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Recent Advances in Biological Nutrient Removal Technology

Glen T. Daigger*

Introduction
The removal of nutrients from domestic wastewaters is becoming routine in
many geographic areas, and it is increasingly being applied to industrial wastewaters.
This occurs due to both the need to reduce nutrient discharges to protect surface water
quality and the increasing availability of cost-effective nutrient removal technologies.
Increased use of nutrient removal, in tum, results in increased incentives to improve
the performance and cost-effectiveness of nutrient removal technologies, resulting in
further technological advances. This paper reviews several of the more recent
advances in nutrient removal technologies, with a focus in three principal areas: (1)
recent research which has improved our understanding of the biochemistry and
microbiology of biological phosphorus removal, (2) sludge, fermentation and its now
well recognized importance in optimizing biological nutrient removal, and (3) new
nutrient removal technologies.
Improved Understanding ofBiological Phosphorus Removal
Research conducted by a number of laboratories around the world has
contributed significantly to our understanding of the biochemistry and microbiology
of biological phosphorus removal. This improved understanding, in turn, allows us to
better design and operate such systems. This section will summarize some of the more
important research findings, and their practical implications.

* Ph.D., P.E., DEE, Senior Vice President

CH2M HILL, 6060 South Willow Drive, Greenwood Village, Colorado 80111 USA
gdaigger@ch2m.com

101

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 102 ADVANCES IN WATER AND WASTEWATER TREATMENT

MetaboUsm of Phosphorus Accumulating Organisms (PAOs)

Biological phosphorus removal (BPR) is accomplished by subjecting the
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mixed microbial population contained in an activated sludge system to a cyclic

anaerobic (no dissolved oxygen or nitrate-nitrogen present)/aerobic (dissolved oxygen
present) environment with influent wastewater fed into the anaerobic zone, as
illustrated in Figure 1. This environment provides a selective advantage for the
growth of phosphorus accumulating organisms (PAOs) which can accumulate up to
35 percent of their cell mass as phosphorus (Sedlak, 1992). As a result of the much
higher phosphorus content of the PADs, the phosphorus content of the mixed liquor
of the biological treatment system is increased from a typical value of about 1.5 % on
a phosphorus to volatile suspended solids (PNSS) basis, up to values as high as 8 to
10 % depending on the environmental conditions provided and the relative
concentrations of phosphorus and organic matter in the influent wastewater. Due to
the higher phosphorus content of the mixed liquor, more phosphorus is removed from
the process with the waste activated sludge (WAS). As a consequence of the
increased phosphorus removal in the WAS, less phosphorus is present in the process
effluent.
Our current understanding of the competitive advantage provided to the PAOs
by the anaerobic zone is based on their ability to store biodegradable organic matter
under anaerobic conditions. Under anaerobic conditions these organisms are thought
to be able to transport volatile fatty acids (VFAs) such as acetic acid (Hac) into the
cell and store it as the lipid carbon and energy storage polymers known as poly-
hydroxy-alkanoates (PHAs). One of the PHAs observed to accumulate most
frequently in BPR processes is poly-~-hydroxy-butyrate (PHS). The energy required
to transport and store VFAs is provided by the high energy bonds containing in the
energy and phosphorus storage polymer poly-phosphate (poly-P). This occurs with the
cleavage of phosphate from the poly-P polymer, resulting in increased intracellular
phosphate concentrations which diffuse out of the cell. Consequently, VFA uptake
and phosphate release are observed in the anaerobic zone. Other heterotrophic (i.e
organic matter consuming) bacteria are not able to take up biodegradable organic
matter under anaerobic conditions because no energy source is available to them to
transport and store biodegradable organic matter. Thus, only the PAOs take up
biodegradable organic matter in the anaerobic zone.
Stored PHAs are subsequently oxidized by the PAOs in the aerobic zone,
resulting in the production of energy which is used to transport phosphate back into
the cell and to synthesize poly-P. Thus, phosphate uptake is observed in the aerobic
zone of the BPR process. Because the PAOs have stored the biodegradable organic
matter intracellularly, it is not available to other heterotrophic bacteria in the process.
Thus, uptake of biodegradable organic matter (i.e. VFAs) in the upstream anaerobic
zone provides the competitive advantage that allows the PAO population to be
enriched in the process. Only a small amount of energy is required to store VF As as
PHAs under anaerobic conditions, but a large amount of energy is produced when the
stored PHAs are subsequently oxidized in the aerobic zone. This is the reason why

