Better life through Technology

Dedan Kimathi University of Technology

GGE 4203-Introduction
to GIS and Remote
sensing
Lecture Two

Ms. Caroline
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Advantages of GIS
• GIS differs from manual it has application specific advantages
• These advantages include:
• GIS can take maps from different sources and register them easily and
is consistent in its analysis of multiple layers of map data.
• It’s faster than manual methods of analysis, allowing the flexibility to try
alternative variables in analysis.
• Unlike in paper maps which can get lost, GIS is a central computer
database of all map data stored in different data layers and can be
accessed by any number of users within the network.
• GIS can maintain information in different data layers and central
computer database.
• By creating a shared database, one department can benefit from the
work of another-data can be collected once and be used several times.
• Revision of traditional maps requires extensive work and time, while
digital maps in GIS can be manipulated and revised easily in very little
time.
• GIS integrates common database operations such as query and
statistical analysis with unique visualization and geographic analysis
benefits offered by maps.
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Limitations of GIS
• Data for a specific area may lack spatial or temporal continuity.
• GIS data are relatively expensive than traditional data.
• Additional, privacy and security issues can sometimes limit distribution of
GIS data.
• Collecting the data can be very time consuming.
• GIS shows only spatial relationships but does not necessarily explain
them or provide absolute solutions, which is the actual need for the user.
• GIS has its origin in earth science and computer science. Therefore,
solutions derived from GIS may not be appropriate for humanities
science/research.
• Learning time on GIS software and systems can be long, because it
easily becomes the objective of the study rather than just a tool.
• GIS integrates several individual subjects, which demand proper
knowledge on all the integrated disciplines.
• GIS needs specialized computer equipment and software (although this is
increasingly becoming less important)
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Questions GIS Answer

• Location: What is at………….?
• Condition: Where is it………….?
• Trends: What has changed since…………..?
• Patterns: What spatial patterns exist…………..?
• Modelling: What if……………..?
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Components of GIS
• Six components
of GIS
• Hardware
• Software
• Data
• Procedures
• People
• Network
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Hardware
• Hardware: It consists of the physical components of a
computer system on which the GIS software runs.
• The type of hardware explains the speed and load of the
software.
• The hardware for GIS includes:
• Digitizers
• Scanners
• GPS receivers
• Storage devices like magnetic tapes and disks, CD ROMs and other
optical disks
• Central processing units
• Monitors
• Plotters
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Software
• Software is the component that drives the hardware and data
using certain methods and rules.
• software is a digital language comprising of a set(s) of rules,
commands, algorithms or programs, logically and systematically
written to perform certain tasks.
• A GIS software is a package of programs, rules or commands
used to perform certain GIS operations such as the input, storage,
retrieval, editing, querying, analysis, manipulation, update, display
and output of geographic data in a computer enviroment
• Typical GIS software consists of four distinct but interrelated
subsystems or modules. These include:
• Data input software subsystem (used for e.g. digitising or scanning,
checking, editing, topology building, etc).
• Data storage and retrieval software subsystem.
• Data manipulation and analysis software subsystem (e.g. for querying,
sorting or indexing, overlay operations, buffer creation, etc.)
• Data output software subsystem (e.g. for screen display, page set-up
formatting, hard copy generation, etc.)
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GIS Software
• GIS softwares
• Vector-based software and Raster based
software.
• The commonly used GIS softwares include:
• ArcGIS, Mapinfo, Geomedia,Grass, QGIS, PostGIS
• Erdas Imagine, Envi,ILWIS, IDRISI etc
• Mapserver, ArcIMS, Geomedia WebMap
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Data
• Data is core to GIS
• There are two primary types of data that are used in
GIS namely,
• spatial (or geographic) data (Vector/Raster)and
• Aspatial (attribute or descriptive) data.
• GIS dataset also contains a documentation information
called metadata- data about data.
• Metadata contains such information as
• The coordinate system,
• when the data was created,
• when it was last updated,
• who created it and how to contact them and
• definitions for any of the code
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Spatial Data
• Spatial data is used to graphically represent some real
world features. The features could be material (visible),
e.g. road, building, water body; or they could also be
abstract (invisible) e.g. geopolitical boundaries,
language, temperature
temperature.
• Spatial feature are represented using point, lines,
polygon(area). Spatial features are a model of the real
world features
• Spatial data can be obtained from primary or secondary
sources.
• Spatial data is usually stored in a database called spatial
database or Geodatabase.
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Aspatial/Attribute data
• Aspatial /Attribute data is generally defined as
additional information about each spatial feature.
• An attribute data gives descriptive information
about some aspect of a geographical entity. Every
geographical feature has some attributes.
• In a GIS environment attribute data is usually
housed in tabular format.
• Examples include; Name of a lake, name of a river
etc
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People
• In a GIS environment the people are referred to as the humanware or
liveware.
• Well-trained people knowledgeable in spatial analysis and skilled in
using GIS software are essential to the GIS process.
• The humanware coordinates and controls all the other components of
GIS.
• GIS personnel range from technical specialists who design and maintain
the system to those who use it to help them perform their everyday
work. There are three factors to the people component: education,
career path, and networking.
• Personnel in a GIS include:
• Engineers (hardware and software)
• Data providers
• Digitizers
• Programmers and Analysts
• Managers
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Methods/Procedures
• The procedures used to input, analyze, and query data
determine the quality and validity of the final product.
• procedure or method has to do with the ways of
getting a job done in an organization.
• They include a well-designed
well designed GIS implementation plan
in addition to business rules, which are the models and
operating practices unique to each organization.
• Method may vary from one organization to another,
depending on the objectives.
• Method or procedure is usually tied to the business of
the company
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Factors to consider in determine

