PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND SPECIFICATIONS

A highway pavement is composed of a system of overlaid strata of chosen processed materials that is
positioned on the in-situ soil, termed the subgrade. Its basic requirement is the provision of a uniform skid-resistant
running surface with adequate life and requiring minimum maintenance. The chief structural purpose of the
pavement is the support of vehicle wheel loads applied to the carriageway and the distribution of them to the
subgrade immediately underneath. If the road is in cut, the subgrade will consist of the in-situ soil. If it is
constructed on fill, the top layers of the embankment structure are collectively termed the subgrade.
The pavement designer must develop the most economical combination of layers that will guarantee
adequate dispersion of the incident wheel stresses so that each layer in the pavement does not become
overstressed during the design life of the highway.
The major variables in the design of a highway pavement are:
• The thickness of each layer in the pavement
• The material contained within each layer of the pavement
• The type of vehicles in the traffic stream
• The volume of traffic predicted to use the highway over its design life
• The strength of the underlying subgrade soil

HIGHWAY PAVEMENT COMPONENTS

1. FOUNDATION
The foundation consists of the native subgrade soil and the layer of graded stone (subbase and possibly
capping) immediately overlaying it. The function of the sub-base and capping is to provide a platform on which
to place the base material and to insulate the subgrade below it against the effects of inclement weather.
There layers may form the temporary road surface used during the construction phase of the highway.

2. BASE
The base is the main structural layer whose main function is to withstand the applied wheel stresses and
strains incident on it and distribute them in such a manner that the materials beneath it do not become
overloaded.

3. SURFACING
The surfacing combines good riding quality with adequate skidding resistance while also minimizing the
probability of water infiltrating the pavement with consequent surface cracks. Texture and durability are vital
requirements of a good pavement surface as are surface regularity and flexibility. For flexible pavements, the
surfacing is normally applied in two layers-binder course and surface course-with the blinder course an
extension of the base layer but providing a regulating course on which the final layer is applied. In the case of
rigid pavements, the structural function of both the base and surfacing layers is integrated within the concrete
slab. In broad terms, the two main pavement types can be described briefly as:

• FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS - The surfacing (binder course and surface course) is bound with bitumen and
overlays the base layer, which may be bound either with bitumen or with hydraulically bound mixture
(HBM). The subbase may consist of granular (unbound) material or HBM.
• RIGID PAVEMENTS - The main structural base layer is normally continuous reinforced concrete, and
the surfacing is normally asphalt. The use of concrete surfacing and jointed concrete pavement is no
longer standard practice in the United Kingdom. To maximize the pavement life, all rigid pavements
require a bound subbase.

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COMPONENTS OF A FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

COMPONENTS OF A RIGID PAVEMENT

HBM is a mixture of aggregate, water and hydraulic binder, where the binder may be cement, fly ash,
ground granulated blast furnace slag, etc. The term HBM includes all cement bound granular mixtures (CBGM)
but is a more general term. A hydraulic binder is one which reacts with water.
Pavements are composed of several layers of material. They can consist of one or more bitumen or
hydraulically bound layers overlaying one or more layers of unbound granular material, which in turn is laid on
the in-situ soil (if the highway is in cut) or imported soil/granular material (if the highway is constructed in fill)
that exists below formation level.

FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT MATERIALS

• BITUMEN
Bitumen is a black adhesive compound produced artificially from crude oil within the petroleum refining
process. It is a basic constituent of the upper layers in pavement construction. When hot, it is in liquid from,
and when cold, it solidifies but retains some viscous and elastic properties enabling it to act as a flexible binder.
It can resist both deformation and changes in temperature. Its binding effect eliminates the loss of material
from the surface of the pavement and prevents water penetrating the structure. Two basic types of bituminous
binder exist:
• TAR - obtained from the production of coal gas or the manufacture of coke
• BITUMEN - obtained from the oil refining process

With the decreased availability of tar, bitumen is the most commonly used binding/water resisting material
for highway pavements.

