ADC Full Noted PDF

K.L.N.
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
POTTAPALAYAM - 6 3 0 6 1 2 .
(AN ISO 9001:2008 CERTIFIED INSTITUTION – AFFILIATED TO ANNA UNIVERSITY)
DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
EC8394 – ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

(MONOGRAPH)
For B.TECH – IT - III Semester
Anna University, Chennai
Regulation - 2017
(ODD Semester 2020 - 2021)
Compiled By
Mr.V.Aravinda Rajan, M.E, Assistant Professor/IT
EC 8394 / ANALOG & DIGITAL COMMUNICATION MR.V.ARAVINDA RAJAN – AP2/IT

K.L.N.COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, POTTAPALAYAM - 6 3 0 6 1 2
D E P A R TMENT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
ANNA UNIVERSITY - CHENNAI – R 2017
YEAR & SEMESTER: III SEMESTER BRANCH: IT
SYLLABUS
EC 8394 / ANALOG & DIGITAL COMMUNICATION LT P C

3003
OBJECTIVES:
The Students should be able to :
 Understand analog & Digital Communication Techniques.
 Learn Data & Pulse modulation Techniques. .
 Be familiarized with source & Error Control Coding.
 Gain Knowledge on multi-user radio communication
UNIT I ANALOG COMMUNICATION 9

Introduction to Communication Systems - Modulation – Types - Need for Modulation. Theory of Amplitude Modulation - Evolution
and Description of SSB Techniques - Theory of Frequency and Phase Modulation – Comparison of Analog Communication Systems
(AM – FM – PM).
UNIT II PULSE AND DATA COMMUNICATION 9

Pulse Communication: Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) – Pulse Time Modulation (PTM) – Pulse code Modulation (PCM) -
Comparison of various Pulse Communication System (PAM – PTM – PCM).
Data Communication: History of Data Communication - Standards Organizations for Data Communication- Data Communication
Circuits - Data Communication Codes - Data communication Hardware - serial and parallel interfaces.
UNIT III DIGITAL COMMUNICATION 9

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) – Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)–Phase Shift Keying (PSK) – BPSK – QPSK – Quadrature
Amplitude Modulation (QAM) – 8 QAM – 16 QAM – Bandwidth Efficiency– Comparison of various Digital Communication System
(ASK – FSK – PSK – QAM).
UNIT IV SOURCE AND ERROR CONTROL CODES 9

Entropy, Source encoding theorem, Shannon fano coding, Huffman coding, mutual information, channel capacity, Error Control
Coding, linear block codes, cyclic codes - ARQ Techniques.
UNIT V MULTI-USER RADIO COMMUNICATION 9

Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) - Code division multiple access (CDMA) – Cellular Concept and Frequency
Reuse - Channel Assignment and Handover Techniques - Overview of Multiple Access Schemes - Satellite Communication -
Bluetooth.
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
OUTCOMES:
At the end of the course, the student should be able to:
 Apply analog and digital communication techniques.
 Use data and pulse communication techniques.
 Analyze Source and Error control coding.
 Utilize multi-user radio communication.
TEXT BOOK:
1. Wayne Tomasi, ―Advanced Electronic Communication Systems‖, 6th Edition, Pearson Education, 2009.
REFERENCES:
1. Simon Haykin, ―Communication Systems‖, 4th Edition, John Wiley & Sons, 2004
2. Rappaport T.S, "Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice", 2nd Edition, Pearson Education, 2007
3. H.Taub, D L Schilling and G Saha, ―Principles of Communication‖, 3 rd Edition, Pearson Education, 2007.
4. B. P.Lathi, ―Modern Analog and Digital Communication Systems‖, 3 rd Edition, Oxford University Press, 2007.
5. Blake, ―Electronic Communication Systems‖, Thomson Delmar Publications, 2002.
6. Martin S.Roden, ―Analog and Digital Communication System‖, 3 rd Edition, Prentice Hall of India, 2002.
7. B.Sklar, ―Digital Communication Fundamentals and Applications‖ 2 nd Edition Pearson Education 2007

UNIT I ANALOG COMMUNICATION
Introduction to Communication Systems - Modulation – Types - Need for Modulation. Theory of

Amplitude Modulation - Evolution and Description of SSB Techniques - Theory of Frequency and
Phase Modulation – Comparison of Analog Communication Systems (AM – FM – PM).
1.1 Amplitude Modulation (AM)

Modulation is a process of impressing (applying) a low frequency information signals onto a relatively high
frequency carrier signal
 Amplitude Modulation – is a process of changing the amplitude of a relatively high frequency carrier
signal with the instantaneous value of the modulating signal (information signal)
 This modulated waveform also called as AM envelop
1.12 AM Frequency Spectrum and Bandwidth

 Output envelop is a complex wave made up of a DC voltage, the carrier frequency, sum frequencies (fc
+ fm) and difference frequencies (fc –fm).
 Sum and difference frequencies are displaced from carrier frequency by an amount equal to modulating
frequency.
 the AM signal spectrum contains frequency components spaced fm Hz on either side of the carrier as
shown below,
 The AM spectrum ranges from fc – fm(max) to fc + fm(max).
 Parameters :
o Lower sideband (LSB) = band of frequencies between fc – fm(max) and fc
o Lower side frequency (LSF) = any frequency within LSB
o Upper sideband (USB) = band of frequencies between fc and fc + fm(max)
o Upper side frequency (USF) = any frequencies within USB
 Bandwidth : Twice the highest modulating signal frequency
B  2 fm (max)
1.3 Coefficient of Modulation and Percent Modulation:

 Coefficient of Modulation is a term used to describe the amount of amplitude change presents in an AM
waveform
 Percent Modulation is the coefficient of modulation stated as a percentage
 Mathematical representation :
Em Em
m M 100  m 100
Ec Ec
 Graphical representation of the relationship between m, Em and Ec
Based from the above figure,
V max  V min  V max  V min  100

V max  V min 
1 1
Em  Ec  M
2 2 V max  V min 
 It can be seen that percent modulation goes to 100% when Em = Ec.
 At 100% modulation, the minimum amplitude of the amplitude Vmin = 0.
 Maximum percent modulation that can be imposed without causing excessive distortion is 100%.

1.4 AM Voltage, Power and Current Distribution and Analysis:
AM Power Distribution
The average power dissipated in a load by an unmodulated carrier is equal to the rms carrier voltage divided
by the load resistance.
Pc 
0.707 Ec 
2

 Ec 
2
---------(1)
R 2R
The upper and lower sideband powers, Pusf and Plsf respectively are given as,
Pusb  Plsb 
mEc / 22 -------------(2)
2R
rearranging equation(2)
m2  Ec 2 
Pusb  Plsb    ---------------(3)
4  2 R 
Substituting equation (1) into (3),
m 2 Pc
Pusb  Plsb  -------------(4)
4
Total power in an amplitude-modulated wave is equal to the sum of powers of the carrier, the upper
sideband and the lower sideband represented as follow,
Pt  Pc  Pusb  Plsb
m 2 Pc
 Pc 
2
1.5 Modulation by a Complex Information Signal:

 In the previous section, voltage and power distribution for AM DSBFC wave were analyzed for a single
modulating signal.
 However in practice, the modulating signal is often a complex waveform made up of many sine waves
with different amplitudes and frequencies.
 Consider a modulating signal containing 2 frequencies : fm1 and fm2. The modulated wave obtained
will contain the carrier and two sets of side frequencies space symmetrically about the carrier frequency.
vam(t )  Ec sin 2fct   cos2  fc  fm1t   cos2  fc  fm1t 

m1Ec m1Ec
2 2
cos2  fc  fm 2 t   cos2  fc  fm 2 t 
m 2 Ec m 2 Ec

2 2
For coefficient of modulation for a case involving several modulating frequencies,
mt  m12  m2 2  m32  ....  mn 2
where mt = total coefficient of modulation
m1, m2, m3 and mn = coefficient of modulation for signal 1, 2, 3 and n
Consequently, the combined coefficient of modulation, mt can be used to determine the total sideband and
total transmitted powers as follow,
mt 2 Pc Pcmt 2
Thus,
Pusbt  Plsbt   Psbt 
4 2
Pt  Pc  Pcmt
2
2
1.6 Vector Representation of AM:
It frequently permits the immediate assessment of interference effects or manipulations during
modulation.
For example, asymmetrical attenuation of the sideband oscillations in AM can lead to the formation of
parasitic angular modulation. From Fig. the following features of amplitude modulation can be read off
directly: An AM signal can be represented by 3 complex vectors ( 2 sideband vectors and a vector for the
carrier). The 3 vectors are displayed in a joint diagram for any given point in time, see Fig.
1. The carrier oscillation is depicted with a constant direction (normally perpendicular upwards),
although in absolute terms it rotates in counterclockwise rotation with 2πfC.
2. The length of the carrier vector remains constant.
3. The sideband vectors are symmetrical with respect to the carrier. The vector of the USL rotates
counterclockwise around the tip of the carrier vector. The vector of the LSL rotates in clockwise rotation.
4. The vector for the amplitude modulated oscillation is obtained through vector addition, i.e.
construction of the vector parallelogram, made up of the vector of the carrier and the side oscillations. The
resulting vector always has the direction of the carrier vector.
From Fig., the tips of the resulting vectors, if you draw them as a function of time, again produce the
envelope of the amplitude modulated oscillation.

1.7 Generation of AM:

1.8 AM Transmitters:
1 : Low-level Transmitters
o Preamplifier
 Linear voltage amplifier with high input impedance.
 To raise source signal amplitude to a usable level with minimum nonlinear distortion and
as little thermal noise as possible.
o Modulating signal driver
 Amplifies the information signal to an adequate level to sufficiently drive the modulator.
o RF Carrier oscillator
 To generate the carrier signal.
 Usually a crystal-controlled oscillator is used.
o Buffer amplifier
 Low gain, high input impedance linear amplifier.
 To isolate the oscillator from the high power amplifiers.
o Modulator : can use either emitter collector modulation
o Intermediate and final power amplifiers (pull-push modulators)
 Required with low-level transmitters to maintain symmetry in the AM envelope
o Coupling network
 Matches output impedance of the final amplifier to the transmission line/antenna
 Applications are in low-power, low-capacity systems : wireless intercoms, remote
control units, pagers and short-range walkie-talkie

2 : High-level Transmitters:
o Modulating signal is processed similarly as in low-level transmitter except for the addition of
power amplifier
o Power amplifier
 To provide higher power modulating signal necessary to achieve 100% modulation
(carrier power is maximum at the high-level modulation point).
o Same circuit as low-level transmitter for carrier oscillator, buffer and driver but with addition of
power amplifier
o Primary functions of modulator circuit
 Provide the necessary circuitry for the modulation to occur
 The final power amplifier
 Frequency-up converter : translates low-frequency information signals to radio-
frequency signals that can be efficiently radiated from the antenna and propagates
through the free space
1. 9 AM Receiver:
 AM demodulation is the reverse process of AM modulation.
 A conventional double sideband AM receiver converts the amplitude-modulated waveform back to
the original source by receiving, amplifying and demodulating the wave.
 The receiver also functioning to band limit the total RF spectrum to a specific desired band of
frequency – tuning the receiver
Simplified block diagram of typical AM receiver
 RF section (Receiver front end)

o used to detect, bandlimit and amplifying the received RF signal.
 Mixer/converter
o Down-converts the received RF frequencies to intermediate frequencies (IF).
o Intermediate frequencies are the frequencies that fall somewhere between the RF and the
information frequencies.
 IF section

o Used for amplification and selectivity.
 AM detector
o Demodulates the AM wave and converts it to the original information signal.
 Audio section
o Used to amplify the recovered signal
1.9.1 Receiver Parameters:
1 .Selectivity:
Selectivity – parameter used to measure the ability of the receiver to accept a given band of
frequencies and reject all others.
The ratio of these 2 bandwidths is called as shape factor (SF)
B( 60dB)
SF 
B( 3dB)
AM broadcast-band radio receiver : SF = 2
2. Bandwidth Improvement:
Noise reduction ratio achieved by reducing the bandwidth is called bandwidth improvement (BI)
expressed as follow,
BRF
BI 
BIF
where BI = bandwidth improvement; BRF = RF bandwidth; BIF = IF bandwidth
The corresponding reduction in noise due to reduction in bandwidth is called as noise figure
improvement
NFimprovement  10 log 10 BI
3. Sensitivity:
 Sensitivity of the receiver is defined as - the minimum RF signal level that can be detected at the
input to the receiver and still produce a usable demodulated information signal.
 Sensitivity of a receiver is expressed in microvolts of the received signal.
 Typical sensitivity for commercial broadcast-band AM receiver is 50 μV.
Sensitivity of the receiver depends on :
1. Noise power present at the input to the receiver
2. Receiver noise figure
3. Sensitivity of the AM detector
4. Bandwidth improvement factor of the receiver
 The best way to improve the sensitivity is to reduce the noise level
4. Dynamic range:
Dynamic range of a receiver is defined as - the difference in decibels between the minimum input
level necessary to recognize a signal and the input level that will overdrive the receiver and produce
distortion.
 A low dynamic range can cause severe intermodulation distortion.
5. Fidelity:
Fidelity is defined as – a measure of the ability of a communication system to produce an exact
replica of the original source information at the output of the receiver.
6. Insertion Loss:
Insertion loss – ratio of the power transferred to a load with a filter in the circuit to the power
transferred to a load without a filter in the circuit
Pout
IL ( dB)  10 log 10
Pin

7. Noise Temperature/Equivalent Noise Temperature:
Thermal noise is directly proportional to temperature and can be expressed in degress as well as
watts and volts.
N
T
KB
where T = environmental temperature (kelvin)
N = Noise power (watts)
K = Boltsmann’s constant (1.38 x 10-23 J/K)

B = bandwidth (Hz)
1.9.2 Types of receiver:

 2 basic types of receiver
o Coherent receiver – the frequencies generated in the receiver and used for
demodulation are synchronized to oscillator frequencies generated in the transmitter.
o Noncoherent receiver – frequencies that are generated in the receiver or the
frequencies that are used for demodulation are completely independent from the
transmitter’s carrier frequency
 For AM DSBFC scheme, the noncoherent receivers are typically used.
o Tuned Radio Frequency receiver (TRF)
o Superheterodyne Receiver
1. Tuned Radio Frequency Receiver (TRF):
Block diagram of 3-stages TRF receiver that includes an RF stage, a detector stage and an audio stage :
 Two or three RF amplifiers are required to filter and amplify the received signal to a level
sufficient to drive the detector stage.
 The detector converts RF signals directly to information.
 An audio stage amplifies the information signals to a usable level
 Simple and have a relatively high sensitivity
Disadvantages :
1. The bandwidth is inconsistent and varies with the center frequency when tuned over a wide range of
input frequencies.
2. Instability due to large number of RF amplifiers all tuned to the same center frequency
 High frequency, multi stage amplifiers are susceptible to breaking into oscillation.
3. The gains are not uniform over a very wide frequency range.
 The nonuniform L/C ratios of the transformer-coupled tank circuits in the RF
amplifiers.