procedures
• In determining the GIS procedure in any organization
the following should be taken into consideration:
• The nature of the company’s business (what does the
company do?)
• Spatial data requirements of the company.
• The types of geospatial data used by the company for its
various activity modules.
• How the company collects, converts, stores, and processes its
spatial database.
• The pattern of information flow in the company.
• Data accessibility policy of the company.
• Geospatial data handling facilities available.
• The cartographic (map) and allied products (outputs) required
by the company.
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Network
• Network links all the other components
• In the past data was being shared by mailing CD
and DVD’s to each other and all GIS software
applications were installed on their local machines.
• Today softwares are installed on a centralized
server on in the cloud requiring the need to
efficiently share data and resources through the
network
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Data models
• Data model is, basically, a conceptual representation of the data structures in a
database. Whereas data structures comprise objects of data, relationships
between data objects and rules which regulate operations on the objects.
• Simply put, a data model is an abstract structure that provides the means to
effectively describe specific data structures needed to model an application in a
computer
• A data structure is a data organization, management, and storage format that
enables efficient access and modification
• A data model represents a set of rules or guidelines which are used to convert
the real world features into digitally and logically represented spatial objects.
• Data model is the core of any GIS which gives a set of constructs for describing
and representing selected aspects of the real world in a computer (Longley et
al., 2005)
• In GIS data models, all real world features are represented as points, lines or
arcs and polygons.
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GIS Data Models

• Modelling the reality is done using three levels;
i. The conceptual model is the process of developing
a graphical representation from the real world. It
determines the aspects of the real world to include
and exclude from the model and the level of detail to
model each aspect. It is human-oriented and
partially structured.
ii. Logical model is the representation of reality in the
form of diagrams and lists. It has an implementation-
oriented approach.
iii. Physical model presents the actual implementation
in a GIS environment and comprises tables which
are stored as databases. Physical model has
specific implementation approach.
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Objects and Field

