GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS

II. SIGHT DISTANCE FOR VERTICAL CURVES

For highways, the usual basis for the minimum length of parabolic curves may be sight distance.

A. SIGHT DISTACE FOR SUMMIT CURVES

For summit/crest curves, the minimum length for sight distance criterion depends on the height of
the driver’s eye and the height of the object to be seen over the crest of the curve.

There are two cases for summit curves:

𝑨𝑺𝟐
CASE 1: S < L 𝑳= 𝟐
𝟐𝟎𝟎(√𝒉𝟏 +√𝒉𝟐 )
𝟐
𝟐𝟎𝟎(√𝒉𝟏+√𝒉𝟐 )
CASE 2: S > L 𝑳 = 𝟐𝑺 −
𝑨
Where:
S = SSD = Sight Distance/Stopping Sight Distance
L = Length of Vertical Curve
A = absolute value of the Algebraic Difference of Grades, in percent = |𝒈𝟏 − 𝒈𝟐 |
h1 = Driver’s Eye Height
h2 = Object Height NOTE: If h1 and h2 are not given, use:
h1 = 1.143m = 3.75ft
h2 = 0.15m = 0.50ft
B. HEADLIGHT SIGHT DISTANCE FOR SAG CURVES
For summit curves, the distance is based on the distance illuminated by the headlights at night.

Cases for sag curves:

𝑨𝑺𝟐
CASE 1: S < L 𝑳= 𝟐𝟎𝟎(𝒉+𝑺𝒕𝒂𝒏𝝓)
𝟐𝟎𝟎(𝒉+𝑺𝒕𝒂𝒏𝝓)
CASE 2: S > L 𝑳 = 𝟐𝑺 − 𝑨
Where:
ϕ = the angle that the beam light tilts upward from the axis of the vehicle
h = height of the headlight above the ground

CE 317: Highway and Railroad Engineering

 GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS

C. SIGHT DISTANCE FOR SAG CURVES

Using the same principle and formula from the Headlight Sight Distance and with the design
standards that are based on the assumed headlight of 0.60m and an upward angle of tilt of the
headlight beam of 1 degree.
The two cases for sag curves will be:
𝑨𝑺𝟐
CASE 1: S < L 𝑳= 𝟏𝟐𝟎+𝟑.𝟓𝑺
𝟏𝟐𝟎+𝟑.𝟓𝑺
CASE 2: S > L 𝑳 = 𝟐𝑺 − 𝑨

D. DESIRABLE LENGTH OF CURVE (for Sag Curves)

Sharp grade change over a relatively small length may cause discomfort and violates the sight
distance standards. AASHTO suggest the following equation as to give the desirable length of sag
curve as:
𝑨𝑲𝟐
𝑳=
𝟑𝟗𝟓
Where:
K = design velocity in kph

VERTICAL CURVE SIGHT DISTANCE EXAMPLE PROBLEM

1. Determine the minimum length of a crest vertical curve between a +0.5% grade and a -1.5%
grade for a road with an 80kph design speed. The vertical curve must provide a stopping sight
distance of 180m to meet with the required appearance criteria. Round up to the next greatest
20-m interval. Assume eye-height of 1.07m and object height of 0.15m.

2. A tangent grade of -1.0% meets a +0.5% tangent grade to form a vertical parabolic sag curve. If
the curve must provide a 200m stopping sight distance and have a 110kph design speed,
determine the minimum length required. Round-up to next 20-m interval.

III. SIGHT DISTANCE FOR HORIZONTAL CURVES

The DPWH Highway Safety and Design Manual requires minimum sight distances in different regions
of the road. This is to provide a safe stopping distance if there is an obstacle on the road, may it be an
object or another vehicle moving on the opposite lane.