2.Superheterodyne Receiver:
 Heterodyne – to mix two frequencies together in a nonlinear device or to transmit one frequency
to another using nonlinear mixing.
Block diagram of superheterodyne receiver :
 1. RF section
o Consists of a pre-selector and an amplifier
o Pre-selector is a broad-tuned bandpass filter with an adjustable center frequency used to reject
unwanted radio frequency and to reduce the noise bandwidth.
o RF amplifier determines the sensitivity of the receiver and a predominant factor in determining
the noise figure for the receiver.
 2. Mixer/converter section
o Consists of a radio-frequency oscillator and a mixer.
o Choice of oscillator depends on the stability and accuracy desired.
o Mixer is a nonlinear device to convert radio frequency to intermediate frequencies (i.e.
heterodyning process).
o The shape of the envelope, the bandwidth and the original information contained in the envelope
remains unchanged although the carrier and sideband frequencies are translated from RF to IF.
 3. IF section
o Consists of a series of IF amplifiers and bandpass filters to achieve most of the receiver gain and
selectivity.
o The IF is always lower than the RF because it is easier and less expensive to construct high-gain,
stable amplifiers for low frequency signals.
o IF amplifiers are also less likely to oscillate than their RF counterparts.
 4. Detector section
o To convert the IF signals back to the original source information (demodulation).
o Can be as simple as a single diode or as complex as a PLL or balanced demodulator.
 5. Audio amplifier section

o Comprises several cascaded audio amplifiers and one or more speakers

Receiver Operation:
1.Frequency Conversion:
o In the mixer, RF signals are combined with the local oscillator frequency
o The local oscillator is designed such that its frequency of oscillation is always above or below
the desired RF carrier by an amount equal to the IF center frequency.
o Therefore the difference of RF and oscillator frequency is always equal to the IF frequency
o The adjustment for the center frequency of the pre-selector and the local oscillator frequency are
gang-tune (the two adjustments are tied together so that single adjustment will change the center
frequency of the pre-selector and at the same time change the local oscillator)
o when local oscillator frequency is tuned above the RF – high side injection
o when local oscillator frequency is tuned below the RF – low side injection
o Mathematically expressed :
High side injection flo  fRF  fIF
Low side injection flo  fRF  fIF
2. Local oscillator tracking:

Local oscillator tracking – the ability of the local oscillator in a receiver to oscillate either above
or below the selected radio frequency carrier by an amount equal to the intermediate frequency throughout
the entire radio frequency band.
 With high side injection- local oscillator should track above the incoming RF carrier by a
fixed frequency equal to fRF + fIF
 With low side injection- local oscillator should track below the incoming RF carrier by a
fixed frequency equal to fRF - fIF
3. Image frequency:
 Image frequency – any frequency other than the selected radio frequency carrier that will produce a
cross-product frequency that is equal to the intermediate frequency if allowed to enter a receiver and
mix with the local oscillator.
 It is equivalent to a second radio frequency that will produce an IF that will interfere with the IF from
the desired radio frequency.
o if the selected RF carrier and its image frequency enter a receiver at a same time, they both mix
with the local oscillator frequency and produce different frequencies that are equal to the IF.
o Consequently, 2 different stations are received and demodulated simultaneously

Therefore, the image frequency is the radio frequency that is located in the IF frequency above
the local oscillator as shown above, i.e.
fm  flo  fIF  fRF  2 fIF

4. Image frequency rejection ratio
 Image frequency rejection ratio (IFRR) – a numerical measure of the ability of a pre-selector to reject
the image frequency
 Mathematically expressed as,
IFRR  1  Q 2  2
where ρ= (fim/fRF) – (fRF/fim)

Q = quality factor of a pre-selector
 Once an image frequency has down-converted to IF, it cannot be removed. In order to reject the image
frequency, it has to be blocked prior to the mixer stage. I.e. the bandwidth of the pre-selector must be
sufficiently narrow to prevent image frequency from entering the receiver.
3. Double Conversion Receivers:

 For good image rejection, relatively high IF is desired. However, for a high gain selective amplifiers
that are stable, a low IF is necessary.
 The solution for above constrain is to use 2 intermediate frequencies, i.e. by using double conversion
AM receiver.
o The 1st IF is a relatively high frequency for good image rejection.

o The 2nd IF is a relatively low frequency for good selectivity and easy amplification.
Net Receiver Gain:

 Net receiver gain is simply the ratio of the demodulator signal level at the output of the receiver to the
RF signal level at the input to the receiver.
 In essence, net receiver gain is the dB sum of all gains to the receiver minus the dB sum of all losses.
 Gains and losses found in a typical radio receiver :
Net Receiver Gain GdB = gainsdB – lossesdB
where gains = RF amplifier gain + IF amplifier gain + audio amplifier gain
losses = pre-selector loss + mixer loss + detector loss
1.10 Single-Sideband (SSB) Communication System:

 To overcome the disadvantages of AM DSBFC we go to AM-SSB
 2 main disadvantages of the conventional AM DSBFC
o Carrier power constitutes 2/3 or more of the total transmitted power – no information in the
carrier.
o Utilize twice as much bandwidth – both the upper and lower sideband actually contains same
information (redundant).
1.10.1. AM Single-Sideband Full Carrier (SSBFC):

 The carrier is transmitted at full power but only one sideband is transmitted
o requires half the bandwidth of DSBFC AM
o Carrier power constitutes 80% of total transmitted power, while sideband power consumes 20%
o SSBFC requires less total power but utilizes a smaller percentage of the power to carry the
information
 The output modulated signal
 as SSB only has one sideband, the peak change in the envelope is only half of what it is with
DSBFC
 Therefore, the demodulated wave has only half the amplitude of the DSB modulated wave
1.10.2 .AM Single-Sideband Suppressed Carrier (SSBSC):
 The carrier is totally suppressed and one sideband is removed
o requires half the bandwidth of DSBFC AM

o Considerably less power than DSBFC and SSBFC schemes
o Sideband power makes up 100% of the total transmitted power
o The wave is not an envelope but a sine wave at frequency equal to the carrier frequency
±modulating frequency (depending on which sideband is transmitted)
1.10.3. AM Single-Sideband Reduced Carrier (SSBRC):

 One sideband is totally removed and the carrier voltage is reduced to approximately 10% of its
unmodulated amplitude
 Requires half the bandwidth of DSBFC AM

 Less transmitted power than DSBFC and SSBFC but more power than SSBSC
 As much as 96% of the total transmitted power is in the sideband
 The output modulated signal is similar to SSBFC but with reduced maximum and minimum
envelope amplitudes
Advantages of Single-Sideband Transmission over Conventional AM:

1. Power Conservation: With SSB, only one sideband is transmitted and the carrier is either
suppressed or reduced significantly. Much less total transmitted power is necessary to produce the
same quality signal as achieved with DSBFC AM
2. Bandwidth Conservation: SSB requires half as much bandwidth as DSB AM, which is
important today with the already overcrowded RF spectrum
3. Selective Fading: With DSB, the carrier and two sidebands may propagate through the channel
by different paths and experience different transmission impairment called as selective fading.
With SSB, carrier phase shift and carrier fading can not occur, thus smaller
distortion is expected.
4. Noise Reduction: As SSB only utilizes half as much bandwidth as conventional AM, the thermal
noise power is reduced to half that of a DSB system.
Disadvantages of Single-Sideband Transmission:

1. Complex receivers: SSB requires more complex and expensive receivers than DSB.
As SSB includes either a reduced or a suppressed carrier, envelope detection cannot be used.
SSB requires a carrier recovery and synchronization circuit, which adds to their cost, complexity and size.
2. Tuning difficulties: SSB requires more complex and precise tuning than the DSB receiver.
1.11. SSB Transmission:

 Transmitters used for SSB suppressed and reduced carrier transmission are identical except that
the re-inserted carrier transmitters have an additional circuits that adds a low amplitude carrier to
the single sideband waveform after suppressed-carrier modulation has been performed and one
of the sideband has been removed.
 The re-inserted carrier is called a pilot carrier.
 The circuit where the pilot carrier is re-inserted is called a linear summer.

 3 transmitter configurations are commonly used for single sideband generation :
o Filter method
o Phase shift method
1.11.1.Filter Method:
 Block diagram for a SSB transmitter using balanced modulators to suppressed the unwanted carrier and
filters to suppress the unwanted sideband.
 The low frequency IF is converted to the final operating frequency band through a series of frequency
translation
 3-stages of frequency up-conversion

 modulating signal is an audio spectrum that extends from 0 kHz ~ 5 kHz
 modulating signal mixes with a low frequency (LF) 100 kHz carrier in the balanced modulator 1
to produced a DSB frequency spectrum centered at the suppressed 100 kHz carrier.
 bandpass filter 1 (BPF 1) that is tuned to a 5 kHz bandwidth centered at 102.5 kHz used to
eliminate the lower sideband and pass only the upper sideband.
 the pilot carrier or reduced amplitude carrier is added to the single-sided waveform in the carrier
re-insertion stage (summer).
 the summer is a simple adder circuit that combines the 100 kHz pilot carrier with the 100 kHz ~
105 kHz upper sideband frequency spectrum.
 Output of the summer is the SSBRC waveform. the SSBRC waveform is mixed in the balanced
modulator 2 with a 2 MHz medium frequency (MF) carrier.
 output is a DSB suppressed carrier signal in which the upper and lower sidebands each contain
the original SSBRC frequency spectrum.
 upper and lower sidebands are separated by a 200 kHz frequency band that is void of
information.
 the lower sideband then is filtered (cut) through the BPF 2 (5 kHz bandwidth centered at 2.1025
MHz.
 the output from BPF 2 is once again a single sideband reduced carrier waveform with a reduced
2.1 MHz carrier and a 5 kHz wide upper sideband.
 then the SSBRC waveform from BPF 2 is mixed in the balanced modulator 3 with the 20 MHz
high frequency carrier (HF), producing a double sideband suppressed carrier signal in which the
upper and lower sidebands each contain the original SSBRC frequency spectrum.
 upper and lower sidebands are separated by a 4.2 MHz frequency band that is void of
information.

o the lower sideband then is filtered (cut) through the BPF 3 (5 kHz bandwidth centered at
22.1025 MHz.
o the output from BPF 3 is once again a single sideband reduced carrier waveform with a reduced
22.1 MHz RF carrier and a 5 kHz wide upper sideband.
 Conclusion
o the original modulating signal frequency spectrum was up-converted in 3 modulation steps to a
final carrier frequency of 22.1 MHz and a single upper sideband that extended from the carrier
(22.1 MHz) to 22.105 MHz.
o after each up-conversion (frequency translation), the desired sideband is separated from the
double sideband spectrum with a bandpass filter (BPF).
1.11.2 Phase Shift Method:

 Pphase-shift method, the undesired sideband is cancelled in the output of the modulator.
 Block diagram of a SSB transmitter using phase-shift method :
o use 2 separate DSB modulators (balanced modulator 1 & 2).

o modulating signal and carrier are applied directly to one of the modulators, then both are shifted
90º and applied to the second modulator.
o the outputs from the two balanced modulators are DSBSC signals with the proper phase (when
they are combined in a linear summer, the upper sideband is cancelled).
 Mathematical analysis of the phase-shift transmitter :
o modulating signal (sin w mt) is fed directly to balanced modulator 1 and shifted 90º (cos w mt) and
fed to balanced modulator 2.

o carrier signal (sin w mt) is also fed directly to balanced modulator 1 and shifted 90º (cos w mt) and
fed to balanced modulator 2
o the outputs of the balanced modulators are expressed as
Output of balanced modulator 1 :
 (sin mt )(sin ct )
 cos(c  m)t  cosc  m t

1 1
2 2
Output of balanced modulator 2 :
 (cos mt )(cos ct )
 cos(c  m)t  cosc  m t

1 1
2 2
 the final output from the linear summer :
cosc  m t  cosc  m t  cosc  m t  cosc  m t

1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
 cosc  m t
which is the lower sideband of the AM wave.
1.12. SSB Receivers:

1.12.1 SSB BFO Receiver:
Block diagram for a simple noncoherent SSB BFO receiver :
 in a receiver, the input signal (suppressed or reduced carrier and one sideband) is amplified and
then mixed with the RF local oscillator frequency to produce intermediate frequency.
 the output from the RF mixer is then goes through further amplification and band reduction prior
to second mixer.
o the output from the IF amplifier stage is then mixed (heterodyned) with beat frequency oscillator
(BFO) frequency.
o BFO frequency is equal to the IF carrier frequency. Thus the difference between the IF and the
BFO frequency is the information signal.
o i.e. the output from the IF mixer is the sum and difference frequencies between the IF and the
beat frequency. The difference frequency band is the original input information.
o the receiver is classified as noncoherent because the RF oscillator and the BFO signals are not
synchronized to each other and to the oscillators in the transmitter.
o Consequently, any difference between the transmitter and receiver local oscillator frequencies
produces a frequency offset error in the demodulated information signal.

o the RF mixer and IF mixer are product detectors. A product detector and balanced (product)
modulator are essentially the same circuit.
1.12.2. Coherent SSB BFO Receiver:

 Block diagram for a coherent SSB BFO receiver :
 this type of receiver is identical to the previous noncoherent type, except that the LO and BFO
frequencies are synchronized to the carrier oscillators in the transmitter.
o the carrier recovery circuit is a narrowband PLL that tracks the pilot carrier in the SSBRC
signal.
o the recovered carrier is then used to generate coherent local oscillator frequencies (RF LO
frequency & BFO frequency) in the synthesizer.
o any minor changes in the carrier frequency in the transmitter are compensated in the receiver,
and the problem of frequency offset error is eliminated.
Application of SSB:
 the most common application of SSB (especially SSBSC) is frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)
due to the bandwidth and power efficiencies of SSB system.
 Frequency-division multiplexing is an analog method of combining two or more analog sources that
originally occupied the same frequency band in such a manner that the channels do not interfere with
each other
 Example of simple FDM system where four 5 kHz channels are frequency-division multiplexed into a
single 20 kHz channel :
 channel 1 signals modulate a 100 kHz carrier in a balanced modulator. The output is a DSBSC
with a bandwidth of 10 kHz.
 the DSBSC wave is then passed through BPF producing a SSBSC signal occupying the
frequency band between 100 kHz and 105 kHz.
 channel 2 signals modulate a 105 kHz carrier producing a DSBSC wave that is converted to
SSBSC by passing it through a BPF.
 the output from the BPF occupies the frequency band between 105 kHz and 110 kHz.
 similar process is used to convert channel 3 and channel 4 signals to the frequency bands 110
kHz to 115 kHz and 11f kHz to 120 kHz, respectively.
 the combined frequency spectrum produced by combining the outputs from 4 filters is shown
below.
 the total combined bandwidth is equal to 20 kHz and each channel occupies a different 5 kHz
portion of the total 20 kHz bandwidth.
 FDM is used extensively to combine many relatively narrowband channels into a single ,
composite wideband channel without the channel interfering with each other.
1.13. Delta Modulation (DM)
It is a modulation technique which uses a single bit PCM code to achieve digital transmission of
analog signals. In delta modulation only a single bit is transmitted which simply indicates whether the
sample is larger or smaller than the previous sample.
 In DM the present sample is compared with the previous sample value depending on which amplitude
(increased or decreased) is transmitted by using the delta modulator.
 DM provide a staircase approximation mq[t] to the over sampled version of the message signal m[t].
 As step size is fixed ,the level + and -
 If the difference is positive then the approximated signal is increased by
 If the difference is negative then the approximated signal is decreased by
DM System: Transmitter

DM Receiver
Quantization noise(distortion) in DM system
DM is subject to two types of quantization error
i)Slope overload distortion
ii)Granular noise
1.14 Angle Modulation
In angle modulation the timing parameter such as phase(or) frequency of the carrier is modulated
according to amplitude of modulating signal. Amplitude of an angle modulated signal remains constant.
Classification of Angle modulation:
i) Frequency modulation
ii)Phase modulation
• Phase modulation is define as the process by which changing the phase of the carrier signal in
accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal.

PM and FM of sine-wave signal
1.15 Frequency modulation

Representation of FM
V m(t)=Vc cosωmt ..............(1)
FM takes place when the angular velocity of carrier wave varies in proportional to the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating signal
So the instantaneous angular velocity ωi is given by:
ωi = ωc +Kf V m(t) .............(2)
here Kf is the deviation sensitivity of FM
= ωc +Kf Vm cosωmt .............(3)
Maximum frequency deviation Δf is given by:
Δf= Kf V m/2π (or) Δω= Kf V m ........(4)
Maximum frequency deviation Δf can be written in a more practical form as
Δf= Kf V m(Hz) -------(5)
1.16 NBFM & WBFM
Block diagram of a method for generating a Narrowband FM

1.17 Phasor representation of Angle-mod wave
1.18 Reactance modulator
1.19Armstrong Indirect FM Transmitter

UNIT II – PULSE AND DATA COMMUNICATION
Pulse Communication: Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) – Pulse Time Modulation (PTM) –
Pulse code Modulation (PCM) - Comparison of various Pulse Communication System (PAM – PTM
– PCM).
Data Communication: History of Data Communication - Standards Organizations for Data
Communication- Data Communication Circuits - Data Communication Codes - Data communication
Hardware - serial and parallel interfaces.
The transmission of digital data through a digital platform that has the ability to combine text, audio,
graphics, video and data. Digital communication enables data to be transmitted in an efficient manner through
the use of digitally encoded information sent through data signals. These data signals are easily compressed
and, as such, can be transmitted with accuracy and speed.
CONCEPTS OF SAMPLING AND SAMPLING THEOREMS:
SAMPLING PROCESS: The process of converting a continuous time signal into an equivalent discrete time
signal.
Basic sampling diagram: Sampling waveform:
• The continuous time signal X(t) is applied at the input of a multiplier.The other input to the multiplier
is a sampling signal.The sampling signal s(t) is a periodic train of pulses with unit amplitude and a
period of Ts seconds. The time Ts is called as the sampling time or sampling period and to its reciprocal
fs=1/ Ts is called as sampling frequency or sampling rate.
Sampling theorem: The sampling theorem for strictly band-limited signal of finite energy in two equivalent
part:i)A band limited signal of finite energy, which has no frequency component higher than fm ,is completely
described by specifying the values of the signal at instant of time separated by 1/2fm.ii) A band limited signal
of finite energy, which has no frequency component higher than fm,may be completely recovered from a
knowledge of its samples taken at the rate of 2fm samples per second.
Types of sampling methods:
i)Ideal or instantaneous sampling.

ii)Nature sampling.
iii)Flat topped sampling.
Nyquist rate:
• When the sampling rate become exactly equal to 2fm samples/sec, for a signal bandwidth fm.Hence
then it is called nyquite rate.

• It is the minimum sampling rate required to represent the continuous signal faithfully in its sampled
form fs=2fm sample/sec .
PULSE MODULATION
Pulse Amplitude Modulation(PAM)
In PAM, amplitude of pulses is varied in accordance with instantaneous value of modulating

signal.
The carrier is in the form of narrow pulses having frequency fs.The uniform sampling takes place in
multiplier to generate PAM signal. Samples are placed Ts sec away from each other.
Pulse Width Modulation(PWM) In this type, the amplitude is maintained constant but the width of each
pulse is varied in accordance with instantaneous value of the analog signal.

That is why the information is contained in width variation. This is similar to FM.In pulse width modulation
(PWM), the width of each pulse is made directly proportional to the amplitude of the information signal.A
simple method to generate the PWM pulse train corresponding to a given signal is the intersective PWM: the
signal (here the green sinewave) is compared with a sawtooth waveform (blue). When the latter is less than the
former, the PWM signal (magenta) is in high state (1). Otherwise it is in the low state (0).
Pulse Position Modulation(PPM):
In this type, the sampled waveform has fixed amplitude and width whereas the position of each pulse is
varied as per instantaneous value of the analog signal.PPM signal is further modification of a PWM signal.

The vertical dotted lines shown in last slide treated as reference lines.The PPM pulses marked 1,2 and 3
go away from their respective reference lines.This corresponds to increase in modulating signal amplitude.
Then as modulating signal decreases the PPM pulses 4,5,6,7 come closer to their respective reference lines. The
PPM signal can be generated from PWM signal.The PWM pulses obtained at the comparator output are applied
to a monostable multivibrator which is –ve edge triggered. Hence for each trailing edge of PWM signal, the
monostable output goes high.It remains high for a fixed time decided by its own RC components.
Thus as the trailing edges of the PWM signal keeps shifting in propotion with the modulating signal,the PPM
pulses also keep shifting.Therefore all the PPM pulses have the same amplitude and width.The information is
conveyed via changing position of pulses.
PCM(Pulse code modulator): PCM is a essentially an analog to digital conversion process, where the
information contained in the instantaneous sample of analog signal are represented by digital codes and are
transmitted as a serial bit.
PCM Transmitter
Transmission path:
Repeaters

PCM Receiv
DPCM(Differential pulse code modulation):
DPCM Transmitter : DPCM Receiver:
Quantization:
By quantizing the PAM pulse, original signal is only approximated .The process of converting analog
signals to PCM is called quantizing Since the original signal can have an infinite number of signal levels, the
quantizing process will produce errors called quantizing errors or quantizing noise.
Two types of quantization: (a) midtread and (b) midrise

DM(Delta Modulation):
In Delta Modulation, only one bit is transmitted per sample.That bit is a one if the current sample is
more positive than the previous sample, and a zero if it is more negative.Since so little information is
transmitted, delta modulation requires higher sampling rates than PCM for equal quality of reproduction.This
scheme sends only the difference between pulses, if the pulse at time t n+1 is higher in amplitude value than the
pulse at time t n, then a single bit, say a “1”, is used to indicate the positive value.If the pulse is lower in value,
resulting in a negative value, a “0” is used.This scheme works well for small changes in signal values between
samples.If changes in amplitude are large, this will result in large errors.
DM system. (a) Transmitter. (b) Receiver.

Distortions in DM system
1. If the slope of analog signal is much higher than that of approximated digital signal over long
duration,than this difference is called Slope overload distortion.
2. The difference between quantized signal and original signal is called as Granular noise. It is similar to
quantisation noise.

Two types of quantization errors: Slope overload distortion and granular noise
Adaptive Delta Modulation(ADM):

A better performance can be achieved if the value of ▲ is not fixed.The value of ▲ changes according to
the amplitude of the analog signal.It has wide dynamic range due to variable step size.Also better utilisation
of bandwidth as compared to delta modulation.Improvement in signal to noise ratio.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Transmission of signals in a reliable and efficient matter.
COMMUNICATION MODEL (SYSTEM)

The purpose of a communications system is to exchange data between two entities
 Source: entity that generates data; eg. a person who speaks i to the pho e, or a
computer sending data to the modem.
 Transmitter: a device to transform/encode the signal generated by the source.
- the transformed signal is actually sent over the transmission system.
eg. a modem transforms digital data to analog signal that can be handled by the
telephone network.
 Transmission System (Channel): medium that allows the transfer of a signal from
one point to another.
eg. a telephone network for a computer/modem.
 Receiver: a device to deco e the received signal for handling by destination device.
eg. A modem converts the received nalog data back to digital for the use by the
computer
 Destination: entity that finally uses the data. eg. Computer on other end of receiving modem.

Data Communications
Data communications is the transfer of information that is in digital form, before it enters the
communication system.
 Information: generated by the source may be in the form of voice, a picture or a plain text.
An essential feature of any source that generates information is that its output is described in
probabilistic terms; that is, the output is not deterministic.

A transducer is usually required to convert the output of a source in an electrical signal that is
suitable for transmission.

 Transmitter: a transmitter converts the electrical signal into a form that is suitable for
transmission through the physical channel or transmission medium.In general, a
transmitter performs the matching of the message signal to the channel by a process called modulation. The
choice of the type of modulation is based on several factors, such as:
- the amount of bandwidth allocated,
- the type of noise and interference that the signal ncount rs in transmission over the channel,
- and the electronic devices that are available for signal amplification prior to
transmission.
 Channel: the communication channel is the physical medium that connects the
transmitter to the receiver. The physical channel may be a pair of wires that carry the electrical
signals, or l fibre that carries the information on a modulated light.
 Receiver: the function of a receiver is to recover the message signal contained in the beam
or freesacet which the information-bearing signal are electromagnetic waves.
received signal The main operations performed by receiver are demodulation, filtering and
decoding.
Analog and Digital Data Transmission

- Data are entries that convey information.
- Signals are electrical encoding (representation) of data.
- Signalling is the act of propagation of signals through a suitable medium.
The terms analog and digital correspond to continuous and discrete, respectively. These two
terms are frequently used in data communications.
Analog data takes on continuous values on some interval. The most familiar example of analog data is
audio signal.Frequency components of speech may be found between 20 Hz and 20 kHz. The basic
speech energy is concentrated between 300-3400 Hz. The frequencies up to 4000 Hz add very little to the
intelligibility of human ear.Another common example of analog data is video. The outputs of many
sensors, such as temperature and pressure sensors, are also examples of analog data.
Digital data takes on discrete values; eg. a computer’s output.

- Analog transmission is a means of transmitting analog signals regardless of their content.
The data may be analog or digital.
- Digital transmission is the transfer of information through a medium in digital form. A
digital signal can be transmitted only for a limited distance.
- Data communications is the transfer of information that is in digital form, before it enters
the communication system.
 Two methods of sending data from computer A to computer B. both cases are examples of
data communications, because the original data is digital in nature.
Digital
Source Mod m Mod m
Analog Transmission
A B
Digital Transmission
 Two ways of transmitting analog information. In either cases it is not data
communications, because the original information is not digital.
Digital Transmission
ADC DAC
Analog Destination
Source
Analog Transmission
ADC: Analog-Digital-Converter
DAC: Digital-Analog-Converter
- Basic Elements of a Communication System
Signal s(t) Channel r(t)

Transmitter Receiver
n(t)
Information
source & input
Noise Output
transducer transducer

Ideally, we would like to represent the source output (message) by as few binary digits as
possible. In other words, we seek an efficient representation of the source output that results in little or no
redundancy. The process of efficiently converting the output of either an analog or a digital source into a
sequence of binary digits is called source encoder or data compression.
The sequence of binary digits from the source encoder, which we call the information
sequence, is passed to the channel encoder. The purpose of the channel encoder is to introduce in a
controlled manner some redundancy in the binary information sequence, which can be used at the
receiver to overcome the effects of noise and interference encountered in the transmission of the signal
through the channel. Thus, the added redundancy serves to increase the reliability of the received data and
improves the fidelity of the received signal. In effect, redundancy in the information sequence ids the
receiver in decoding the desired information sequence. For example, (trivial) form of encoding of the
binary information sequence is simply to repeat each binary digit m times, where m is some positive
integer. More sophisticated (nontrivial) encoding involves taking k information bits at a time and
mapping each k-bit sequence into unique n-bit sequence, called a code word. The amount of redundancy
introduced by encoding the data in this manner is measured by the ratio n/k. The reciprocal of this ratio,
namely, k/n is called the rate of the code or, simply, the code rate.
Data Transmission
Concepts and Terminology
 Transmission Terminology

Transmission from transmitter to receiver goes over some transmission m dium using
electromagnetic waves.
Guided Media: waves are guided along a physical path; twisted pair, optical fibr ,
coaxial cable.
- Direct Link: signal goes from transmitter to receiver without intermediate devices, other than amplifiers
and repeaters.
- Point-to Point Link: guided media with direct link between two devices.
- Multipoint Guided Configuration: more than two d vices can share the same medium.
Frequency, Spectrum, & Bandwidth

 Signal is generated by a transmitter and transmitted over a medium.
 Signal is a function of time or frequency.
A signal is any function the t carries information. Based on the range of variation of
independent.variables,sign ls c n be divided into two classes: continuous-time (or analog) signals and
discrete-time (or digital) signals. A signal is a function of time, but can also be expressed as function of
frequency; that is, the signal consists of components of different frequencies.
- Unguided Media: waves are not guided; air waves radio waves.
 Fundamental Frequency
Base frequency such th t the frequency of all components can be expressed as its integer
multiples; the.period of the ggreg te signal is the same as the period of the fundamental
frequency:
- Each signal can be decomposed into set of sinusoid signals by making use of Fourier’s
analysis.
- The time-domain function s(t) specifies a signal in terms of its amplitude at each instant of
time.
- The frequency-domain function S(f) specifies the signal in terms of peak amplitude of
constituent frequencies.
Spectrum
Range of frequencies contained in a signal.
Absolute Bandwidth
Width of the spectrum.
Effective Bandwidth
Narrow band of frequencies containing most of the energy of the signal.
DC Component
Component of zero frequency; changes the average amplitude of the signal to non-zero.
Digital Signals
Data can be represented by a digital signal. For example, a 1 can be encoded as a positive
voltage and a 0 as a zero voltage.