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• ASPHALT CONCRETE (COATED MACADAMS)

Asphalt concrete consists of graded aggregate coated with bituminous binder, generally penetration
grade bitumen. The aggregate grading creates a skeleton that resists the compressive and shear forces
generated by vehicle tires. The material is mixed hot in a special plant and must be delivered to site and
compacted in situ before it cools. It is classified in terms of the nominal size of the aggregate, its grading and
the location within the pavement for which it is intended. Densely graded materials have a high proportion of
fines producing dense and stable macadam.

Examples include dense bitumen macadam (DBM) and heavy-duty macadam (HDM). Open graded
materials have less fines, and this results in less dense and less stable macadam, such as porous asphalt
(PA).

• HOT ROLLED ASPHALT

HRA is similar to asphalt concrete. It is a dense material with low air avoid content, consisting of a mixture
of aggregate, fines, binder and a filler material, but in this case, the grading is far less continuous (gap graded)
with a higher proportion of both fines and binder present in the mix. The material is practically impervious to
water, with the fines, filler and bitumen forming a mortar, or mastic, in which coarse aggregate is scattered in
order to increase its overall bulk. Whereas asphalt concrete derives its strength from the mechanical interlock
of the constituents, hot rolled asphalt strength is largely derived from the properties of the mastic.

HRA surface courses typically have from 0 to 55% coarse aggregate content, with binder courses having
either 50 or 60% and bases normally at 60%. As HRA surface course is a smooth-textured material, pre-
coated chippings should be spread over and rolled into its surface while plastic in order to increase skid
resistance.

• AGGREGATES

The maximum nominal aggregate size is determined from both the required thickness of the material
when put in place and the surface texture called for. The size of aggregate must not be greater than the
required layer thickness. The layer thickness should be approximately 2 1/2 times the nominal maximum
aggregate size, with a minimum layer thickness of 1 1/2 times the nominal maximum aggregate size in order
to minimize the likelihood of the larger stones being crushed during rolling.

These aggregates intended for either Bituminous (Asphalt) or Portland Cement Concrete Pavement
(PCCP), should be of good quality in accordance with the requirements of AASHTO standard or Item 703 of
the Department of Public Works and Highways specifications. Aggregates to be classified as good quality,
must undergo various test such as the Test of Strength, Test for Soundness, Test for Affinity and Swell, Test
for Shape and Texture, Test for Resistance to Polishing, and the Degradation Test.

• SURFACE DRESSING AND MODIFIED BINDERS

Surface dressing involves the application of a thin layer of bituminous binder to the surface of the
pavement slab followed by the spreading and rolling into it of single sized stone chippings. In order to apply
the binder effectively, its stiffness must be modified during the construction phase of the pavement. Two such
binder modifications used during surface dressing are cutback bitumen and bitumen emulsion.

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I. CUTBACK BITUMEN (LIQUID ASPHALT)

Bitumen obtained from the refining process described briefly above can be blended with some of the
more volatile solvents such as kerosene or creosote to form a solution that has a viscosity far below that
of penetration grade bitumen and will act as a fluid at much lower temperatures. However, when the
solution is exposed to the atmosphere, the volatile solvents evaporate leaving solely the bitumen in place.
Such solutions are termed cutbacks, and the process of evaporation of the volatile solvents is called
curing. The speed at which it occurs will depend on the nature of the solvent.

The classification of cutbacks is based on the following two characteristics:

• The viscosity of the cutback itself

• The penetration of the non-volatile residue

The cutback’s viscosity is measured using an efflux viscometer, which computes the time in seconds
for a given volume of binder to flow through a standard orifice at a temperature of a specified temperature.
Cutback bitumen is used in surface dressing. In this process, it is sprayed onto a weakened road surface
and chippings are placed on it and then rolled. It serves to provide a non-skid surface to the pavement,
makes the surface resistant to water and prevents its disintegration.