Advances in Water and Wastewater Treatment

 ADVANCES IN WATER AND WASTEWATER TREATMENT ]03

more phosphate is taken up in the aerobic zone than is released in the anaerobic zone,
resulting in net uptake of phosphorus by the biomass.
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o 0 o 0 o 0
o 0 o 0 o 0
o o o
o 0 0 o 0 0 o 0 0
~ c::::::J c:=::J

RAS

Figure 1. Alternating AnaerobiclAerobic Environment Required to Select for PAOs.

RAS Refers to Return Activated Sludge, and WAS refers to Waste Activated Sludge.

A variety of biochemical pathways have been postulated in the literature

(FiIipe and Daigger, 1998). They have been evaluated by developing enrichment
cultures ofPAOs growing in the laboratory on acetate as their sole carbon and energy
source (Wentzel, et a/., 1989; Smolders, et a/., 1994 alb). From these studies the
biochemical pathways involved in BPR using acetate as a substrate are clearly
identified. The pathway for uptake and storage of acetic acid (Hac) in the anaerobic
zone is presented in Figure 2. Energy for transport of Hac into the cell is provided by
ATP produced by the consumption of poly~P. The amount of poly-P required is
designated by the variable 0.1. The value of 0.1 varies depending on pH and other
environmental conditions. Thus, the amount of phosphate released per unit of Hac
taken up in the anaerobic zone is not constant.
Inside the cell, both energy (in the form of ATP) and reducing power (in the
form of NADH) is needed to process Hac and convert it into PHB. Two storage
polymers are used to provide these necessary ingredients, Poly·P and glycogen. Some
of the ATP is provided by Poly~P. In addition, one-half carbon-mole of glycogen is
converted to glucose and then processed through the Embden-Meyerhoff-Pamas
(EMP) fermentative metabolic pathway to produce the NADH needed and some of
the ATP required. The result, as shown in Figure 2, is the conversion of one carbon-
mole of Hac and one-half carbon-mole of glycogen into 1-1/3 carbon-moles of PHB.
Poly-P (0.25 + 0.1 mole-P/carbon-moles of Hac) is also consumed and excreted as
phosphate.
Figure 3 presents the aerobic metabolism of the PAOs. When dissolved
oxygen is available the organisms metabolize PHB through the Tricarboxylic Acid
(TeA) cycle to produce energy which is captured as ATP. The ATP produced is used
to transport phosphate back into the cell and synthesize Poly-P and for biomass
growth and maintenance.

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 104 AnVANCES IN WATER AND WASTEWATER TREATMENT

PHB is also used as a carbon source to produce glycogen. thereby increasing

the intracellular concentrations of this polymer which will be needed when the PADs
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are subsequently recycled to the anaerobic zone; as a carbon source for the growth of
additional PADs; and as a carbon source to meet the maintenance requirements of
existing PADs. Recent work (Filipe and Daigger. 1998) using this metabolic model
has allowed the overall stoichiometry for these processes to be quantified and a
reliable and robust set of kinetic expressions to be developed.

_We Cell

133CF ""',"OINADHl

1 Cmol Hac --+--j--+ 1 Csno1 Hac ~jl Cmol Acetyt.CoA + 0.33 Cmo1 Acet~oA

1/6 mol CO 116 mol NADH

r
J I
+

~1 ATP 114 A + 114 ATP

I
116 =1 NADH

.1$ + 0li>P-mIO»+-~-----Po1y P l/J CmolO1ycogm

Figure 2. Metabolism of Acetic Acid (Hac) by PADs under anaerobic conditions

(Filipe and Daigger, 1998).