Amplitude
10 1 1 0 0 0 1
…
Time
Amplitude, Period and Phase

The three characteristics of periodic signals can be redefined for a periodic digital sig al
Amplitude …
Time
No phase shift
Amplitude …
Time
180o phase shift
Amplitude Amplitude
Time Time
¼ cycle
0o phase shift 90o phase shift

(no phase
shift)
Amplitude Amplitude
Time Time
½ cycle
180o phase shift 270o phase shift

Bit Interval and Bit Rate
Most digital signals are a periodic and thus terms like period or frequency are not
appropriate. Two new terms, bit interval (instead of period) and bit rate (instead of frequency)
are used to describe a digital signal. The bit interval is the time required o send one single bit.
The bit rate is the number of bit intervals per second. This means hat the bit rate is the number
of bits sent in one second, usually expressed in bits p r s cond (bps).
Amplitude
1 second = 8 bit intervals
bit rate = 8 bps
padeepz
1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1
…
Time
bit interval
Decomposition of a Digital Signal

A digital signal can be decomposed into an infinite number of simple sine waves called
harmonics, each with different mplitu e, frequency and phase. This means that when a
digital signal is sent long tr nsmission me ium, an infinite number of simple signals is being
sent.
Harmonics of Digital Signal
… …
a) First harmonic only b) First, third, and fifth harmonics
… …
c) First, third, fifth, and seventh harmonics d) Infinite number of harmonics

UNIT III – DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) – Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)–Phase Shift Keying (PSK) –
BPSK – QPSK – Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) – 8 QAM – 16 QAM –
Bandwidth Efficiency– Comparison of various Digital Communication System (ASK – FSK –
PSK – QAM).
Amplitude Modulation and ASK:
 Values represented by different amplitudes of carrier

 Usually, one amplitude is zero (i.e). presence and absence of carrier is used
 Susceptible to sudden gain changes
 Inefficient
 Typically used up to 1200bps on voice grade lines
 Used over optical fiber
Frequency Modulation and FSK

 Values represented by different frequencies (near carrier)
 Less susceptible to error than ASK
 Typically used up to 1200bps on voice grade lines
 High frequency radio
 Even higher frequency on LANs using co-ax
Forms of phase modulation
Although phase modulation is used for some analogue transmissions, it is far more widely used as a digital
form of modulation where it switches between different phases. This is known as phase shift keying, PSK,
and there are many flavours of this. It is even possible to combine phase shift keying and amplitude keying in
a form of modulation known as quadrature amplitude modulation, QAM.
The list below gives some of the forms of phase shift keying that are used:
 PSK - Phase Shift Keying

 BPSK - Binary Phase Shift Keying
 QPSK - Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
 QAM - Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
 MSK - Minimum Shift Keying
 GMSK - Gaussian filtered Minimum Shift Keying
Phase Shift Keying, PSK, basics
Like any form of shift keying, there are defined states or points that are used for signalling the data bits. The
basic form of binary phase shift keying is known as Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) or it is occasionally
called Phase Reversal Keying (PRK). A digital signal alternating between +1 and -1 (or 1 and 0) will create
phase reversals, i.e. 180 degree phase shifts as the data shifts state.
Binary phase shift keying, BPSK

The problem with phase shift keying is that the receiver cannot know the exact phase of the transmitted
signal to determine whether it is in a mark or space condition. This would not be possible even if the
transmitter and receiver clocks were accurately linked because the path length would determine the exact
phase of the received signal. To overcome this problem PSK systems use a differential method for encoding
the data onto the carrier. This is accomplished, for example, by making a change in phase equal to a one, and
no phase change equal to a zero. Further improvements can be made upon this basic system and a number of
other types of phase shift keying have been developed. One simple improvement can be made by making a
change in phase by 90 degrees in one direction for a one, and 90 degrees the other way for a zero. This
retains the 180 degree phase reversal between one and zero states, but gives a distinct change for a zero. In a
basic system not using this process it may be possible to loose synchronisation if a long series of zeros are
sent. This is because the phase will not change state for this occurrence.
There are many variations on the basic idea of phase shift keying. Each one has its own advantages and
disadvantages enabling system designers to choose the one most applicable for any given circumstances.
Other common forms include QPSK (Quadrature phase shift keying) where four phase states are used, each
at 90 degrees to the other, 8-PSK where there are eight states and so forth.
PSK constellation diagrams
It is often convenient to represent a phase shift keyed signal, and sometimes other types of signal using a
phasor or constellation diagram. Using this scheme, the phase of the signal is represented by the angle around
the circle, and the amplitude by the distance from the origin or centre of the circle. In this way the can be
signal resolved into quadrature components representing the sine or I for In-phase component and the cosine
for the quadrature component. Most phase shift keyed systems use a constant amplitude and therefore points
appear on one circle with a constant amplitude and the changes in state being represented by movement
around the circle. For binary shift keying using phase reversals the two points appear at opposite points on
the circle. Other forms of phase shift keying may use different points on the circle and there will be more
points on the circle.
Constellation diagram for BPSK

When plotted using test equipment errors may be seen from the ideal positions on the phase diagram. These
errors may appear as the result of inaccuracies in the modulator and transmission and reception equipment, or
as noise that enters the system. It can be imagined that if the position of the real measurement when
compared to the ideal position becomes too large, then data errors will appear as the receiving demodulator is
unable to correctly detect the intended position of the point around the circle.
Constellation diagram for QPSK
Using a constellation view of the signal enables quick fault finding in a system. If the problem is related to
phase, the constellation will spread around the circle. If the problem is related to magnitude, the constellation
will spread off the circle, either towards or away from the origin. These graphical techniques assist in
isolating problems much faster than when using other techniques.
QPSK is used for the forward link form the base station to the mobile in the IS-95 cellular system and uses
the absolute phase position to represent the symbols. There are four phase decision points, and when
transitioning from one state to another, it is possible to pass through the circle's origin, indicating minimum
magnitude.
On the reverse link from mobile to base station, O-QPSK is used to prevent transitions through the origin.
Consider the components that make up any particular vector on the constellation diagram as X and Y
components. Normally, both of these components would transition simultaneously, causing the vector to
move through the origin. In O-QPSK, one component is delayed, so the vector will move down first, and
then over, thus avoiding moving through the origin, and simplifying the radio's design. A constellation
diagram will show the accuracy of the modulation.
MINIMUM SHIFT KEYING:
Minimum shift keying, MSK, is a form of phase shift keying, PSK, that is used in a number of applications.
A variant of MSK modulation, known as Gaussian filtered Minimum Shift Keying, GMSK, is used for a

number of radio communications applications including being used in the GSM cellular telecommunications
system. In addition to this MSK has advantages over other forms of PSK and as a result it is used in a
number of radio communications systems.
Reason for Minimum Shift Keying, MSK
It is found that binary data consisting of sharp transitions between "one" and "zero" states and vice versa
potentially creates signals that have sidebands extending out a long way from the carrier, and this creates
problems for many radio communications systems, as any sidebands outside the allowed bandwidth cause
interference to adjacent channels and any radio communications links that may be using them.
Minimum Shift Keying, MSK basics
The problem can be overcome in part by filtering the signal, but is found that the transitions in the data
become progressively less sharp as the level of filtering is increased and the bandwidth reduced. To
overcome this problem GMSK is often used and this is based on Minimum Shift Keying, MSK modulation.
The advantage of which is what is known as a continuous phase scheme. Here there are no phase
discontinuities because the frequency changes occur at the carrier zero crossing points.When looking at a plot
of a signal using MSK modulation, it can be seen that the modulating data signal changes the frequency of
the signal and there are no phase discontinuities. This arises as a result of the unique factor of MSK that the
frequency difference between the logical one and logical zero states is always equal to half the data rate. This
can be expressed in terms of the modulation index, and it is always equal to 0.5.
Signal using MSK modulation
GMSK :
Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying, or to give it its full title Gaussian filtered Minimum Shift Keying, GMSK,
is a form of modulation used in a variety of digital radio communications systems. It has advantages of being
able to carry digital modulation while still using the spectrum efficiently. One of the problems with other

forms of phase shift keying is that the sidebands extend outwards from the main carrier and these can cause
interference to other radio communications systems using nearby channels.
In view of the efficient use of the spectrum in this way, GMSK modulation has been used in a number of
radio communications applications. Possibly the most widely used is the GSM cellular technology which is
used worldwide and has well over 3 billion subscribers.
GMSK basics
GMSK modulation is based on MSK, which is itself a form of phase shift keying. One of the problems with
standard forms of PSK is that sidebands extend out from the carrier. To overcome this, MSK and its
derivative GMSK can be used.
MSK and also GMSK modulation are what is known as a continuous phase scheme. Here there are no phase
discontinuities because the frequency changes occur at the carrier zero crossing points. This arises as a result
of the unique factor of MSK that the frequency difference between the logical one and logical zero states is
always equal to half the data rate. This can be expressed in terms of the modulation index, and it is always
equal to 0.5.
Signal using MSK modulation
A plot of the spectrum of an MSK signal shows sidebands extending well beyond a bandwidth equal to the
data rate. This can be reduced by passing the modulating signal through a low pass filter prior to applying it
to the carrier. The requirements for the filter are that it should have a sharp cut-off, narrow bandwidth and its
impulse response should show no overshoot. The ideal filter is known as a Gaussian filter which has a
Gaussian shaped response to an impulse and no ringing. In this way the basic MSK signal is converted to
GMSK modulation.
(Spectral density of MSK and GMSK signals)

Generating GMSK modulation
There are two main ways in which GMSK modulation can be generated. The most obvious way is to filter
the modulating signal using a Gaussian filter and then apply this to a frequency modulator where the
modulation index is set to 0.5. This method is very simple and straightforward but it has the drawback that
the modulation index must exactly equal 0.5. In practice this analogue method is not suitable because
component tolerances drift and cannot be set exactly.
Generating GMSK using a Gaussian filter and VCO
A second method is more widely used. Here what is known as a quadrature modulator is used. The term
quadrature means that the phase of a signal is in quadrature or 90 degrees to another one. The quadrature
modulator uses one signal that is said to be in-phase and another that is in quadrature to this. In view of the
in-phase and quadrature elements this type of modulator is often said to be an I-Q modulator. Using this type
of modulator the modulation index can be maintained at exactly 0.5 without the need for any settings or
adjustments. This makes it much easier to use, and capable of providing the required level of performance
without the need for adjustments. For demodulation the technique can be used in reverse.
Block diagram of I-Q modulator used to create GMSK
Advantages of GMSK modulation
There are several advantages to the use of GMSK modulation for a radio communications system. One is
obviously the improved spectral efficiency when compared to other phase shift keyed modes.
A further advantage of GMSK is that it can be amplified by a non-linear amplifier and remain undistorted
This is because there are no elements of the signal that are carried as amplitude variations. This advantage is
of particular importance when using small portable transmitters, such as those required by cellular
technology. Non-linear amplifiers are more efficient in terms of the DC power input from the power rails that
they convert into a radio frequency signal. This means that the power consumption for a given output is
much less, and this results in lower levels of battery consumption; a very important factor for cell phones.A
further advantage of GMSK modulation again arises from the fact that none of the information is carried as
amplitude variations. This means that is immune to amplitude variations and therefore more resilient to
noise, than some other forms of modulation, because most noise is mainly amplitude based.
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation or QAM is a form of modulation which is widely used for modulating
data signals onto a carrier used for radio communications. It is widely used because it offers advantages over
other forms of data modulation such as PSK, although many forms of data modulation operate along side
each other.Quadrature Amplitude Modulation, QAM is a signal in which two carriers shifted in phase by 90
degrees are modulated and the resultant output consists of both amplitude and phase variations. In view of
the fact that both amplitude and phase variations are present it may also be considered as a mixture of
amplitude and phase modulation.
Analogue and digital QAM
Quadrature amplitude modulation, QAM may exist in what may be termed either analogue or digital formats.
The analogue versions of QAM are typically used to allow multiple analogue signals to be carried on a single
carrier. For example it is used in PAL and NTSC television systems, where the different channels provided
by QAM enable it to carry the components of chroma or colour information. In radio applications a system
known as C-QUAM is used for AM stereo radio. Here the different channels enable the two channels
required for stereo to be carried on the single carrier.
Digital formats of QAM are often referred to as "Quantized QAM" and they are being increasingly used for
data communications often within radio communications systems. Radio communications systems ranging
from cellular technology through wireless systems including WiMAX, and Wi-Fi 802.11 use a variety of
forms of QAM, and the use of QAM will only increase within the field of radio communications.
Digital / Quantized QAM basics
Quadrature amplitude modulation, QAM, when used for digital transmission for radio communications
applications is able to carry higher data rates than ordinary amplitude modulated schemes and phase
modulated schemes. As with phase shift keying, etc, the number of points at which the signal can rest, i.e. the
number of points on the constellation is indicated in the modulation format description, e.g. 16QAM uses a
16 point constellation.

