = 19, C2H4 = 23, CH4 = 2, C2H4 = 6
T3 C2H4 = 50, C2H2 = 15
X3 C2H4 = 23, C2H2 = 15
T2 C2H4 = 23, C2H2 = 15, C2H4 = 50
D1 CH4 = 19, C2H4 = 6, CH4 = 2, C2H4 = 23
X1 CH4 = 19, C2H4 = 23
A number of such test results have been published and are
indicated in Figure 4 for silicone oil, synthetic ester (Midel), and
natural esters/ vegetable oils (FR3 and BioTemp), using the Duval
Triangle 1 for transformers. References for these test results are
indicated in Figure 4. DGA results were obtained either by the
laboratory gas extraction method of Head Space (and were cor-
rected for the different Ostwald coefficients of the non-mineral
oil [7]), or by the Toepler or Partial Degassing methods (and do
not need significant corrections).
The differences in gas formation patterns observed in Figure 4
between mineral and non-mineral oils can be used to adjust zone
boundaries of the Duval Triangle 1 and to create a Duval Triangle
3 for each of the non-mineral oils, as indicated in Figure 5. Zone
boundaries of the Duval Triangle 3 for non-mineral oils are the
same as those of the Duval Triangle 1 for mineral oils except for
the boundaries (in % C2H4) between zones D1/ D2, T1/ T2, and
T2/ T3, as indicated in Figure 5 and Table 3.
Other cases of faults simulated in the laboratory for non-min-
eral oils will be given in the final report of CIGRE TF D1-01-15
[6] and may slightly modify the values indicated in Table 3. The
boundary between faults D2 and DT may also have to be modified
when actual cases of faults D2 (high-energy arcing) are reported
in transformers in service filled with these non-mineral oils.
The reason for the different gas patterns of mineral and non-
mineral oils can only be speculative at this stage and is outside
the scope of this paper. These differences are probably related
to the differences in chemical structure of the oils. For instance,
the carbon-oxygen bonds in natural and synthetic esters (FR3,
BioTemp and Midel), and the silicon-oxygen bonds in silicones,
may slightly affect the chemical strength of neighbouring
carbon-carbon and carbon-hydrogen bonds, and might explain
the different relative amounts of hydrocarbon gases formed at

24 IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine

a c

b d

Figure 4: Comparison of DGA results on couples of mineral and non-mineral oil subjected to the same faults (D1, PD, T1, T3)
simulated in the laboratory. Zone boundaries indicated are those of mineral oils.

the same levels of fault energy or temperature. The two natural
esters (vegetable/seed oils) examined in this paper are based on
saturated/unsaturated oleic/fatty acids [13], and the synthetic ester
on pentaerythritol. Non-mineral oils with different chemical struc-
tures may result in different gas patterns and zone boundaries.
The Duval Triangles 4 and 5 for Low-
Temperature Faults in Transformers
The Duval Triangle 1 for transformers has proved quite efficient
to determine the general type of fault occurring in transformers
in service (PD, D1, D2, T1, T2, T3, DT). It is based on the use of

November/December 2008 — Vol. 24, No. 6 25

 a c

Silicone Midel
b d

FR3 Biotemp
Figure 5: The Duval Triangle 3 for non-mineral oils (silicone, Midel, FR3, and BioTemp). Zone boundaries specific for each non-
mineral oil are in color. Those in black are the same as for mineral oil.

3 gases (CH4, C2H4 and C2H2) representative of low-, high-, and
very high-energy or temperature faults, respectively [3].
When DGA results are close to the boundary between zones
PD and T1, however, it may sometimes be difficult to distinguish
between these two types of faults. Also, some types of oils on the
market tend to be “stray gassing”, i.e., to unexpectedly form gases
at relatively low temperatures such as 80 to 200°C [15]. Stray
gases may appear in the PD, T1, or T2 zones, and therefore may
interfere with the identification of these faults in transformers.
The Duval Triangles 4 and 5 for low-temperature faults in trans-
formers have been developed to remove these uncertainties. They
should be applied only to faults identified by the Duval Triangle

26 IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine

 Table 3. Zone boundaries (in % C2H4) specific for non-mineral oils in the
Duval Triangle 3 for non-mineral oils (all other boundaries are as in the Duval
Triangle 1 for mineral oils).

Boundary between Mineral

Silicone Midel FR3 BioTemp
zones: oils

D1/ D2 23 9 26 25 20

T1/ T2 20 16 39 43 52

T2/ T3 50 (46) (68) 63 (82)

Note: values in brackets are extrapolated and would need to be confirmed.