II. BITUMINOUS EMULSIONS (EMULSIFIED ASPHALT)

Bitumen can be made easier to handle by forming it into an emulsion where particles of it become
suspended in water. In most cases, their manufacture involves heating the bitumen and then shredding
it in a colloidal mill with a solution of hot water and an emulsifier. The particles are imparted with an ionic
charge, which makes them repel each other. Within cationic emulsions, the imparted charge is positive,
while the charge is negative in anionic emulsions. When the emulsion is sprayed onto the road surface,
the charged ions are attracted to opposite charges on the surface, causing the emulsion to begin
“breaking’ with the bitumen particles starting to coalesce together. The breaking process is complete
when the film of bitumen is continuous.
Bitumen emulsions are graded in terms of their stability or rate of break. Rate of break depends on
the composition of the emulsion and the rate at which the emulsion evaporates. The grading of the
aggregate onto which the emulsion is applied is also important to the rate of break. Dirty aggregates
accelerate it, as will porous or dry road surfaces. Cationic emulsions tend to break more rapidly than ionic
ones.

III. CHIPPINGS
The chippings used are central to the success of the surface dressing process as they provide
essential skidding resistance. The correct rate of spread depends mainly on the nominal size of chippings
used, varying from 7kg/m2 for 6-mm nominal size to 17kg/m2 for 20mm. The chippings themselves may
be precoated with a thin layer of binder in order to promote their swift adhesion to the binder film during
the laying process. Rolling should be carried out using pneumatic-tired rollers. The process should result
in a single layer of chippings covering the entire surface, firmly held within the binder film.

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• CONSTRUCTION OF BITUMINOUS ROAD SURFACINGS

The production of a successful bituminous road surfacing depends not only on the design of the
individual constituent layers but also on the correctness of the construction procedure employed to put
them in place. In essence, the construction of a bituminous pavement consists of the following steps:
• Transporting and placing the bituminous material
• Compaction of the mixture
• If required, the spreading and rolling of coated chippings into the surface of the material

RIGID PAVEMENT MATERIALS

A rigid pavement consists of a subgrade and subbase foundation covered by a slab constructed of pavement
quality concrete. This concrete slab is the main structural component of the pavement. Current practice in the
United Kingdom is for the concrete slab to be overlaid with asphalt, principally as a means of reducing road
noise, but concrete surfacing is still commonly used in many other countries. The concrete slab may be jointed
or continuous, and jointed slabs may be unreinforced or reinforced with steel mesh. In all cases, the concrete
slab must be of sufficient depth so as to prevent the traffic load causing premature failure. Appropriate measures
should also be taken to prevent damage due to other causes. The proportions within the concrete mix will
determine both its strength and its resistance to climate changes and general wear. Joints in the concrete may
be formed in order to aid the resistance to tensile and compressive forces set up in the slab due to shrinkage
effects.

1. CONCRETE SLAB AND JOINT DETAILS

As the strength of concrete develops with time, its 28-day value is taken for specification purposes,
though its strength at 7 days is often used as an initial guideline of the mix’s ultimate strength. Pavement
quality concrete generally has a 28-day characteristic cylinder strength of 32 N/mm2, corresponding to a
characteristic cube strength of 40 N/mm2, and is termed C32/40 concrete. Ordinary Portland Cement
(OPC) is commonly used. The cement content for C32/40 concrete should be a minimum of 320kg/m 3.
Air content of up to 5% may be acceptable with a typical maximum water cement ratio of 0.5.

The effects of temperature are such that a continuous concrete slab is likely to fail prematurely due
to induced internal stresses rather than from excessive traffic loading. If the slab is reinforced, the effect
of these induced stresses can be lessened by the addition of further reinforcement that increases the
slab’s ability to withstand them. This slab type is termed Continuous Reinforced Concrete (CRC), and
this is now the more usual form adopted for new rigid pavements in the United Kingdom. Alternatively,
dividing the pavement into a series of slabs and providing movement joints between these can permit the
release and dissipation of induced stresses. This slab type is termed Joined Reinforced Concrete (JRC).
If the slab is jointed and not reinforced, the slab type is termed Unreinforced Concrete (URC). If joints are
employed, their type and location are important factors.