• Geospatial data depicts the real world in two basic models such
as the object-based model and the field-based model
• Object-Based Model: The object is a spatial feature and has
some characteristics like spatial boundary, application relevant
and feature description (attributes). Spatial objects represent
discrete features with welldefined or identifiable boundaries.
• In the object-based
object based model, spatial data is mostly represented in
the form of coordinate’s lists (i.e. vector lines) and generally called
as the vector data model.
• Field-Based Model: Spatial phenomena are real world features
that vary continuously over space with no specific boundary. Data
for spatial phenomena may be organised as fields which are
obtained by direct or indirect sources
• When a spatial phenomena database is structured on the field-
based model in the form of grid of square or rectangular cells then
the representation is generally called as the raster data model
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Raster and Vector models

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Raster and Vector Data models

• A raster data model is composed of a regular grid of cells in
specific sequence and each cell within a grid holds data. The
conventional sequence is row by row which may start from
the top left corner. In this model, basic building block is the
cell.
• A Vector data model comprises discrete features. Features
can be discrete locations or events (points), lines, or areas
(polygons). This model uses the geometric objects of point,
line and polygon.
• The simplest vector data model that stores and organises
the data without establishing relationships among the
geographic features are generally called as spaghetti model.
• Can convert from one model to another through
rasterization or vectorization
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Comparison of Raster to Vector

models
• Raster datasets record a value for all points in the area covered
which may require more storage space than representing data in
a vector format that can store data only where needed.
• Raster data allows easy implementation of overlay operations,
which are more difficult with vector data.
• Vector data can be displayed as vector graphics used on
traditional maps, whereas raster data will appear as an image that
may have a blocky appearance for object boundaries. (depending
on the resolution of the raster file)
• Vector data can be easier to register, scale, and re-project, which
can simplify combining vector layers from different sources.
• Vector data is more compatible with relational database
environments, where they can be part of a relational table as a
normal column and processed using a multitude of operators.
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• Vector file sizes are usually smaller than raster data, which
can be 10 to 100 times larger than vector data (depending
on resolution).
• Vector data is simpler to update and maintain, whereas a
raster image will have to be completely reproduced.
(Example: a new road is added).
• Vector data allows much more analysis capability, especially
for "networks" such as roads, power, rail,
telecommunications, etc. Raster data will not have all the
characteristics of the features it displays.
• Raster files can be manipulated quickly by the computer, but
they are often less detailed and may be less visually
appealing than vector data files, which can approximate the
appearance of more traditional hand-drafted map
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Advantages of Raster data

• Advantages of Raster Data
• data structure is simple
• good for representing continuous surfaces
• location specific data collection is easy
• spatial analytical operations are faster
• different forms of data are available (satellite
images, field data, etc.), and
• mathematical modelling and quantitative analysis
can be made in easiest way due to the inherent
nature of raster images.
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Disadvantages of Raster model

• Data volumes are huge
• Poor representation for points, lines and areas
• Cartographic output quality may be low
• Difficult to effectively represent linear features (depends on
the cell resolution). Hence, the network analysis is difficult
to establish
• Coordinate transformation is difficult which sometimes
cause distortion of grid cell shape
• Suffer from mixed pixel problem and missing or redundant
data, and
• Raster images generally have only one attribute or
characteristic value for a feature or object, therefore,
limited scope to handle the attribute data.
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Advantages of Vector Data

• data structure is more compact
• data can be represented with good resolution
• it can clearly describe topology. Hence, good for proximity and network
analysis
• spatial adjustment of the data is easy with the utilisation of techniques
such as rubber sheeting, affine, etc.
• graphic output in small scale as well as large scale gives a good accuracy
• geographic location of entities accurate
• modernising and generalisation of the entities are possible
• easy handling of attribute data, and
• coordinate transformation techniques such as linear transformation,
similarity transformation and affine transformation could be done easily.
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Disadvantages of Vector Data

• data structures are complex
• overlay analysis is difficult in processing. Often, this
inherently limits the functionality for large data sets,
e.g., a large number of features
• data collection may be expensive
• high resolution drawing, colouring, shading and also
displaying may be time consuming and unbearable
• technology of data preparation is expensive
• representation of spatial variability is difficult, and
• spatial analysis and filtering within polygons is
impossible.