1 as possible faults PD, T1, or T2, and should be viewed only

as a complement of information for the Duval Triangle 1. They
should not be applied to faults identified by the Duval Triangle 1
as faults D1, D2, or T3.
The Duval Triangle 4 is presented in Figure 6. It uses the 3
so-called “low-energy gases” (H2, CH4, and C2H6). It is based on
the inspected cases of transformer faults and stray gassing test
Figure 7: Inspected cases of faults in the Duval Triangle 4 for
results in the laboratory indicated in Figure 7. The identification
low-temperature faults in transformers filled with mineral oil.
of fault zones in Figures 6 and 7 is indicated in Table 4 and the
numerical zones boundaries (in %) in Table 5.
Inspected cases of corona partial discharges in Figure 7 come
from Table 2 of [16]. Inspected cases of hot spots with carboniza-
tion of paper and overheating come from Table 5 of [16], from discharges PD, and low-temperature faults in oil are relatively
Table VII of [3], and also from Table 6 of this paper. Cases of similar. This can be explained, however, by the fact that tempera-
stray gassing of mineral oil in the laboratory at 120°C and 200°C ture in such PDs, occurring in the gas phase and also known as
come from Tables C1 and C2 of [15], respectively. cold plasma discharges, is indeed quite low compared to sparking
It may seem surprising that gases formed by corona partial partial discharges of the D1 type.
The “Duval Triangle 5 for low-temperature faults in trans-
formers” can be used to confirm fault attributions which are still
uncertain after using the Duval Triangle 4. It uses the 3 so-called
“temperature gases” (C2H4, CH4, and C2H6) and is presented in
Figure 8. It is based on the inspected cases of transformer faults
and stray gassing laboratory test results in Figure 9. References

Table 4. Identification of fault zones in Figures 6–7.

PD Corona Partial Discharges

S Stray gassing of mineral oil

C Hot spots with carbonization of paper (T >300°C)

O Overheating ( T < 250°C)

Table 5. Numerical zone boundaries in Figures 6–7 (in %).

PD CH4 = 2, C2H6 = 1, CH4 = 15

S C2H6 = 44, H2 = 9, C2H6 = 24, CH4 = 36, CH4 = 15, C2H6 = 1. CH4 = 2

Figure 6: The Duval Triangle 4 for low-temperature faults in C CH4 = 36, C2H6 = 24
transformers filled with mineral oil. Warning: the 3 gases used
O H2 = 9, C2H6 = 24
in this version of the triangle are H2, CH4, and C2H6.

November/December 2008 — Vol. 24, No. 6 27

 Table 6. Additional cases of hot spots and overheating.

Inspection H2 CH4 C2H4 C2H2 C2H6 CO CO2 Ref.

Burnt lead connection 30 400 200 — 150 220 5500 [17, B]

Idem, paper burst open 230 1000 500 3 280 230 5500 [17, B]

Overheated lead connection — 416 42 — 1216 124 4270 priv. comm.

Table 7. Identification of fault zones in Figures 8–9.

PD Corona Partial Discharges

S Stray gassing of mineral oil

C Hot spots with carbonization of paper (T > 300°C)

O Overheating ( T < 250°C)

T3 Thermal faults of very high temperatures (T > 700°C)

Table 8. Numerical zone boundaries in Figures 8–9 (in %).

PD C2H4 = 1, C2H6 = 15

S C2H6 = 53, C2H4 = 10, C2H6 = 15

C C2H4 = 10, C2H6 = 30; C2H4 = 35

Figure 8: The Duval Triangle 5 for low-temperature faults in O C2H4 = 10; C2H6 = 53; C2H6 = 15; C2H4 = 1
transformers filled with mineral oil. Warning: the 3 gases used
in this version of the triangle are C2H4, CH4, and C2H6.

for these inspected cases are the same as in Figure 7, or from

Figure 9: Inspected cases of faults in the Duval Triangle 5 for
low-temperature faults in transformers filled with mineral oil.
Table 4 of [16] for T3 faults. The identification of fault zones in
Figures 8 and 9 is indicated in Table 7 and the numerical zones
boundaries (in %) in Table 8.
Several cases of DGA results occurring in zone O of Figures
6–9 have been observed in the US recently, but the corresponding
transformers have not been inspected, so these cases have not been
incorporated into Figures 7 and 9. Faults occurring in zone O are
only evidenced by paper turning brown and are often difficult to
find by visual inspection of the oil-impregnated paper.
Cases reported in Figures 4–7 of [18] are also located in zone
O, and have been attributed to stray gassing. This suggests that
temperature in these cases possibly was > 200°C. New stray
gassing tests at 250 to 300°C would be necessary to confirm this
possibility.
There is a relatively good agreement between the position of
zone O in Figures 6–9 and the gas ratios (C2H6/CH4 and C2H4/
C2H6) used by Rogers and Dornenburg in the early 70s (the
C2H6/CH4 ratio was withdrawn by Rogers, the IEC, and IEEE
in 1978).
Stray gassing of non-mineral oils (Midel, FR3, and BioTemp),
based on laboratory results reported in [11], [13], and [14], oc-