I. JOINTS IN CONCRETE PAVEMENTS

Joints may be provided in a pavement slab in order to allow for movement caused by changes in
moisture content and slab temperature. Transverse joints across the pavement at right angles to its
centerline permit the release of shrinkage and temperature stresses. The greatest effect of these stresses
is in the longitudinal direction. Longitudinal joints, on the other hand, deal with induced stresses most
evident across the width of the pavement. There are four main types of transverse joints:

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• Contraction joints • Warping joints

• Expansion joints • Construction joints

Contraction occurs when water is lost or temperatures drop. Expansion occurs when water is
absorbed or the temperature rises. The insertion of contraction and expansion joints permit movement to
happen.

1. Contraction joints allow induced stresses to be released by permitting the adjacent slab to
contact, thereby causing a reduction in tensile stresses within the slab. The joint, therefore, must
open in order to permit this movement while at the same time prohibiting vertical movement
between adjacent concrete slabs. Furthermore, water should not be allowed to penetrate into the
foundation of the pavement. The joint reduces the thickness of the concrete slab, inducing a
concentration of stress and subsequent cracking at the chosen appropriate location. The reduction
in thickness is usually achieved by cutting a groove in the surface of the slab, causing a reduction
in depth of approximately 30%. A dowel bar placed in the middle of the joint delivers the requisite
vertical shear strength across it and provides load-transfer capabilities. It also keeps adjacent
concrete surfaces level during temperature-induced movements. In order to ensure full
longitudinal movement, the bar is debonded on one side of the contraction joint.

2. Expansion joints differ in that a full discontinuity exists between the two sides, with a
compressible filler material included to permit the adjacent concrete to expend. These can also
function as contraction or warping joints.

3. Warping joints are required in plain URC slabs only. They permit small angular movements to
occur between adjacent concrete slabs. Warping stresses are very likely to occur in long narrow
slabs. They are required in unreinforced slabs only, as in reinforced slabs the warping is kept in
check by the reinforcing bars. They are simply a sealed break or discontinuity in the concrete slab
itself, with tie bars used to restrict any widening and hold the sides together.

4. Construction is normally organized so that work on any given day ends at the location of an
intended contraction or expansion joint. Where this proves not to be possible, a construction joint
can be used. No relative movement is permitted across the joint.

Longitudinal joints may also be required to counteract the effects of warping along the length of the
slab. They are broadly similar in layout to transverse warping joints.

CONTRACTION JOINT DETAIL

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EXPANSION JOINT DETAIL

WARPING JOINT DETAIL

CONSTRUCTION JOINT DETAIL

2. REINFORCEMENT
Reinforcement can be in the form of a prefabricated mesh or a bar mat. The function of the
reinforcement is to limit the extent of surface cracking in order to maintain the particle interlock within the
aggregate.

In order to maximize its bond with the concrete within the slab, care must be taken to ensure that the
steel is cleaned thoroughly before use. For pavements where the top of the concrete slab forms the road
surfacing, the purpose of the reinforcement is to minimize cracking, and it should be placed near the
upper surface of the pavement slab, with a cover of approximately 60mm normally required, though this
may be reduced slightly for thinner slabs.

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In continuous reinforced concrete with an asphalt overlay, the steel reinforcement is typically placed
at mid-depth in the slab. It is normally stopped approximately 125mm from the edge of a slab, 100mm
from a longitudinal joint and 300mm from any transverse joint. Transverse lapping of reinforcement within
a pavement slab will normally be in the order of 300mm.

SOIL TEST AND ANALYSIS

• TEST FOR PARTICLE SIZE

Different soil has different characteristics affecting the performance of each individual soil by moisture
content and density. There are several kinds of physical tests that have been developed to measure soil
performance issued and recommended by AASHTO and ASTM.

I. SIEVE ANALYSIS

The Sieve Analysis is the process being used to determine the particle sizes of gravel and fine
aggregates. A sample of the material is thoroughly dried and shaken through series of sieves ranging from
coarse to fine. The amount on each sieve is weighed and recorded. The AASHTO standard sieve sizes
for soil aggregates are presented as follows:

Sieve No.
2 1 1/2 1 3/4 3/8 4 10 40 200
in Inches

By Number
Opening in 50 37.5 25.0 19.0 9.50 4.75 2.0 0.425 0.075
millimeter

Material finer than No. 200 sieve (.075 mm) is not feasible in determining the particle sizes. Instead,
these are determined by observing the rate at which the grains settle through liquid or gas.