When using QAM, the constellation points are normally arranged in a square grid with equal vertical and
horizontal spacing and as a result the most common forms of QAM use a constellation with the number of
points equal to a power of 2 i.e. 2, 4, 8, 16 . . . .
By using higher order modulation formats, i.e. more points on the constellation, it is possible to transmit
more bits per symbol. However the points are closer together and they are therefore more susceptible to noise
and data errors.
To provide an example of how QAM operates, the table below provides the bit sequences, and the associated
amplitude and phase states. From this it can be seen that a continuous bit stream may be grouped into threes
and represented as a sequence of eight permissible states.
Bit sequence Amplitude Phase (degrees)

000 1/2 0 (0°)
000 1 0 (0°)
010 1/2 π/2 (90°)
011 1 πi/2 (90°)
100 1/2 π (180°)
101 1 π (180°)
110 1/2 3πi/2 (270°)
111 1 3π/2 (270°)
Bit sequences, amplitudes and phases for 8-QAM
Phase modulation can be considered as a special form of QAM where the amplitude remains constant and
only the phase is changed. By doing this the number of possible combinations is halved.
QAM advantages and disadvantages
Although QAM appears to increase the efficiency of transmission for radio communications systems by
utilising both amplitude and phase variations, it has a number of drawbacks. The first is that it is more
susceptible to noise because the states are closer together so that a lower level of noise is needed to move the
signal to a different decision point. Receivers for use with phase or frequency modulation are both able to use
limiting amplifiers that are able to remove any amplitude noise and thereby improve the noise reliance. This
is not the case with QAM.
The second limitation is also associated with the amplitude component of the signal. When a phase or
frequency modulated signal is amplified in a radio transmitter, there is no need to use linear amplifiers,

whereas when using QAM that contains an amplitude component, linearity must be maintained.
Unfortunately linear amplifiers are less efficient and consume more power, and this makes them less
attractive for mobile applications.
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UNIT IV - SOURCE CODES & ERROR CONTROL CODES
Entropy, Source encoding theorem, Shannon fano coding, Huffman coding, mutual information,
channel capacity, Error Control Coding, linear block codes, cyclic codes - ARQ Techniques.
ENTROPY:
In information theory, entropy is a measure of the uncertainty associated with a random variable.
Shannon's entropy represents an absolute limit on the best possible lossless compression of any
communication, under certain constraints: treating messages to be encoded as a sequence of independent and
identically-distributed random variables, Shannon's source coding theorem shows that, in the limit, the
average length of the shortest possible representation to encode the messages in a given alphabet is their
entropy divided by the logarithm of the number of symbols in the target alphabet.
Entropy is really a notion of self information {the information provided by a random process about
itself. Mutual information is a measure of the information contained in one process about another process.
While entropy is sufficient to study the reproduction of a single process through a noiseless environment,
more often one has two or more distinct random processes, e.g., one random process representing an
information source and another representing the output of a communication medium wherein the coded
source has been corrupted by another random process called noise. In such cases observations are made on
one process in order to make decisions on another.
Shannon introduced the notion of the average mutual information between the two processes:
I(X; Y ) = H(X) + H(Y ) - H(X; Y )
The sum of the two self entropies minus the entropy of the pair. This proved to be the relevant quantity in
coding theorems involving more than one distinct random process: the channel coding theorem describing
reliable communication through a noisy channel, and the general source coding theorem describing the
coding of a source for a user subject to a fidelity criterion. The first theorem focuses on error detection and
correction and the second on analog-to-digital conversion and data compression. Special cases of both of
these coding theorems were given in Shannon's original work. Average mutual information can also be
defined in terms of conditional entropy (or equivocation)
H(XjY ) = H(X; Y ) - H(Y ) and hence
I(X; Y ) = H(X) - H(XjY ) = H(Y ) - H(XjY )

In this form the mutual information can be interpreted as the information contained in one process
minus the information contained in the process when the other process is known.
Let X be a discrete random variable with alphabet X = {1, 2, . . .m}. Assume there
is a probability mass function p(x) over X. How many binary questions, on average,
does it take to determine the outcome
The entropy of a discrete random variable X is defined as:
which can interpreted as the expected value
SOURCE CODING
A (binary) source code C for a random variable X is a mapping fromvX to a (finite) binary string. Let
C(x) be the codeword corresponding to x and let l(x) denote the length of C(x). We focus on codes that are
“instantaneous”. A code is called a prefix code or an instantaneous code if no codeword is a prefix of any
other codeword.
The nice property of a prefix code is that one can transmit multiple outcomes x1, x2, . . . xn by just
concatenating the strings into C(x1)C(x2) . . .C(xn), where the latter denotes the concatenation of
C(x1),C(x2) up to C(xn), and this leads to decoding xi instantly after xi is received. In this sense, prefix codes
are “self punctuating”. Let the expected length of C be:
The expected length of any (prefix) code is greater than the entropy, i.e.
Furthermore, there exists a code such that

THE PROOF OF THE SOURCE CODING THEOREM
We first show that there exists a code within one bit of the entropy. Choose the lengths
as:
This choice is integer and satisfies the craft inequality, hence there exists a code. Also,we can upper bound
the average code length as follows:
Now, let us prove the lower bound on L(C). Consider the optimization problem:
The above finds the shortest possible code length subject to satisfying the Kraft inequality. If we relax the the
codelengths to be non-integer, then we can obtain a lower bound.
To do this, the Lagrangian is:
Taking derivatives with respect to l(x) and setting to 0, leads to:
Solving this for l(x) leads to
which can be verified by direct substitution. This proves the lower bound.

CYCLIC CODES

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CONVOLUTION CODES
The probability of error can be reduced by transmitting more bits than needed to represent the
information being sent, and convolving each bit with neighboring bits so that if one transmitted bit got
corrupted, enough information is carried by the neighbouring bits to estimate what the corrupted bit was.
This approach of transforming a number of information bits into a larger number of transmitted bits is called
channel coding, and the particular approach of convolving the bits to distribute the information is referred to
as convolution coding. The ratio of information bits to transmitted bits is the code rate (less than 1) and the
number of information bits over which the convolution takes place is the constraint length. For example,
suppose you channel encoded a message using a convolution code. Suppose you transmitted 2 bits for every
information bit (code rate=0.5) and used a constraint length of 3. Then the coder would send out 16 bits for
every 8 bits of input, and each output pair would depend on the present and the past 2 input bits (constraint
length =3). The output would come out at twice the input speed. Since information about each input bit is
spread out over 6 transmitted bits, one can usually reconstruct the correct input even with several
transmission errors. The need for coding is very important in the use of cellular phones. In this case, the
“channel” is the propagation of radio waves between your cell phone and the base station. Just by turning
your head while talking on the phone, you could suddenly block out a large portion of the transmitted signal.
If you tried to keep your head still, a passing bus could change the pattern of bouncing radio waves arriving
at your phone so that they add destructively, again giving a poor signal. In both cases, the SNR suddenly

drops deeply and the bit error rate goes up dramatically. So the cellular environment is extremely unreliable.
If you didn’t have lots of redundancy in the transmitted bits to boost reliability, chances are that digital cell
phones would not be the success they are today.
Convolutional codes are commonly specified by three parameters; (n,k,m).
n = number of output bits
k = number of input bits
m = number of memory registers
The quantity k/n called the code rate, is a measure of the efficiency of the code. Commonly k and n
parameters range from 1 to 8, m from 2 to 10 and the code rate from 1/8 to 7/8 except for deep space
applications where code rates as low as 1/100 or even longer have been employed.
Often the manufacturers of Convolutional code chips specify the code by parameters (n,k,L), The quantity L
is called the constraint length of the code and is defined by
Constraint Length, L = k (m-1)
The constraint length L represents the number of bits in the encoder memory that affect the
generation of the n output bits. The constraint length L is also referred to by the capital letter K, which can be
confusing with the lower case k, which represents the number of input bits. In some books K is defined as
equal to product the of k and m. Often in commercial spec, the codes are specified by (r, K), where r = the
code rate k/n and K is the constraint length. The constraint length K however is equal to L – 1, as defined in
this paper. I will be referring to convolutional codes as (n,k,m) and not as (r,K).
1. CODE PARAMETERS AND THE STRUCTURE OF THE CONVOLUTIONAL CODE
The convolutional code structure is easy to draw from its parameters. First draw m boxes representing the m
memory registers. Then draw n modulo-2 adders to represent the n output bits. Now connect the memory
registers to the adders using the generator polynomial as shown in the Fig. 1.
(1,1,1)
v1
u1 u1 u0 u-1
v2
(0,1,1)
v3
(1,0,1)

Figure 1 - This (3,1,3) Convolutional code has 3 memory registers, 1 input bit and 3 output bits.
This is a rate 1/3 code. Each input bit is coded into 3 output bits. The constraint length of the code is 2. The 3
output bits are produced by the 3 modulo-2 adders by adding up certain bits in the memory registers. The
selection of which bits are to be added to produce the output bit is called the generator polynomial (g) for
that output bit. For example, the first output bit has a generator polynomial of (1,1,1). The output bit 2 has a
generator polynomial of (0,1,1) and the third output bit has a polynomial of (1,0,1). The output bits just the
sum of these bits.
v1 = mod2 (u1 + u0 + u-1)

v2 = mod2 ( u0 + u-1)
v3 = mod2 (u1 + u-1)
The polynomials give the code its unique error protection quality. One (3,1,4) code can have completely
different properties from an another one depending on the polynomials chosen.
1.1 How polynomials are selected
There are many choices for polynomials for any m order code. They do not all result in output sequences that
have good error protection properties. Petersen and Weldon’s book contains a complete list of these
polynomials. Good polynomials are found from this list usually by computer simulation. A list of good
polynomials for rate ½ codes is given below.
Table 1-Generator Polynomials found by Busgang for good rate ½ codes
Constraint G1 G2
Length
3 110 111
4 1101 1110
5 11010 11101
6 110101 111011
7 110101 110101
8 110111 1110011
9 110111 111001101
10 110111001 1110011001

2. STATES OF A CODE
We have states of mind and so do encoders. We are depressed one day, and perhaps happy the next from the
many different states we can be in. Our output depends on our states of mind and tongue-in-cheek we can say
that encoders too act this way. What they output depends on what is their state of mind. Our states are
complex but encoder states are just a sequence of bits. Sophisticated encoders have long constraint lengths
and simple ones have short in dicating the number of states they can be in.The (2,1,4) code in Fig. 2 has a
constraint length of 3. The shaded registers below hold these bits. The unshaded register holds the incoming
bit. This means that 3 bits or 8 different combination of these bits can be present in these memory registers.
These 8 different combinations determine what output we will get for v1 and v2, the coded sequence.
The number of combinations of bits in the shaded registers are called the states of the code and are defined
by
Number of states = 2L
(1,1,1,1)
v1
u1 u1 u0 u-1 u-2
v2
(1,1,0,1)
where L = the constraint length of the code and is equal to k (m - 1).
2.1.1.1 Fig – The states of a code indicate what is in the memory registers
Think of states as sort of an initial condition. The output bit depends on this initial condition which changes
at each time tick. Let’s examine the states of the code (2,1,4) shown above. This code outputs 2 bits for every
1 input bit. It is a rate ½ code. Its constraint length is 3. The total number of states is equal to 8. The eight
states of this (2,1,4) code are: 000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, 111.
3. PUNCTURED CODES
For the special case of k = 1, the codes of rates ½, 1/3, ¼, 1/5, 1/7 are sometimes called mother codes. We
can combine these single bit input codes to produce punctured codes which give us code rates other than 1/n.
By using two rate ½ codes together as shown in the figure, and then just not transmitting one of the output
bits we can convert this rate ½ implementation into a 2/3 rate code. 2 bits come and 3 go out. This concept is
called puncturing. On the receive side, dummy bits that do not affect the decoding metric are inserted in the
appropriate places before decoding.
Fig. - Two (2,1,3) convolutional codes produce 4 output bits. Bit number 3 is “punctured” so the
combination is effectively a (3,2,3) code.
This technique allows us to produce codes of many different rates using just one simple hardware. Although
we can also directly construct a code of rate 2/3 as we shall see later, the advantage of a punctured code is
that the rates can be changed dynamically (through software) depending on the channel condition such as
rain, etc. A fixed implementation, although easier, does not allow this flexibility.
4.BLOCK CODES
In coding theory, block codes are one of the two common types of channel codes (the other one being
convolutional codes), which enable reliable transmission of digital data over unreliable communication
channels subject to channel noise.A block code transforms a message m consisting of a sequence of
information symbols over an alphabet Σ into a fixed-length sequence c of n encoding symbols, called a code
word. In a linear block code, each input message has a fixed length of k < n input symbols. The redundancy
added to a message by transforming it into a larger code word enables a receiver to detect and correct errors
in a transmitted code word, and – using a suitable decoding algorithm – to recover the original message. The
redundancy is described in terms of its information rate, or more simply – for a linear block code – in terms
of its code rate, k/n.

The error correction performance of a block code is described by the minimum Hamming distance d
between each pair of code words, and is called the distance of the code.
UNIT V – MULTI – USER RADIO COMMUNICATION

Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) - Code division multiple access (CDMA) –
Cellular Concept and Frequency Reuse - Channel Assignment and Handover Techniques - Overview
of Multiple Access Schemes - Satellite Communication - Bluetooth.
A limited amount of bandwidth is allocated for wireless services. A wireless system is required to
accommodate as many users as possible by effectively sharing the limited bandwidth. Therefore, in the field
of communications, the term multiple access could be defined as a means of allowing multiple users to
simultaneously share the finite bandwidth with least possible degradation in the performance of the system.
There are several techniques how multiple accessing can be achieved. The are four basic schemes
1. Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
2. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
3. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
4. Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)
1. Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
FDMA is one of the earliest multiple-access techniques for cellular systems when continuous
transmission is required for analog services. In this technique the bandwidth is divided into a number of
channels and distributed among users with a finite portion of bandwidth for permanent use. The vertical axis
that represents the code is shown here just to make a clear comparison with CDMA (discussed later in this
chapter). The channels are assigned only when demanded by the users. Therefore when a channel is not in
use it becomes a wasted resource. FDMA channels have narrow bandwidth (30Khz). For this reason,
although x[n] is strictly the nth number in the sequence, we often refer to it as the nth sample. We also often
refer to \the sequence x[n]" when we mean the entire sequence. Discrete-time signals are often depicted
graphically as follows:
Are usually implemented in narrowband systems. Since the user has his portion of the bandwidth all
the time, FDMA does not require synchronization or timing control, which makes it algorithmically simple.
Even though no two users use the same frequency band at the same time, guard bands are introduced
between frequency bands to minimize adjacent channel interference. Guard bands are unused frequency slots
that separate neighboring channels. This leads to a waste of bandwidth. When continuous transmission is not
required, bandwidth goes wasted since it is not being utilized for a portion of the time. In wireless
communications, FDMA achieves simultaneous transmission and reception by using Frequency division
duplexing (FDD). In order for both the transmitter and the receiver to operate at the same time, FDD requires
duplexers.
2. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

In digital systems, continuous transmission is not required because users do not use the allotted
bandwidth all the time. In such systems, TDMA is a complimentary access technique to FDMA. Global
Systems for Mobile communications (GSM) uses the TDMA technique. In TDMA, the entire bandwidth is
available to the user but only for a finite period of time. In most cases the available bandwidth is divided into
fewer channels compared to FDMA and the users are allotted time slots during which they have the entire
channel bandwidth at their disposal. TDMA requires careful time synchronization since users share the
bandwidth in the frequency domain. Since the number of channels are less, inter channel interference is
almost negligible, hence the guard time between the channels is considerably smaller. Guard time is a
spacing in time between the TDMA bursts. In cellular communications, when a user moves from one cell to
another there is a chance that user could experience a call loss if there are no free time slots available. TDMA
uses different time slots for transmission and reception. This type of duplexing is referred to as Time division
duplexing (TDD). TDD does not require duplexers.

3. CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS
In CDMA, all the users occupy the same bandwidth; however they are all assigned separate codes,
which differentiate them from each other. CDMA systems utilize a spread spectrum technique in which a
spreading signal, which is uncorrelated to the signal and has a large bandwidth, is used to spread the narrow
band message signal. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DS-SS) is most commonly used for CDMA. In DS-
SS, the message signal is multiplied by a Pseudo Random Noise Code (PN code), which has noise-like
properties. Each user has his own codeword which is orthogonal to the codes of other users. In order to detect
the user, the receiver is required to know the codeword used by the transmitter. Unlike TDMA, CDMA does
not require time synchronization between the users. A CDMA system experiences a problem called self-
jamming which arises when the spreading codes used for different users are not exactly orthogonal. While
dispreading, this leads to a significant contribution from other users to the receiver decision statistic. If the
power of the multiple users in a CDMA system is unequal, then the user with the strongest signal power will
be demodulated at the receiver. The strength of the received signal raises the noise floor for the weaker
signals at the demodulators. This reduces the probability that weaker signals will be received. This problem,
known as the near-far problem can be taken care of by using power control. This ensures that all the signals
within the coverage of the base station arrive with same power at the receiver.
4. SPACE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (SDMA)

SDMA utilizes the spatial separation of the users in order to optimize the use of the frequency
spectrum. A primitive form of SDMA is when the same frequency is re-used in different cells in a cellular
wireless network. However for limited co-channel interference it is required that the cells be sufficiently
separated. This limits the number of cells a region can be divided into and hence limits the frequency re-use
factor. A more advanced approach can further increase the capacity of the network. This technique would

enable frequency re-use within the cell. It uses a Smart Antenna technique that employs antenna arrays
backed by some intelligent signal processing to steer the antenna pattern in the direction of the desired user
and places nulls in the direction of the interfering signals. Since these arrays can produce narrow spot beams,
the frequency can be re-used within the cell as long as the spatial separation between the users is sufficient.
In a practical cellular environment it is improbable to have just one transmitter fall within the receiver beam
width. Therefore it becomes imperative to use other multiple access techniques in conjunction with SDMA.
When different areas are covered by the antenna beam, frequency can be re-used, in which case TDMA or
CDMA is employed, for different frequencies FDMA can be used.
Satellites:
• The laws of physics (specifically Kepler's Law ) govern the motion of an object, such as a satellite,
that orbits the earth
• In particular, the period (i.e., time required for a complete orbit) depends on the distance from the
earth
• Communication satellites are classified into three broad categories
– depending on their distance from the earth
Kepler’s laws:
Kepler's 1st law. The orbits of the planets are ellipses with the Sun at a focus.
Kepler's 2nd law. The orbits of the planets sweep out equal areas in equal time.
Kepler's 3rd law. The square of the orbit period-the time it takes to go around once-is proportional to the cube of
the average distance to the Sun.

Types Of Satellites :
GEO Communication Satellites:
• Advantage of a satellite in Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) is that the orbital period is exactly the
same as the rate at which the earth rotates
• If positioned above the equator, a GEO satellite remains in exactly the same location over the earth's
surface at all times
• A stationary satellite position means that once a ground station has been aligned with the satellite
– the equipment never needs to move
• The distance required for a geostationary orbit is 35,785 kilometers or 22,236 miles
– which is approximately one tenth the distance to the moon
• What such a distance means for communication?
– consider a radio wave traveling to a GEO satellite and back
– at the speed of light, 310 meters per second, the trip takes:
• A delay of approximately 0.2 seconds can be significant for some applications
– For electronic transactions such as a stock exchange offering a limited set of bonds, delaying
an offer by 0.2 seconds may mean the difference between a successful and unsuccessful offer
GEO Coverage Of The Earth :

• There is a limited amount of ``space'' available in the geosynchronous orbit above the equator
– because communication satellites using a given frequency must be separated from one another
to avoid interference
– the minimum separation depends on the power of the transmitters
• but may require an angular separation of between 4 and 8 degrees
• However, as technology is evolving it’s possible allocate more satellites on orbit
Low Earth Orbit (LEO) Satellites And Clusters :
• Low Earth Orbit (LEO) is defined as altitudes up to 2000 Km

– As a practical matter, a satellite must be placed above the fringe of the atmosphere to avoid
the drag produced by encountering gases
– Thus, LEO satellites are typically placed at altitudes of 500-600 Kilometers or higher
– LEO offers the advantage of short delays (typically 1 to 4 ms)
• The disadvantage of LEO is that the orbit of a satellite does not match the rotation of the earth
• From an observer's point of view on the earth
– an LEO satellite appears to move across the sky
• Means that a ground station must have an antenna that can rotate to track the satellite
– Tracking is difficult because satellites move rapidly
– The lowest altitude LEO satellites orbit the earth in approximately 90 minutes
• higher LEO satellites require several hours
• LEO satellites used in clustering or in array deployment
– A large group of LEO satellites are designed to work together
• A satellite in the group can also communicate with other satellites in the group
– Members of the group stay in communication, and agree to forward messages, as needed
• For example,
– consider what happens when a user in Europe sends a message to a user in USA
– A ground station in Europe transmits the message to the satellite currently overhead (above it)
– The cluster of satellites communicate to forward the message to the satellite in the cluster that
is currently over a ground station in USA
– Finally, the satellite currently over USA transmits the message to a ground station
Frequency Band Trade-Offs:

• Satellite communication is a form of radio or wireless communication and therefore must compete
with other existing and potential uses of the radio spectrum.
• During the initial 10 years of development of these applications, there appeared to be more or less
ample bandwidth, limited only by what was physically or economically justified by the rather small
and low powered satellites of the time.
• In later years, as satellites grew in capability, the allocation of spectrum has become a domestic and
international battlefield as service providers fight among themselves, joined by their respective
governments when the battle extends across borders.
• So, we must consider all of the factors when selecting a band for a particular application.
• Adjectival band designations, frequency in Gigahertz:

– Very high frequency (VHF): 0.03–0.3;
– Ultra high frequency (UHF): 0.3–3;
– Super high frequency (SHF): 3–30;
– Extremely high frequency (EHF): 30–300.
• Letter band designations, frequency in Gigahertz:
– L: 1.0–2.0;
– S: 2.0–4.0;
– C: 4.0–8.0;
– X: 8–12;
– Ku: 12–18;
– Ka: 18–40;
– Q: 40–60;
– V: 60–75;
– W: 75–110.
International Satellite Systems:
Currently only a part of the world’s long distance telecom traffic is handled by different international
satellite communications systems. However, for international broadcasting of television there is no
alternative to satellite communications. Examples of various international satellite systems are:
 INTELSAT
 New Skies Satellites
 PanAmSaT
 INTERSPUTNIK
 INMARSAT
 COSPAS-SARSAT
INTELSAT: Recognizing that Satellite Communications would be an important means for international
cooperation, in July 1961, President Kennedy of US invited all nations to participate in a communication
satellite system in the interest of world peace and brotherhood among peoples throughout the world.
In Dec. 1961, UN endorsed the US proposal regarding the desirability of a global system of
communication satellites because it could
 Forge new bonds of mutual knowledge and understanding between people everywhere
 Offer a powerful tool to improve literacy and education in developing areas
 Support world weather services by speedy transmittal of data
 Enable leaders of nations to talk face to face on a convenient and reliable basis
The UN unanimously adopted General Assembly Resolution, which stated that:
`Communications by means of satellite should be available to the nations of the world as soon as
practicable on a global and nondiscriminatory basis’.
In August 1962, US Government passed Communications Satellite Act. Its purpose was to establish
a commercial communications system utilizing satellites, which would serve the needs of the US and other
countries and contribute to world peace and understanding. The significance of the choice of a single system
for international communications is economic, technical and political.
In August 1964, the final negotiations for the international satellite system were completed and
nineteen nations became the founding members of International Telecommunications Satellite Organization
(INTELSAT) with Headquarters in Washington D.C, USA. These nineteen nations are Australia, Austria,
Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal,
Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, United States and Vatican City. Over the years the
number of member governments grew to 144.
In April 1965, Early Bird (INTELSAT-I) was launched starting the commercial international
satellite services. Within four years the INTELSAT system grew from the single transatlantic link to the
global network with high capacity INTELSAT satellites positioned over the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian
Ocean Regions. The 240 voice circuit capacity of the Early Bird is miniscule in comparison to the channel
capacity of the latest INTELSAT satellites which caters to tens of thousands of telephone channels in
addition to providing TV, data, fax, telex and Internet services to more than 200 countries and territories.
With the improvement in life of the satellites, introduction of latest communication techniques, and
the availability of more channel capacity, the tariff of Intelsat has also been reduced considerably over the
years.
In the 1960’s at the time of establishment of Intelsat, the satellite Communication Industry was not
well developed. The international telecommunications was also not considered suitable for handling by
private companies. However, the skepticism changed after successful privatization of telecommunications
departments in many countries during the last few decades of the twentieth century. Since in highly
competitive telecommunications market, private enterprises are in a position to provide better and cheaper
services compared to the international organizational set up of Intelsat, ideas for privatization of Intelsat were
mooted. Privatization places Intelsat on a level playing field to better address opportunities of the
telecommunications marketplace. Streamlined decision-making is expected to make it easier to expand the
business and introduce new services. Considering these, in November 2000, the representatives of all
member governments of Intelsat unanimously approved a plan to privatize Intelsat.
The approved plan endorses the transfer of all assets, liabilities and operations to a private Bermuda
based company known as Intelsat Ltd., and its 100 % subsidiaries. In accordance with its heritage as a
global satellite communications services provider to all countries, Intelsat Ltd. will continue to honour a clear
set of public service commitments on a commercial basis. These include
 Global coverage and global connectivity

 Service to “lifeline” customers around the world according to specific Lifeline
Connectivity Obligation Contracts
 Non-discriminatory access to the Intelsat Ltd. Satellite fleet
A small separate and independent inter governmental office will monitor the private company’s
implementation of these public service commitments. Privatization of INTELSAT is completed in 2001.
ELEMENTS OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM:

Two major elements of Satellite Communications Systems are
 Space Segment
 Ground Segment
The Space Segment includes
 Satellite
 Means for launching satellite
 Satellite control centre for station keeping of the satellite

The functions of the ground segment are to transmit the signal to the satellite and receive the signal from the
satellite. The ground segment consists of
 Earth Stations
 Rear Ward Communication links
 User terminals and interfaces
 Network control centre
Schematic block diagram showing the elements of Satellite Communications System is shown in fig. 2.
SPACE SEGMENT
Communication Satellite:
Communication satellites are very complex and extremely expensive to procure & launch.
The communication satellites are now designed for 12 to 15 years of life during which the
communication capability of the satellite earns revenue, to recover the initial and operating costs. Since the
satellite has to operate over a long period out in the space the subsystems of the satellite are required to be
very reliable. Major subsystems of a satellite are:
 Satellite Bus Subsystems

 Satellite Payloads

Satellite Bus subsystems:
 Mechanical structure
 Attitude and orbit control system
 Propulsion System
 Electrical Power System
 Tracking Telemetry and Command System
 Thermal Control System
Satellite Payloads
 Communication transponders
 Communication Antennas
Since the communications capacity earns revenue, the satellite must carry as many communications
channels as possible. However, the large communications channel capacity requires large electrical power
from large solar arrays and battery, resulting in large mass and volume. Putting a heavy satellite in
geosynchronous orbit being very expensive, it is logical to keep the size and mass of the satellite small.
Lightweight material optimally designed to carry the load and withstand vibration & large temperature cycles
are selected for the structure of the satellite.
Attitude and orbit control system maintains the orbital location of the satellite and controls the
attitude of the satellite by using different sensors and firing small thrusters located in different sides of the
satellite.
Liquid fuel and oxidizer are carried in the satellite as part of the propulsion system for firing the
thrusters in order to maintain the satellite attitude and orbit. The amount of fuel and oxidizer carried by the
satellite also determines the effective life of te satellite.
The electrical power in the satellite is derived mainly from the solar cells. The power is used by the
communications payloads and also by all other electrical subsystems in the satellite for house keeping.
Rechargeable battery is used for supplying electrical power during ellipse of the satellite.
Telemetry, Tracking and Command system of the satellite works along with its counterparts located
in the satellite control earth station. The telemetry system collects data from sensors on board the satellite
and sends these data via telemetry link to the satellite control centre which monitors the health of the
satellite. Tracking and ranging system located in the earth station provides the information related to the
range and location of the satellite in its orbit. The command system is used for switching on/off of different
subsystems in the satellite based on the telemetry and tracking data.
The thermal control system maintains the temperature of different parts of the satellite within the
operating temperature limits and thus protects the satellite subsystems from the extreme temperature
conditions of the outer space.
The communications subsystems are the major elements of a communication satellite and the rest of
the space craft is there solely to support it. Quite often it is only a small part of the mass and volume of the
satellite. The communications subsystem consists of one or more antennas and communications receiver -
transmitter units known as transponders. Transponders are of two types, Repeater or Bent pipe and
processing or regenerative. In Repeater type, communications transponder receives the signals at microwave
frequencies and amplifies the RF carrier after frequency conversion, whereas in processing type of
transponder in addition to frequency translation and amplification, the RF carrier is demodulated to baseband
and the signals are regenerated and modulated in the transponder. Analog communication systems are
exclusively repeater type. Digital communication system may use either variety. Fig. 3(a) and 3(b) show the
schematic diagrams of repeater type and regenerative type transponders respectively.
The actual reception and retransmission of the signals are however, accomplished by the antennas on
board the satellite. The communications antennas on board the satellite maintain the link with the ground
segment and the communications transponder. The size and shape of the communications antenna depend on
the coverage requirements and the antenna system can be tailor made to meet the specific coverage
requirements of the system.
Launch Vehicle:
The function of the launch vehicle is to place the communication satellite in the desired orbit. The
size and mass of the satellite to be launched is limited by the capability of the launch vehicle selected for
launching the satellite. The satellite launch vehicle interface is also required to be provided as per the launch
vehicle selected. Satellite launch vehicles are classified in two types i.e.
 Expendable & Reusable

In expendable type the launch vehicle can be used only once and most of the launch vehicles are
expendable type. Space Transportation System (STS) or Space Shuttle of NASA, USA is the only available
operational reusable launch vehicle. Although most of the launches take place from ground, Sea Launch has
embarked on the launching of satellites from off shore platforms and Peagasus launch vehicles can launch
small satellites from aircrafts. Launching of a satellite in orbit being a costly affair a number of programs
have been undertaken by NASA to make the future launching of satellites in orbit as cost effective and
routine as commercial air travel.
Satellite Control Centre:

Satellite Control Centre performs the following function.
 Tracking of the satellite

 Receiving Telemetry data
 Determining Orbital parameters from Tracking and Ranging data
 Commanding the Satellite for station keeping
 Switching ON/OFF of different subsystems as per the operational requirements
 Thermal management of satellite.
 Eclipse management of satellite
 Communications subsystems configuration management.
 Satellite Bus subsystems configuration management etc.
GROUND SEGMENT:
The ground segment of satellite communications system establishes the communications links with
the satellite and the user. In large and medium systems the terrestrial microwave link interfaces with the user
and the earth station. However, in the case of small systems, this interface is eliminated and the user
interface can be located at the earth station. The earth station consists of
 Transmit equipment.
 Receive equipment.
 Antenna system.
Fig. shows the schematic block diagram of an earth station.