There are two cases of obstruction for horizontal curves:

𝑺𝟐
CASE 1: S < L 𝑹= 𝟖𝑴

Where:
L = Length of the Horizontal Curve
S = Sight Distance
R = Radius of the Curve
M = Clearance from the Centerline of the Road

CE 317: Highway and Railroad Engineering

 GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS

𝑳(𝟐𝑺−𝑳)
CASE 2: S < L 𝑹= 𝟖𝑴

HORIZONTAL CURVE SIGHT DISTANCE EXAMPLE PROBLEM

1. The clearance to an obstruction is 9m and the desirable sight distance when rounding a
horizontal curve is 180m. Determine the minimum radius of horizontal curve.

2. A highway curve has a radius of 80m and a length of 90m. If the required sight distance is 60m.

a. How far off the center of the curve could you allow the bushes to grow?

b. What is the minimum clearance at the center of the curve if the desirable sight distance
when rounding the curve is 100?

CE 317: Highway and Railroad Engineering

 GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS

B. ROAD BANKING (SUPERELEVATION)

When a vehicle travels in a circular path or curved path, it

is subjected to an outward force which makes a vehicle to
overturn and skid due to Centrifugal force. To overcome this
force and for safe travel of a vehicle, the outer edge of the
road is raised above the inner edge. Aside from the reduction
of the chance of car skidding, road banking is also used to
prevent the accumulation water in the road pavement.

ROAD BANKING FORMULA SET

1. Min. Radius of Curvature

𝒗𝟐
𝑹=
𝒈 (𝒆 + 𝒇 )
2. Centrifugal Ratio or Impact Factor

𝒗𝟐 𝑪𝑭 𝑪𝑹 = 𝒆 + 𝒇
𝑪𝑹 𝒐𝒓 𝑰𝑭 = 𝑪𝑹 =
𝒈𝑹 𝑾
where:
v = design speed of car in m/s
g = acceleration due to gravity
e = superelevation in m/m
f = coefficient of side friction or skid resistance
3. Centrifugal Force
𝑾𝒗𝟐
𝑪𝑭 =
𝒈𝑹
4. Angle of Superelevation / Ideal Angle of Embankment
𝒗𝟐 NOTE:
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 =
𝒈𝑹 This formula doesn’t include the
design’s frictional coefficient.
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 = 𝒆

where:
θ = Angle of Superelevation
R = Radius of the Curve (Usually Arc Basis) 𝑹 = 𝟏𝟏𝟒𝟓. 𝟗𝟏𝟔⁄𝑫
5. Angle of Embankment
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜶 = 𝒇
where:
α = Angle of Embankment
f = Coefficient of Friction
6. Maximum Speed “V” to Avoid Skidding
𝑽𝟐
𝐭𝐚𝐧(𝜶 + 𝜽) =
𝒈𝑹

CE 317: Highway and Railroad Engineering

 GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS

7. Superelevation to Fully Counteract Centrifugal Force

𝟎. 𝟕𝟓𝑽𝟐
𝐭𝐚𝐧(𝜽) =
𝒈𝑹 NOTE:
For designs specified by the codes,
8. Ruling Minimum Radius of Horizontal Curve
use f = 0.15 for inclination θ not
(𝑽 + 𝟏𝟔)𝟐 exceeding 4 degrees.
𝑹𝒎 =
𝒈(𝒆 + 𝒇)
θ< 4° ; f = 0.15

ROAD BANKING EXAMPLE PROBLEM

A highway curve has a superelevation of 7 degrees. Find the radius of the curve so that there will
be no lateral pressure between the tires and the roadway at a speed of mph.

C. TRACTIVE CAPACITY
Also known as the power to move a vehicle. Power is the rate at which work is done. The performance
capability of a vehicle is measured in terms of the horsepower the engine can produce to overcome the
resisting forces that are being applied which affect the operation of the moving vehicle on a level or an inclined
profile. Such several forces that acts on a vehicle while it is in motion are the air resistance, grade resistance
rolling resistance, and curve resistance.

a. AIR RESISTANCE - A vehicle in motion has to overcome the resistance of the air in front of it as well as
the force due to the frictional action of the air around it. The force required to overcome these is
known as the air resistance and is related to the cross-sectional area of the vehicle in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of motion and to the square of the speed of the vehicle.
b. GRADE RESISTANCE - When a vehicle moves up a grade, a component of the weight of the vehicle
acts downward, along the plane of the highway. This creates a force acting in a direction opposite
that of the motion. This force is the grade resistance. A vehicle traveling up a grade will therefore
tend to lose speed unless an accelerating force is applied. The speed achieved at any point along
the grade for a given rate of acceleration will depend on the grade.