Under the Stroke`s Law, “The rate of settlement of solid through a given liquid or gas is proportional to
the square of the diameters of the solid.’’. The AASHTO method as specified is called Hydrometer Test
AASHTO designation T-88.

II. HYDROMETER TEST

1. Sample of the material passing No.10 sieve is mixed thoroughly with water and dispersing agent that
dissipate any electrolytic bonds in the sample that might cause flocculation and accelerate settlement.
2. After 12 hours, the mixture is agitated making all particles suspended in water.
3. The mixture is then placed in a graduated flask, allowing the solid to settle under the pull of gravity.
4. The bigger particles settle first, followed by the smaller than the smallest one. The specific gravity of
the liquid decreases. The changes are recorded by special hydrometer and read at prescribed
intervals.
5. Change in specific gravity is related to the grain size of the material by Stroke’s law.
6. Careful control of temperature and other possible variable is strictly observed to obtain satisfactory
test results.

• TEST TO EVALUATE THE EFFECT OF MOISTURE

Consistency of the soil varies from semi solid to plastic then, to liquid if water content is increased.

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1. THE LIQUID LIMIT TEST

The AASHTO designation T-89 on liquid limit signifies the percentage of moisture at which the
sample changes by decreasing the water from liquid to plastic state. When the sample is wet than the
liquid limit, a grooved sample of the soil in a cup will flow when lightly jarred 25 times. On the other hand,
if the sample is jarred at the liquid limit, water separates the soil particles just wide enough to remove the
soil mass shearing strength. Several tests on each sample are required to reach the moisture content
wherein the groove in the sample is required to close at exactly 25 blows.

2. THE PLASTIC LIMIT TEST

AASHTO Designation T-90 signifies the percentage of moisture wherein the sample changes with
lowering wetness from plastic to semi-solid condition. At this stage, the soil mortar starts to crumble when
rolled into threads 1/8’’ diameter. Additional water will make the soil plastic, but sands are non-plastic
material that its non-plastic limit cannot be determined.

3. THE PLASTIC INDEX TEXT

AASHTO Designation T-91 is defined as the numerical difference between its liquid limit and its
plastic limit. It is also referred to as the percentage of dry weight. In some combination, it measures:
a) The fineness and shapes of the soil particles.
b) The interplay of the attractive forces tending to hold the clay mineral flakes together.
c) The thickness and velocity of the water film and,
d) The quantity and electrical charges of the cations.

For coarse grain soil or fine grain soil with few particles of clay of colloidal size, small increase of
water above the plastic limit will cause particles separation, destroying the attractive forces that provide
shearing strength. It simply means that, the difference between the plastic limit and the liquid limit is small,
so that the plastic index is also small. On the contrary, for a soil that is high in clay or colloids, more water
will be required before the attractive forces are overcome, and the strength of the mass is destroyed. In
this case, the plasticity index is numerically high.
Experienced road builders use the Plastic Index as one control in selecting the materials for under
pavement. A common base course material specified, requires the plastic index not to exceed 6 while
others insist on not greater than 3 soils with high plasticity indices are much less acceptable for sub-
grade in base course.

4. THE SHRINKAGE TEST

Shrinkage test measures the changes in volume and weight that occur as partly mixture of soil and
water (except sieve No. 40). Sample is dried from the near liquid limit to constant weight of 110˚C. The
results are stated in terms of shrinkage limit, volumetric change, and lineal shrinkage.
Higher value of shrinkage factor showed that the soil will give more trouble and problem. The volume
of a certain soil increases when it absorbs water. Soils that are suitable for sub-grade and base course
are those that expand very little when moistened. And those that swell more are considered as poor
materials. A common soil specimen requires volume change limit of 1% for base coarse materials.

5. HAND FEEL TEST

Experienced soil Engineer employ the ``hand feel test’’ to approximately predict the plasticity index
of the soil. The test may include:

a) Thread toughness at moisture content approximating the plastic limit.