In the earth station the base band signal received directly from users’ premises or from terrestrial
network are appropriately modulated and then transmitted at RF frequency to the satellite. The receiving
earth station after demodulating the carrier transmits the base band signal to the user directly or through the
terrestrial link.
The baseband signals received at the earth stations are mostly of the following types.
 Groups of voice band analog or digital signals

 Analog or digital video signals
 Single channel analog or digital signal
 Wide band digital signal.
In satellite communications, in early days FM modulation scheme was most frequently used for
analog voice and video signal transmission. However, the trnd is now to use digital signals for both voice and
video. Various digital modulation schemes like Phase Shift Keying (PSK) and Frequency Shift Keying
(FSK) are adopted for transmission of digital signals.
The network operations and control centre for the communications network monitors the network
operations by different users, distribution of different carriers within a transponder and allocation of
bandwidth & EIRP of different carriers. Proper functioning of Network operations and control centre is
essential where the number of users in the network is large. Network operations & control centre is also
responsible for giving clearance to the ground system in respect of antenna radiation pattern, EIRP etc.
SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS SERVICES:
Different Satellite Communications services are classified as one way link and two way link. One way link
from transmitter Tx to receiver Rx on earth’s surface is shown in fig.5.

Examples of satellite services where the transfer of information takes place through one way link are:
 Broadcast Satellite Service (Radio, TV, Data broadcasting)

 Data Collection Service (Hydro meteorological data collection)
 Space operations service, (Tracking, Telemetry, Command)
 Safety services (Search & Rescue, Disaster Warning)
 Earth Exploration Satellite Service (Remote Sensing)
 Meteorological Satellite Service (Meteorological data dissemination)
 Radio Determination Satellite Service (Position location)
 Reporting Service (fleet monitoring)
 Standard frequency and time signal satellite service
 Space Research Service.
In two-way Satellite Communications link the exchange of information between two distant users
takes place through a pair of transmit and receive earth stations and a satellite. Fig.6 shows the elements of
two-way link
Examples of two-way satellite services are

 Fixed Satellite Service (Telephone, telex, fax, high bit rate data etc.)
 Mobile Satellite Service (Land mobile, Maritime, Aero-mobile, personal communications)
 Inter Satellite Service.
 Satellite News Gathering (Transportable and Portable )

A new class of two-way fixed satellite network service known as Very Small Aperture Terminal
(VSAT) service has became very popular among business and closed users group communities.
SAT networks are operated in two different configurations i.e. Mesh and Star. While in Mesh configuration a
VSAT terminal can communicate with another VSAT terminal in a single hop connection, Star network
involves two hops via satellite and the hub station.
GSM
The Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) is a standard developed by the European
Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) to describe the protocols for second-generation (2G)
digital cellular networks used by mobile devices such as mobile phones and tablets. It was first deployed in
Finland in December 1991. By the mid-2010s, it became a global standard for mobile communications
achieving over 90% market share, and operating in over 193 countries and territories. [3]
2G networks developed as a replacement for first generation (1G) analog cellular networks. The GSM
standard originally described a digital, circuit-switched network optimized for full duplex voice telephony.
This expanded over time to include data communications, first by circuit-switched transport, then
by packet data transport via General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), and Enhanced Data Rates for GSM
Evolution(EDGE).
Subsequently, the 3GPP developed third-generation (3G) UMTS standards, followed by fourth-
generation (4G) LTE Advanced standards, which do not form part of the ETSI GSM standard."GSM" is
a trade mark owned by the GSM Association. It may also refer to the (initially) most common voice codec
used, Full Rate.
Network structure
The network is structured into several discrete sections:
 Base station subsystem – the base stations and their controllers

 Network and Switching Subsystem – the part of the network most similar to a fixed network,
sometimes just called the "core network"
 GPRS Core Network – the optional part which allows packet-based Internet connections
 Operations support system (OSS) – network maintenance.

Base station subsystem
GSM cell site antennas in the Deutsches Museum, Munich, Germany

GSM is a cellular network, which means that cell phones connect to it by searching for cells in the
immediate vicinity. There are five different cell sizes in a GSM network—macro, micro, pico, femto,
and umbrella cells. The coverage area of each cell varies according to the implementation environment.
Macro cells can be regarded as cells where the base station antenna is installed on a mast or a building above
average rooftop level. Micro cells are cells whose antenna height is under average rooftop level; they are
typically used in urban areas. Picocells are small cells whose coverage diameter is a few dozen meters; they
are mainly used indoors. Femtocells are cells designed for use in residential or small business environments
and connect to the service provider’s network via a broadband internet connection. Umbrella cells are used to
cover shadowed regions of smaller cells and fill in gaps in coverage between those cells.
Cell horizontal radius varies depending on antenna height, antenna gain, and propagation conditions
from a couple of hundred meters to several tens of kilometers. The longest distance the GSM specification
supports in practical use is 35 kilometres (22 mi). There are also several implementations of the concept of
an extended cell,[18] where the cell radius could be double or even more, depending on the antenna system,
the type of terrain, and the timing advance.
Indoor coverage is also supported by GSM and may be achieved by using an indoor picocell base station, or
an indoor repeater with distributed indoor antennas fed through power splitters, to deliver the radio signals
from an antenna outdoors to the separate indoor distributed antenna system. These are typically deployed
when significant call capacity is needed indoors, like in shopping centers or airports. However, this is not a
prerequisite, since indoor coverage is also provided by in-building penetration of the radio signals from any
nearby cell.
GSM carrier frequencies
GSM networks operate in a number of different carrier frequency ranges (separated into GSM
frequency ranges for 2G and UMTS frequency bands for 3G), with most 2G GSM networks operating in the
900 MHz or 1800 MHz bands. Where these bands were already allocated, the 850 MHz and 1900 MHz
bands were used instead (for example in Canada and the United States). In rare cases the 400 and 450 MHz

frequency bands are assigned in some countries because they were previously used for first-generation
systems.
For comparison most 3G networks in Europe operate in the 2100 MHz frequency band. For more
information on worldwide GSM frequency usage, see GSM frequency bands.Regardless of the frequency
selected by an operator, it is divided into timeslots for individual phones. This allows eight full-rate or
sixteen half-rate speech channels per radio frequency. These eight radio timeslots (or burst periods) are
grouped into a TDMA frame. Half-rate channels use alternate frames in the same timeslot. The channel data
rate for all 8 channels is 270.833 kbit/s, and the frame duration is 4.615 ms.The transmission power in the
handset is limited to a maximum of 2 watts in GSM 850/900 and 1 watt in GSM 1800/1900.
Voice codecs
GSM has used a variety of voice codecs to squeeze 3.1 kHz audio into between 7 and 13 kbit/s.
Originally, two codecs, named after the types of data channel they were allocated, were used, called Half
Rate (6.5 kbit/s) and Full Rate (13 kbit/s). These used a system based on linear predictive coding (LPC). In
addition to being efficient with bitrates, these codecs also made it easier to identify more important parts of
the audio, allowing the air interface layer to prioritize and better protect these parts of the signal. GSM was
further enhanced in 1997[19] with the enhanced full rate (EFR) codec, a 12.2 kbit/s codec that uses a full-rate
channel. Finally, with the development of UMTS, EFR was refactored into a variable-rate codec
called AMR-Narrowband, which is high quality and robust against interference when used on full-rate
channels, or less robust but still relatively high quality when used in good radio conditions on half-rate
channel.
Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)
One of the key features of GSM is the Subscriber Identity Module, commonly known as a SIM card.
The SIM is a detachable smart card containing the user's subscription information and phone book. This
allows the user to retain his or her information after switching handsets. Alternatively, the user can change
operators while retaining the handset simply by changing the SIM. Some operators will block this by
allowing the phone to use only a single SIM, or only a SIM issued by them; this practice is known as SIM
locking.
Phone locking
Sometimes mobile network operators restrict handsets that they sell for exclusive use in their own
network. This is called SIM locking and is implemented by a software feature of the phone. A subscriber
may usually contact the provider to remove the lock for a fee, utilize private services to remove the lock, or
use software and websites to unlock the handset themselves. It is possible to hack past a phone locked by a
network operator.
In some countries (e.g., Bangladesh, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Germany, Hong
Kong, India, Iran, Lebanon, Malaysia, Nepal, Norway, Pakistan, Poland, Singapore, South Africa, Thailand)
all phones are sold unlocked.
GSM security
GSM was intended to be a secure wireless system. It has considered the user authentication using
a pre-shared key and challenge-response, and over-the-air encryption. However, GSM is vulnerable to
different types of attack, each of them aimed at a different part of the network.
The development of UMTS introduced an optional Universal Subscriber Identity Module (USIM),
that uses a longer authentication key to give greater security, as well as mutually authenticating the network
and the user, whereas GSM only authenticates the user to the network (and not vice versa). The security
model therefore offers confidentiality and authentication, but limited authorization capabilities, and no non-
repudiation.
GSM uses several cryptographic algorithms for security. The A5/1, A5/2, and A5/3 stream
ciphers are used for ensuring over-the-air voice privacy. A5/1 was developed first and is a stronger algorithm
used within Europe and the United States; A5/2 is weaker and used in other countries. Serious weaknesses
have been found in both algorithms: it is possible to break A5/2 in real-time with a ciphertext-only attack,
and in January 2007, The Hacker's Choice started the A5/1 cracking project with plans to use FPGAs that
allow A5/1 to be broken with a rainbow table attack. The system supports multiple algorithms so operators
may replace that cipher with a stronger one.
Since 2000 different efforts have been made in order to crack the A5 encryption algorithms. Both
A5/1 and A5/2 algorithms have been broken, and their cryptanalysis has been revealed in the literature. As an
example, Karsten Nohl developed a number of rainbow tables (static values which reduce the time needed to
carry out an attack) and have found new sources for known plaintext attacks. He said that it is possible to
build "a full GSM interceptor...from open-source components" but that they had not done so because of legal
concerns.[24] Nohl claimed that he was able to intercept voice and text conversations by impersonating
another user to listen to voicemail, make calls, or send text messages using a seven-year-
old Motorola cellphone and decryption software available for free online.
GSM uses General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) for data transmissions like browsing the web. The
most commonly deployed GPRS ciphers were publicly broken in 2011.
The researchers revealed flaws in the commonly used GEA/1 and GEA/2 ciphers and published the open-
source "gprsdecode" software for sniffing GPRS networks. They also noted that some carriers do not encrypt
the data (i.e., using GEA/0) in order to detect the use of traffic or protocols they do not like (e.g., Skype),
leaving customers unprotected. GEA/3 seems to remain relatively hard to break and is said to be in use on
some more modern networks. If used with USIM to prevent connections to fake base stations and downgrade
attacks, users will be protected in the medium term, though migration to 128-bit GEA/4 is still
recommended.
HANDOVER
In cellular telecommunications, the terms handover or handoff refer to the process of transferring an
ongoing call or data session from one channel connected to the core network to another channel. In satellite
communications it is the process of transferring satellite control responsibility from one earth station to
another without loss or interruption of service.
Purpose
In telecommunications there may be different reasons why a handover might be conducted
 when the phone is moving away from the area covered by one cell and entering the area covered by
another cell the call is transferred to the second cell in order to avoid call termination when the phone
gets outside the range of the first cell;
 when the capacity for connecting new calls of a given cell is used up and an existing or new call from a
phone, which is located in an area overlapped by another cell, is transferred to that cell in order to free-up
some capacity in the first cell for other users, who can only be connected to that cell;
 in non-CDMA networks when the channel used by the phone becomes interfered by another phone using
the same channel in a different cell, the call is transferred to a different channel in the same cell or to a
different channel in another cell in order to avoid the interference;

 again in non-CDMA networks when the user behaviour changes, e.g. when a fast-travelling user,
connected to a large, umbrella-type of cell, stops then the call may be transferred to a smaller macro cell
or even to a micro cell in order to free capacity on the umbrella cell for other fast-traveling users and to
reduce the potential interference to other cells or users (this works in reverse too, when a user is detected
to be moving faster than a certain threshold, the call can be transferred to a larger umbrella-type of cell in
order to minimize the frequency of the handovers due to this movement);
 in CDMA networks a handover (see further down) may be induced in order to reduce the interference to
a smaller neighboring cell due to the "near-far" effect even when the phone still has an excellent
connection to its current cell;
The most basic form of handover is when a phone call in progress is redirected from its
current cell (called source) to a new cell (called target).[1] In terrestrial networks the source and the target
cells may be served from two different cell sites or from one and the same cell site (in the latter case the two
cells are usually referred to as two sectors on that cell site). Such a handover, in which the source and the
target are different cells (even if they are on the same cell site) is called inter-cell handover. The purpose of
inter-cell handover is to maintain the call as the subscriber is moving out of the area covered by the source
cell and entering the area of the target cell.
A special case is possible, in which the source and the target are one and the same cell and only the
used channel is changed during the handover. Such a handover, in which the cell is not changed, is
called intra-cell handover. The purpose of intra-cell handover is to change one channel, which may be
interfered or fading with a new clearer or less fading channel.
Types
In addition to the above classification of inter-cell and intra-cell classification of handovers, they also
can be divided into hard and soft handovers:
Hard handover
Is one in which the channel in the source cell is released and only then the channel in the target cell is
engaged. Thus the connection to the source is broken before or 'as' the connection to the target is made—for
this reason such handovers are also known as break-before-make. Hard handovers are intended to be
instantaneous in order to minimize the disruption to the call. A hard handover is perceived by network
engineers as an event during the call. It requires the least processing by the network providing service. When
the mobile is between base stations, then the mobile can switch with any of the base stations, so the base
stations bounce the link with the mobile back and forth. This is called 'ping-ponging'.
Soft handover
Is one in which the channel in the source cell is retained and used for a while in parallel with the
channel in the target cell. In this case the connection to the target is established before the connection to the
source is broken, hence this handover is called make-before-break. The interval, during which the two
connections are used in parallel, may be brief or substantial. For this reason the soft handover is perceived by
network engineers as a state of the call, rather than a brief event. Soft handovers may involve using
connections to more than two cells: connections to three, four or more cells can be maintained by one phone
at the same time. When a call is in a state of soft handover, the signal of the best of all used channels can be
used for the call at a given moment or all the signals can be combined to produce a clearer copy of the signal.
The latter is more advantageous, and when such combining is performed both in the downlink (forward link)
and the uplink (reverse link) the handover is termed as softer. Softer handovers are possible when the cells
involved in the handovers have a single cell site.