CE 317: Highway and Railroad Engineering

 GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS

c. ROLLING RESISTANCE - There are forces within the vehicle itself that offer resistance to motion. These
forces are due mainly to frictional effect on moving parts of the vehicle, but they also include the
frictional slip between the pavement surface and the tires. The sum effect of these forces on motion
is known as rolling resistance. The rolling resistance depends on the speed of the vehicle and the
type of pavement. Rolling forces are relatively lower on smooth pavements than on rough
pavements.
d. CURVE RESISTANCE - This resistance depends on the radius of the curve, the gross weight of the
vehicle, and the velocity at which the vehicle is moving. When a passenger car is maneuvered to
take a curve, external forces act on the front wheels of the vehicle. These forces have components
that have a retarding effect on the forward motion of the vehicle. The sum effect of these components
constitutes the curve resistance.

TRACTIVE CAPACITY FORMULA SET

1. Tractive Capacity
𝒗𝑹 WHERE:
• Metric System 𝑷= v = velocity of vehicle in m/s
𝟕𝟒𝟔
R = Sum of the different resistances in N

WHERE:
𝒗𝑹
• English System 𝑷 = 𝟓𝟓𝟎 v = velocity of vehicle in ft/s
R = sum of the different resistances in lb.

NOTE: 1mile = 5280ft

For designs specified
𝟎.𝟎𝟕𝟕𝝆𝑪𝑫 𝑨𝝁𝟐
2. Air Resistance 𝑹𝒂 = 𝟎. 𝟓 ( )
𝒈
WHERE:
Ra = air resistance force (kg)
Ρ = density of air (1.227kg/m3) at sea level; less at higher elevations
CD = aerodynamic drag coefficient (current average value for passenger cars = 0.4
for trucks, this value ranges from 0.5 to 0.8, but the typical value is 0.5)
A = frontal cross-sectional area (m2)
μ = vehicle speed (km/hr)
g = gravitational acceleration = 9.81m/s2
WHERE:
3. Grade Resistance 𝑹𝑮 = 𝑾𝑮 RG = grade resistance force (kg)
W = weight of the vehicle in kg
G = Grade in decimal
4. Rolling Resistance 𝑹𝒓 = 𝑾𝒇𝒓

• For Passenger Cars 𝑹𝒓 = (𝑪𝒓𝒔 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟕𝑪𝒓𝒗 𝝁𝟐 )𝑾

• For Trucks 𝑹𝒓 = (𝑪𝒂 + 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝟖𝑪𝒃 𝝁)𝑾

WHERE:
Rr = rolling resistance force (kg)
Crs = constant = 0.012 for passenger cars
Crv = constant = 7x10-6 s2/m2 for passenger cars

CE 317: Highway and Railroad Engineering

 GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS

Ca = constant = 0.02445 for trucks

Cb = constant = 0.00147 s/m for trucks
fr = coefficient of rolling resistance

𝟎.𝟎𝟕𝟕𝝁𝟐 𝑾
5. Curve Resistance 𝑹𝒄 = 𝒈𝑹

TRACTIVE CAPACITY EXAMPLE PROBLEM

1. An old Mitsubishi Pajero having a weight of 10800lb is driven on a level ground paved surface. It is
known that at max speed, 50hp is expended to overcome rolling resistance. If the coefficient of rolling
resistance is 0.019, determine the maximum speed of the car in mph.

2. Determine the horsepower produced by a passenger car traveling at a speed of 65 mi/h on a straight
road of 5% grade with a smooth pavement. Assume the weight of the car is 4000 lb and the cross-
sectional area of the car is 40 ft2.

CE 317: Highway and Railroad Engineering