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b) The air-dried strength.

c) Dilatancy

Soil mortar possessing high plastic index will produce tough threads and high strength without
dilatancy. On the other hand, soils having low Plastic Index (PI) will react in an opposite manner. Skilled
soil technician could on the basis of this test predict the Plastic Index with standard error of about 1%
percent.

Clean sand with some rocks and certain other materials are classified as non-plastic materials
because they cannot be rolled into threads as required in determining the plastic limit. As a rule:

1. Non-plastic soils are excellent type of road materials when properly confined under wearing
course.
2. A well graded rock dust from hard durable surface when wet and compacted.
3. Clean sand displaces easily under load and their use as fill or base course create problems,
but they may have another desirable feature such as facilitating sub-surface drainage.

6. SAND EQUIVALENT TEST

AASHTO Designation T-176 is for field determination of the presence of undesirable quantities of clay-
like materials in soil. Aggregate mixture is based on the volume, rather than on weight. The sand equivalent
is the radio between the height of the sand column (laboratory experiment test) and the combined height
of sand and expanded saturated clay expressed in percentage. Higher values of sand equivalent indicate
superior materials. The allowable moving average value from the California Specification is 21 for sub base,
31 for aggregate base and 45-50 for aggregates of various type asphalt concrete and 76 for concrete sand.

• DENSITY TEST OF SOIL

The Density of soil or weight per cubic foot varies with the peculiarities of the soil itself, the moisture
content, and the compacted device plus the method of their use. The standard weight of soil per cubic foot
cannot be fixed, but should be determined in particular instance.

THE MAIN VARIABLES IN THE SOIL PROPER ARE:

1. Specific Gravity of the soil particles that may vary from 2.0 to 3.3 that is normally between 2.5 and
2.8.
2. Particle Size distribution of the soil. A mass composed of entirely spheres of one size in the densest
possible condition will contain 75% solid and 25% voids. The smaller the sphere in the mass the
higher the percentage of the solid, hence, particle size distribution may greatly affect density.
3. Grain Shape of Soil Particles. Sharp angular particles will resist shifting from loose to a compacted
state. Flaky particles in soil will decrease its density because they are difficult to compact.

• LABORATORY TEST FOR SOIL DENSITY

Test for density may be divided into two:

1. Laboratory test to set standard for density.

2. Field test to measure the density of soil in-placed on the roadway.

Laboratory tests may be subdivided into three, according to the basis of compaction procedures.

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1. STATIC TEST
Static Test is determining the maximum density of soil sample in the laboratory. A sample of
about 5000 grams of soil containing a specified percentage of water is placed in a cylinder mold 6
inches diameter and 8 inches high. The sample is then compressed under a load of 2000 pounds per
square inch applied at the speed of 0.05 inch per minute. When the maximum load is reached, it is
held for a period of 1 minute and then, gradually released from the known dry weight of the soil. The
mold diameter and the height dry density of the sample are computed. Several samples are
compressed to delineate the peak of the moisture density. This peak value represents the standard.

2. DYNAMIC OR IMPACT TEST

In the Dynamic or Impact Test, samples of soils each containing a designated percentage of
water are compacted in layers into molds of specified size. The sample is compacted by applying a
number of blows from a free-falling hammer of prescribed dimension and weight with flat circular face.
The peak of moisture density value represents the standard density. The AASHTO tests may be
applied on that portion of the soil which will pass No. 4 sieve or all that passes 3/4’’ sieve.

3. TAMPING FOOT OR KNEADING COMPACTION TEST

The material is fed into a rotating mold and compacted by several repetitive loads applied through
tamping shoe shaped like a sector of the circle. About 25% of the specimen is covered in each
application. Compaction is through kneading action in contrast with the static pressure or impact test.

• FIELD DENSITY TEST OF SOIL IN PLACE

Field density test is the means of comparing the density with the laboratory results. Relative compaction
is the only measure by which the acceptability of a completed roadway structure is measured.