Figure 3 demonstrates the reactions which will occur as long as phosphate is

present. However. what happens when all of the phosphorus has been transported into
the cell? Do the PADs just stop functioning and wait to be recycled to the anaerobic
zone? The answer is no; they continue to metabolize organic matter and to grow
because they have relatively high concentrations of stored carbon (pHB and glycogen)
and energy (poly-P). All three stored polymers are metabolized <Juring these
starvation periods, with adverse impacts on subsequent BPR. Metabolism of glycogen
reduces intracellular concentrations so that reduced glycogen levels will be present
when the PADs are subsequently recycled to the anaerobic zone (see Figure 1).
Metabolism of Poly-P results in release of phosphate. This may not impact effiuent
phosphate concentrations immediately since PHB is available to be oxidized to
generate additional energy to allow the released phosphate to be transported back into
the cell and converted back into Poly-P.
However, this results in degradation of more of the PHB within the cell. If this
process continues, the PHB will be depleted and glycogen must be metabolized to
produce the necessary energy. As discussed above, this can result in reduced VFA

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 ADVANCES IN WATER AND WASTEWATER TREATMENT 105

uptake when the PAOs are subsequently recycled to the upstream anaerobic zone. In
short, continued aeration once phosphate is removed from solution can negatively
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impact the long-tenn phosphorus removal capacity of the process.

Inside the ceO

Maintenance

I
G~ 4--PHB - - - - - . . Gruwth

T"
Glacoleonesis

1
Glycopn 2

Out-ida the Cen

Pi

Figure 3. Aerobic Metabolism ofPAOs (Filipe and Daigger, 1998).

Logical analysis of these metabolic pathways, and process simulation work

using the calibrated metabolic models, demonstrates that the BPR process can be
robust, as long as excessive oxidation of stored organic matter under aerobic
conditions is avoided. Because the PAOs contain concentrations of stored carbon and
energy polymers, they can withstand short periods (up to several hours) where
external carbon (VFAs) is not present. Thus, the VFAs do not have to be added to the
process at exactly the same time that the phosphorus is added. However, prolonged
periods of starvation can lead to reduced levels of glycogen and Poly-P which will
reduce Hac uptake and storage under anaerobic conditions Daigger, et al., 1988;
Sedlak, 1992; Brdjanovic, et al., 1998). These effects are frequently observed in
practice as periods of poor phosphorus removal following periods of reduced process
loading. Strategies which have been used to mitigate these adverse impacts include
reduced process SRTs, storage of biomass under non-aerated conditions during
periods of reduced process organic loading, and restricting aeration to reduce
oxidation.
Since PHB is a lipid, commonly referred to as a fat, the adage that "a fat bug is
a happy bug" certainly applies to BPR processes. Optimum perfonnance is obtained

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 106 ADY ANCES IN WATER AND WASTEWATER TREATMENT

by maintaining the minimum aerobic solids residence time (SRT) which just allows
for complete uptake of phosphate while minimizing the metabolism of stored PHB
and other storage polymers during the aerobic cycle. This can be accomplished by a
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number of operating strategies, as discussed above.

Denitrificadon by PAOs
An important question in the overall BPR carbon and nutrient balance is
whether PAOs are able to denitrify. As demonstrated by the pathways shown in
Figures 2 and 3, stored carbon in the form of PHB is required to allow the PAOs to
take up phosphate and store it as Poly-P in the aerobic zone. The carbon needed to
produce the required PHB comes initially from VFAs taken up by PAOs in the
anaerobic zone. Under optimum conditions the VFA requirement for the PAOs is
approximately 7 to 10 mg of acetic acid expressed as COD/mg phosphate as P
removed from the influent wastewater (Daigger and Bowen. 1994). Denitrification is
accomplished by heterotrophs and, therefore, also requires carbon. For a high-rate
denitrification process, such as occurs in the initial anoxic zone of a biological
nitrogen removal (BNR) process, about 6 to 8 mg of readily biodegradable COD is
required/mg nitrate-N reduced to nitrogen gas (Sedlak, 1992). If the PAOs are not
able to denitrify, then carbon must be provided for phosphorus removal while
additional carbon must be provided for nitrogen removal. If, on the other hand. the
PAOs are able to denitrify, then only the larger of the two carbon requirements must
be provided. Since the fraction of the influent biodegradable organic matter which is
readily biodegradable in most municipal wastewaters is limited (most is in slowly
biodegradable), efficient use of the readily biodegradable organic matter is crucial to

Table 1. Readily Biodegradable COD Requirements for Example.