Handover can also be classified on the basis of handover techniques used. Broadly they can be
classified into three types:
1. Network controlled handover

2. Mobile phone assisted handover
3. Mobile controlled handover
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a wireless technology standard for exchanging data between fixed and mobile devices
over short distances using short-wavelength UHF radio waves in the industrial, scientific and medical radio
bands, from 2.400 to 2.485 GHz, and building personal area networks (PANs). It was originally conceived as
a wireless alternative to RS-232 data cables.
Bluetooth is managed by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG), which has more than 30,000
member companies in the areas of telecommunication, computing, networking, and consumer electronics.
The IEEE standardized Bluetooth as IEEE 802.15.1, but no longer maintains the standard. The Bluetooth
SIG oversees development of the specification, manages the qualification program, and protects the
trademarks.[3] A manufacturer must meet Bluetooth SIG standards to market it as a Bluetooth device. A
network of patents apply to the technology, which are licensed to individual qualifying devices.
Implementation
Bluetooth operates at frequencies between 2402 and 2480 MHz, or 2400 and 2483.5 MHz
including guard bands 2 MHz wide at the bottom end and 3.5 MHz wide at the top. This is in the globally
unlicensed (but not unregulated) industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) 2.4 GHz short-range radio
frequency band. Bluetooth uses a radio technology called frequency-hopping spread spectrum. Bluetooth
divides transmitted data into packets, and transmits each packet on one of 79 designated Bluetooth channels.
Each channel has a bandwidth of 1 MHz. It usually performs 1600 hops per second, with adaptive frequency-
hopping (AFH) enabled.[13] Bluetooth Low Energy uses 2 MHz spacing, which accommodates 40 channels.
Originally, Gaussian frequency-shift keying (GFSK) modulation was the only modulation scheme
available. Since the introduction of Bluetooth 2.0+EDR, π/4-DQPSK (differential quadrature phase-shift
keying) and 8-DPSK modulation may also be used between compatible devices. Devices functioning with
GFSK are said to be operating in basic rate (BR) mode where an instantaneous bit rate of 1 Mbit/s is
possible. The term Enhanced Data Rate (EDR) is used to describe π/4-DPSK and 8-DPSK schemes, each
giving 2 and 3 Mbit/s respectively. The combination of these (BR and EDR) modes in Bluetooth radio
technology is classified as a BR/EDR radio.
Bluetooth is a packet-based protocol with a master/slave architecture. One master may communicate
with up to seven slaves in a piconet. All devices share the master's clock. Packet exchange is based on the
basic clock, defined by the master, which ticks at 312.5 µs intervals. Two clock ticks make up a slot of
625 µs, and two slots make up a slot pair of 1250 µs. In the simple case of single-slot packets, the master
transmits in even slots and receives in odd slots. The slave, conversely, receives in even slots and transmits in
odd slots. Packets may be 1, 3 or 5 slots long, but in all cases the master's transmission begins in even slots
and the slave's in odd slots.The above excludes Bluetooth Low Energy, introduced in the 4.0 specification,
which uses the same spectrum but somewhat differently.

Communication and connection
A master BR/EDR Bluetooth device can communicate with a maximum of seven devices in a piconet
(an ad-hoc computer network using Bluetooth technology), though not all devices reach this maximum. The
devices can switch roles, by agreement, and the slave can become the master (for example, a headset
initiating a connection to a phone necessarily begins as master—as an initiator of the connection—but may
subsequently operate as the slave).
The Bluetooth Core Specification provides for the connection of two or more piconets to form
a scatternet, in which certain devices simultaneously play the master role in one piconet and the slave role in
another.At any given time, data can be transferred between the master and one other device (except for the
little-used broadcast mode). The master chooses which slave device to address; typically, it switches rapidly
from one device to another in a round-robin fashion. Since it is the master that chooses which slave to
address, whereas a slave is (in theory) supposed to listen in each receive slot, being a master is a lighter
burden than being a slave. Being a master of seven slaves is possible; being a slave of more than one master
is possible. The specification is vague as to required behavior in scatternets.
Uses
Bluetooth is a standard wire-replacement communications protocol primarily designed for low power
consumption, with a short range based on low-cost transceiver microchips in each device. Because the
devices use a radio (broadcast) communications system, they do not have to be in visual line of sight of each
other; however, a quasi optical wireless path must be viable.[17] Range is power-class-dependent, but
effective ranges vary in practice. See the table "Ranges of Bluetooth devices by class".
Officially Class 3 radios have a range of up to 1 metre (3 ft), Class 2, most commonly found in mobile
devices, 10 metres (33 ft), and Class 1, primarily for industrial use cases,100 metres (300 ft).[2] Bluetooth
Marketing qualifies that Class 1 range is in most cases 20–30 metres (66–98 ft), and Class 2 range 5–10
metres (16–33 ft).[1] The actual range achieved by a given link will depend on the qualities of the devices at
both ends of the link, as well as the air conditions in between, and other factors.
The effective range varies depending on propagation conditions, material coverage, production
sample variations, antenna configurations and battery conditions. Most Bluetooth applications are for indoor
conditions, where attenuation of walls and signal fading due to signal reflections make the range far lower
than specified line-of-sight ranges of the Bluetooth products.
Most Bluetooth applications are battery-powered Class 2 devices, with little difference in range
whether the other end of the link is a Class 1 or Class 2 device as the lower-powered device tends to set the
range limit. In some cases the effective range of the data link can be extended when a Class 2 device is
connecting to a Class 1 transceiver with both higher sensitivity and transmission power than a typical Class 2
device.Mostly, however, the Class 1 devices have a similar sensitivity to Class 2 devices. Connecting two
Class 1 devices with both high sensitivity and high power can allow ranges far in excess of the typical 100m,
depending on the throughput required by the application. Some such devices allow open field ranges of up to
1 km and beyond between two similar devices without exceeding legal emission limits.
The Bluetooth Core Specification mandates a range of not less than 10 metres (33 ft), but there is no
upper limit on actual range. Manufacturers' implementations can be tuned to provide the range needed for
each case.
List of applications
 Wireless control and communication between a mobile phone and a handsfree headset. This was one of
the earliest applications to become popular.
 Wireless control of and communication between a mobile phone and a Bluetooth compatible car stereo
system.
 Wireless control of and communication with iOS and Android device phones, tablets and
portable wireless speakers.
 Wireless Bluetooth headset and Intercom. Idiomatically, a headset is sometimes called "a Bluetooth".
 Wireless streaming of audio to headphones with or without communication capabilities.
 Wireless streaming of data collected by Bluetooth-enabled fitness devices to phone or PC.
 Wireless networking between PCs in a confined space and where little bandwidth is required.
 Wireless communication with PC input and output devices, the most common being
the mouse, keyboard and printer.
 Transfer of files, contact details, calendar appointments, and reminders between devices with OBEX.
 Replacement of previous wired RS-232 serial communications in test equipment, GPS receivers, medical
equipment, bar code scanners, and traffic control devices.
 For controls where infrared was often used.
 For low bandwidth applications where higher USB bandwidth is not required and cable-free connection
desired.
 Sending small advertisements from Bluetooth-enabled advertising hoardings to other, discoverable,
Bluetooth devices.
 Wireless bridge between two Industrial Ethernet (e.g., PROFINET) networks.
 Seventh and eighth generation game consoles such as Nintendo's Wii, and Sony's PlayStation 3 use
Bluetooth for their respective wireless controllers.
 Dial-up internet access on personal computers or PDAs using a data-capable mobile phone as a wireless
modem.
 Short-range transmission of health sensor data from medical devices to mobile phone, set-top box or
dedicated telehealth devices.
 Allowing a DECT phone to ring and answer calls on behalf of a nearby mobile phone.
 Real-time location systems (RTLS) are used to track and identify the location of objects in real time using
"Nodes" or "tags" attached to, or embedded in, the objects tracked, and "Readers" that receive and process
the wireless signals from these tags to determine their locations.
 Personal security application on mobile phones for prevention of theft or loss of items. The protected item
has a Bluetooth marker (e.g., a tag) that is in constant communication with the phone. If the connection is
broken (the marker is out of range of the phone) then an alarm is raised. This can also be used as a man
overboard alarm. A product using this technology has been available since 2009.
 Calgary, Alberta, Canada's Roads Traffic division uses data collected from travelers' Bluetooth devices to
predict travel times and road congestion for motorists.
 Wireless transmission of audio (a more reliable alternative to FM transmitters)
 Live video streaming to the visual cortical implant device by Nabeel Fattah in Newcastle university 2017.
 Connection of motion controllers to a PC when using VR headsets.

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K.L.N.

DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

EC8394 – ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

Mr.V.Aravinda Rajan, M.E, Assistant Professor/IT

EC 8394 / ANALOG & DIGITAL COMMUNICATION MR.V.ARAVINDA RAJAN – AP2/IT

EC 8394 / ANALOG & DIGITAL COMMUNICATION LT P C

UNIT I ANALOG COMMUNICATION 9

UNIT II PULSE AND DATA COMMUNICATION 9

UNIT III DIGITAL COMMUNICATION 9

UNIT IV SOURCE AND ERROR CONTROL CODES 9

UNIT V MULTI-USER RADIO COMMUNICATION 9

EC 8394 / ANALOG & DIGITAL COMMUNICATION MR.V.ARAVINDA RAJAN – AP2/IT

Introduction to Communication Systems - Modulation – Types - Need for Modulation. Theory of

1.1 Amplitude Modulation (AM)

1.12 AM Frequency Spectrum and Bandwidth

1.3 Coefficient of Modulation and Percent Modulation:

Based from the above figure,

V max  V min  V max  V min  100

EC 8394 / ANALOG & DIGITAL COMMUNICATION MR.V.ARAVINDA RAJAN – AP2/IT

Substituting equation (1) into (3),

1.5 Modulation by a Complex Information Signal:

vam(t )  Ec sin 2fct   cos2  fc  fm1t   cos2  fc  fm1t 

EC 8394 / ANALOG & DIGITAL COMMUNICATION MR.V.ARAVINDA RAJAN – AP2/IT

EC 8394 / ANALOG & DIGITAL COMMUNICATION MR.V.ARAVINDA RAJAN – AP2/IT

EC 8394 / ANALOG & DIGITAL COMMUNICATION MR.V.ARAVINDA RAJAN – AP2/IT

Simplified block diagram of typical AM receiver

 RF section (Receiver front end)

EC 8394 / ANALOG & DIGITAL COMMUNICATION MR.V.ARAVINDA RAJAN – AP2/IT

1.9.1 Receiver Parameters:

EC 8394 / ANALOG & DIGITAL COMMUNICATION MR.V.ARAVINDA RAJAN – AP2/IT

K = Boltsmann’s constant (1.38 x 10-23 J/K)

1.9.2 Types of receiver:

1. Tuned Radio Frequency Receiver (TRF):

EC 8394 / ANALOG & DIGITAL COMMUNICATION MR.V.ARAVINDA RAJAN – AP2/IT

Block diagram of superheterodyne receiver :

 5. Audio amplifier section

EC 8394 / ANALOG & DIGITAL COMMUNICATION MR.V.ARAVINDA RAJAN – AP2/IT

2. Local oscillator tracking:

EC 8394 / ANALOG & DIGITAL COMMUNICATION MR.V.ARAVINDA RAJAN – AP2/IT

fm  flo  fIF  fRF  2 fIF

where ρ= (fim/fRF) – (fRF/fim)

3. Double Conversion Receivers:

o The 1st IF is a relatively high frequency for good image rejection.

Net Receiver Gain:

1.10 Single-Sideband (SSB) Communication System:

1.10.1. AM Single-Sideband Full Carrier (SSBFC):

 The output modulated signal

o requires half the bandwidth of DSBFC AM

EC 8394 / ANALOG & DIGITAL COMMUNICATION MR.V.ARAVINDA RAJAN – AP2/IT

1.10.3. AM Single-Sideband Reduced Carrier (SSBRC):

 Requires half the bandwidth of DSBFC AM

Advantages of Single-Sideband Transmission over Conventional AM:

Disadvantages of Single-Sideband Transmission:

1.11. SSB Transmission:

EC 8394 / ANALOG & DIGITAL COMMUNICATION MR.V.ARAVINDA RAJAN – AP2/IT

 3-stages of frequency up-conversion

EC 8394 / ANALOG & DIGITAL COMMUNICATION MR.V.ARAVINDA RAJAN – AP2/IT

1.11.2 Phase Shift Method:

o use 2 separate DSB modulators (balanced modulator 1 & 2).

EC 8394 / ANALOG & DIGITAL COMMUNICATION MR.V.ARAVINDA RAJAN – AP2/IT

 cos(c  m)t  cosc  m t

 cos(c  m)t  cosc  m t