FIELD DENSITY AND MOISTURE CONTENT BY SAMPLING

The manners of determining relative compaction by sampling are as follows:

1. Obtain samples of the compacted materials to be tested at full depth.

2. Find the wet and dry weight of the sample, then, determine its moisture content.
3. Determine the volume of sample in the fill by finding the weight of materials required to fill the space.
4. From the dry weight of the sample and the volume that it occupies in the fill, find the dry weight per
cubic foot.
5. Find the relative compaction of the soil in fill by dividing its dry weight per cubic foot by the laboratory
standard density.

There are four factors that affect the accuracy of measuring relative density, they are

1. Change in the soil itself.

2. The sampling methods.
3. The accuracy of laboratory testing for standard density.
4. The accuracy of testing field density.

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• THE STRENGTH TEST

Soil tests to determine the strength of soil is classified into:

1. Test for load carrying capacity, rate, and amount for consolidation in soils that support the foundation.
(This is applicable to bridge foundation).
2. Test to measure the supporting power of disturbed soils as compacted under standard procedures.

I. CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO METHOD (CBR)

The CBR Method combines a load deformation test performed in the laboratory with an empirical design
chart to determine the thickness of pavement base and other layers. The tests are briefly conducted as
follows:

1. The disturbed soil samples at different moisture content are compacted in 3 layers by static loading or
impact hammer into a cylinder mold 6 inches diameter by 8 inches high. The specimen depth is about
5 inches. The 5.5 pounds hammer AASHTO standard density test is used in the impact method.
2. The moisture density curve is plotted. The sample with greatest dry density is chosen.
3. The specimen in the mold is immersed in water for four days to allow saturation. Expansion of the
specimen is recorded.
4. A small piston of 3 inches diameter is forced into the confined specimen. Load deformation data is
recorded.

II. THE HVEEM STABILOMETER METHOD

This method measures the horizontal pressure developed in a short cylinder sample loaded vertically
on its end.

Stabilometer Operating Procedures:

1. Four different sample are prepared on a short cylinder about 4 inches diameter by 2 ½ inches high of
different known moisture contents.
2. Compaction is done using tamping foot or kneading compactor.
3. Each compacted specimen inside the mold is compressed until water exudes from it and pass several
electric circuits wired in parallel through the base plate of the exudation measuring devices.

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HVEEM STABILOMETER DIAGRAM

It was found out after several tests that soils in underlying pavements exceeded moisture under pressure
of about 300 psi. It appears that soaking did not produce a condition of certain fine grain materials. In effect,
the exudation pressure is a different means in determining the moisture contents of the soil on the roadway.
Moisture content in stabilometer test samples is set to bracket the 300 psi. value on which design was based.

III. TEST FOR EXPANSION PRESSURE

After exudation test while sample is still in the world, it is tested for expansion pressure. A perforated
brass plate is placed on the sample and covered with water for 16-20 hours. Expansion during this period is
prevented, and the pressure that prevents it is measured. As mentioned earlier, soils that expanded due to
the presence of water should be placed under sufficient weight of fill to prevent swelling.

IV. STABILOMETER TEST

After the expansion test, the specimen is enclosed in a flexible sleeve and placed inside the stabilometer.
Vertical pressure is applied slowly at speed of 0.05 inch per minute until it reaches 160 psi. The developed
horizontal pressure is reduced to 5 psi using the displacement pump. The turns of displacement pump
needed to bring the horizontal pressure to 100 psi is determined. This displacement procedure is intended
to measure the penetration of the flexible diaphragm into the intersection of the sample.

DYNAMIC MODULUS TEST DIAGRAM

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V. TRI-AXIAL DESIGN METHOD

This method is used by some agencies for compression tests (see AASHTO Designation T-234). In
open system tri-axial test, lateral pressure is held constant releasing from the container as increased load
causes the sample to expand laterally.

TRI-AXIAL TEST DIAGRAM

VI. DYNAMIC MODULUS

Re-compacted or undisturbed samples are tested to determine the influence of temperature, degree of
saturation, density, and age on the dynamic response of pavement materials.

It was found that the modulus of asphalt concrete ranges from 100,000 to 1,000,000 psi, depending
upon the temperature. For cement treated base, from 500,000 to 3,000,000 psi. For aggregate base and
sub base from 10,000 to 50,000 psi., and for fine grain aggregate soil, 1,500 to 50,000 psi, depending upon
the water content.