28 IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine

curs in the Duval Triangle 4 in zone S and in the unnamed zone
between zones S and O. It occurs in the Duval Triangle 5 in zone
O and in the unnamed zone between zones O and C.
Only a few cases of abnormal gassing in transformers in service
filled with FR3 oil have been available so far. They occur mostly
in zones O and S of the Duval Triangle 4 and in zone O of the
Duval Triangle 5.
Conclusions
The present paper proposes new versions of the classical Du-
val Triangle 1 for equipment filled with mineral oil. The Duval
Triangle 2 is proposed for load tap changers of the oil type, where
normal operation involves arcing in oil. The Duval Triangle 3
is proposed for equipment filled with non-mineral oils such as
natural or synthetic esters. And finally, the Duval Triangles 4 and
5 are proposed for low-temperature faults where stray gassing of
oils may interfere with diagnostics.
References
[1] Mineral Oil-Impregnated Electrical Equipment in Service - Guide to the
Interpretation of Dissolved and Free Gases Analysis. IEC Publication 60599
(1999-03), Mar. 1999.
[2] Guide for the Interpretation of Gases Generated in Oil-Immersed
Transformers, IEEE Std C57.104-1991, 1991.
[3] M. Duval, “A review of faults detectable by gas-in-oil analysis in
transformers,” IEEE Electr. Insul. Mag., vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 8–17, 2002.
[4] P. Griffin, L. Lewand, et al., “Load tap changer diagnostics using oil tests
– A key to condition-based maintenance,” Minutes of Doble Engineering
Conf., 2005.
[5] S. Girard, “Protective maintenance at Chugach Electrical Association,
Anchorage, Alaska”, TechCon 2004 North America Conference, San
Antonio, TX, 2004.
[6] M. Duval et al., Final Report of CIGRE TF D1-01-15, to be published in
2009.
[7] Cooper Power Systems, Envirotemp FR3 Fluid – Dissolved Gas Guide,
Technical Brochure R900-20-19, 2006.
[8] P. Griffin, “Analysis for combustible gases in transformer silicone fluids”,
Minutes of Doble Engineering Conf., 1985, Sec.10-701/ 707.
[9] H. Kuwahara, et al., Study of Explosion and Fire Hazards of Silicone Liquid
Under Arc Conditions, Mitsubishi Technical Brochure, 1987.
November/December 2008 — Vol. 24, No. 6 29
[10] H. Borsi, “Gassing behavior of different insulating liquids for transformers,”
Electra, no. 185, 1999.
[11] I. Khan, et al., “Dissolved gas analysis of alternative fluids for power
transformers,” IEEE Electr. Insul. Mag., vol. 23, no. 5, pp. 5–14, 2007.
[12] L. van der Zeel, “Power delivery and utilization transformer research
overview,” EPRI Transformer and Switchyard Users Group (TSUG) Meet.,
Chicago, IL, 2008.
[13] L. Lewand, “Laboratory evaluation of several synthetic and agricultural-
based dielectric liquids,” Minutes of Doble Engineering Conf., 2001, Sec.
5-5.
[14] T. V. Oommen, “Vegetable oils for liquid-filled transformers,” IEEE Electr.
Insul. Mag., vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 6–11, 2002.
[15] M. Duval et al., Joint Task force D1.01/ A2.11 of CIGRE, “Recent
developments in DGA interpretation,” CIGRE Brochure # 296, 2006.
[16] M. Duval and A. de Pablo, “Interpretation of gas-in-oil analysis using new
IEC Publication 60599 and IEC TC10 databases,” IEEE Electr. Insul. Mag.,
vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 31–41, 2001.
[17] S. P. Lindgren and P. J. de Klerk, “Avoiding transformer failures through
on-line DGA – Lessons learned – New ballgame phase II,” Minutes of
CIGRE Symposium, Bruges, 2007.
[18] I. Hoehlein, “Unusual cases of gassing in transformers,” IEEE Electr. Insul.
Mag., vol. 22, no. 1, pp. 24–27, 2006.
Michel Duval graduated from the Univer-
sity of Toulouse in 1966 with a B.Sc. degree
in chemical engineering, and received a
Ph.D. degree in polymer chemistry from
the University of Paris in 1970. Since
then, he has worked for Hydro Quebec’s
Institute of Research (IREQ) on electrical
insulating oils, dissolved gas analysis and
lithium polymer batteries. A Fellow of IEEE
and the Chemical Institute of Canada, he
holds 15 patents, has authored over 70 scientific papers, book
chapters, or international standards, and is very active in several
CIGRE, IEC, and IEEE working groups. He may be reached at
IREQ, 1800 boul.Lionel Boulet, Varennes, J3X 1S1, Canada, or
at duvalm@ireq.ca.