DIAMETRICAL TEST DIAGRAM

VII. NUCLEAR DEVICES TEST

Recently, Nuclear Devices for determining in-place densities and moisture contents are used. The gauge
readings are easily converted to density and prevent moisture using calibration curves or microprocessors.
The portable device is either the transmission, or back scatter type.

The transmission type measures density and moisture content for any depth up to 25 centimeters. The
back-scatter device is placed directly on top of the soil layer or slightly above it to provide an air gap between
the instrument and soil surface. It measures density and moisture content to a depth of 3 to 4 inches.

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 PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND SPECIFICATIONS

Nuclear device overcomes construction delay where samples could be taken while construction equipment
is operating. The Nuclear device travels over the fill at about 4.5 kilometers per hour and continuously
recording the density and moisture content.

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF NUCLEAR DEVICES

(TRANSMISSION TYPE)

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF NUCLEAR DEVICES

(BACK SCATTER TYPE)

• SOIL SURVEY

The preliminary soil investigation is an integral part of highway reconnaissance and preliminary location
survey. In fixing the position of the roadway, the following should be taken into accounts:
1. Soil conditions. 4. Right of way.
2. Directness of the route 5. Neighborhood disruption.
3. Topography 6. Environmental consideration

The early phase of soil survey is the collection of information gathered from the following:

➢ Identification of soil types from: geological and agricultural soil maps, aerial photographs, and other
sources.
➢ Investigation of ground water conditions, examining existing roadway cuts and other excavations.
➢ Review of the design and construction procedures, and present condition of roads that traverse the
area.
➢ Soil exploration along the right of way using auger boring and test pile. Sampling should be at frequent
intervals to fix the boundaries of each soil types.
➢ Test holes should extend to a significant depth below the sub-grade elevation with recommended
minimum depth.
➢ The location, nature of the ground, origin of parent materials, landform and agricultural soil name,
should be recorded.

CE 317: Highway and Railroad Engineering

 PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND SPECIFICATIONS

➢ Each soil layer is described according to thickness, fixture structure, organic content, relation contents
and cementation. The depth of seepage zones of free water table and bedrocks are also recorded.
➢ The soil profile along the roadway centerline showing location or test hole range of soil profile
characteristics for each district soil type is plotted.

Along with the first reconnaissance and preliminary location survey. The highway agencies make a
detailed study of the following data.

1. The vertical and horizontal location of the proposed construction.

2. Location and evaluation of suitable borrow and construction materials.
3. Need for the type of sub-grade or embankment foundation treatment and drainage.
4. Need for special excavation and dewatering techniques.
5. Development of detailed sub-surface investigations for specific structures.
6. Investigation of slope stability in both outs and embankment.

REFRACTION SEISMIC METHOD

A geophysical method used for sub-surface exploration called refraction seismic method relies on the
principle that, the speed of shock travelling through the earth surface varies, depending upon the kind of
materials. Shock waves travel through light loose soils at approximately 180 meters per second, and 6,000
meter per second on dense and solid rock.

If the earth’s crust is of uniform material for some depth, these time intervals are proportional to the
distance from the origin of explosion. If the surface layer is of harder denser material, the time interval to a
distant point is shortened. The shock waves travel beneath the denser material along its upper margin, and
then returned to the recording instrument.

The records for the time of wave travel against the shooting distance, the number and thickness of the
different underlying layers, including the depth to bedrock can be predicted. This test is useful in determining
the depth of the rock but could be deceiving on roughly tilted stratified materials.

The refraction method was developed for exploration of underground conditions of roadway cuts. The
shock wave is obtained by striking a 6 inches square steel plate with 4 kilo-grams sledged hammer. The
test is done by applying direct current to flow through the soil between two other supply electrodes placed
immediately at the third points. The resistivity changes where depth is produced recording the results at
various electrode spacing.

This method is somewhat reliable although sometimes it cannot be totally depended on regarding the
information as to the presence of solid rock. It is useful in area exploration when it is used to find localized
sand and gravel deposits.

CE 317: Highway and Railroad Engineering