Readily Biodegradable COD Requirement (mg/L)

Process PAOs Do Not Denitrify PAOs Denitrify

l
ForPAOs 35 - 50 35 - 50
2
For Denitrification 120 - 160 120- 160
3 4
Total 155 - 200 120 - 160

i (7 - 10 mg COD/mg P) x (S mgIL as P).

2 (6 - 8 mg COD/mg N) x (20 mgIL as N).
3Sum of COD requirements for PAOs and Denitrification.
4Greater of the two COD Requirements, Which is for Denitrification.
maximizing nutrient removal.
To assess the significance of this, consider a wastewater with an influent total
phosphorus concentration of 6 mgIL as P and a TKN concentration of 35 mg/L as N.
Assume that one mg/L as P of phosphate is required for cell synthesis, so that 5 mg/L

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 ADVANCES IN WATER AND WASTEWATER TREATMENT 107

as P of phosphate is available for removal by the PAOs. This will require 7 to 10 mg

COD/mg P, or 3S to 50 mgIL of COD. Assume that 10 mgIL as N of nitrogen will be
used for cell synthesis and that 5 ms'L as N will be discharged in the effiuent. Then,
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20 mgIL as N must be denitrified. This will require 6 to 8 mg COD/mg nitrate-N, or

120 to 160 mg CODIL. If the PAOs cannot denitrify, the quantity of readily
biodegradable COD required will be the sum of the two requirements, which is 155 to
200 mgIL. If the PAOs can denitrify, the quantity of readily biodegradable COD
required will be only the greater of the two requirements, which is for denitrification
and is 120 to 160 mgIL. These results are summarized in Table 1.
Laboratory enrichment cultures of denitrifying PAOs have been developed,
clearly demonstrating clearly that PAOs are able to denitrify (Kuba, et a/., 1993). The
metabolism of the denitrifying PAOs (dPAOs) is identical to that of the PAOs under
aerobic conditions, as illustrated in Figures 2 and 3 (Filipe and Daigger, 1997; Kuba,
et al., 1996). The only difference is that that nitrate-nitrogen serves as the tenninal
elcctron acceptor, rather than dissolved oxygen. So, nitrate-nitrogen is reduced to
nitrogen gas, rather than oxygen being reduced to water. The stoichiometry and
kinetics for the dPAOs has also been developed, based on this biochemical model.
Since less energy is available to the microorganisms when nitrate-nitrogen is used as a
terminal electron acceptor, in comparison to the use ofdissolved oxygen as a terminal
electron acceptor, the yield for the dPAOs is lower than dPAOs than for PAOs
growing using dissolved oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor.
Based on this fundamental understanding of the existence and biochemistry of
denitrifying PAOs, further research indicates the following:
• Two general populations ofPAOs exist in BPR processes: (I) PAOs which only
use dissolved oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor and (2) PAOs (dPAOs)
which can use either dissolved oxygen or nitrate-nitrogen as a terminal electron
acceptor (Meinhold, et al., 1998). When dissolved oxygen is present the d.PAOs
will use dissolved oxygen as the tenninal electron acceptor due to the larger
amount of energy available. However. when dissolved oxygen is not available and
nitrate-nitrogen is present, nitrate-nitrogen will be used as the terminal electron
acceptor.

• Since less energy is available when nitrate-nitrogen is used as a terminal electron

acceptor than with dissolved oxygen, dPAOs are not competitive with PAOs
unless an environment which is selective for the dPAOs is provided. Work is on-
going to determine the nature of the environment which will maximize the
selection of dPAOs and, thereby, maximize the use of the carbon within the
process for nutrient removal (Filipe and Daigger, 1997).

• At a minimum, the required environmental conditions include exposure of the

PAOs as they exit the anaerobic conditions to an anoxic environment rather than
an aerobic environment, as illustrated in the traditional biological phosphorus and
nitrogen removal process illustrated in Figure 4. Other strategies are also being
evaluated (Bortone, et al., 1996).

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 108 ADVANCES IN WATER AND WASTEWATER TREATMENT

In summary, it is possible to minimize process carbon requirements in

biological phosphorus and nitrogen removal processes by maximizing the growth of
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PAOs which are able to denitrify. Since readily biodegradable organic matter is
limiting in most biological nutrient removal processes, minimizing carbon
requirements maximizes nutrient removal. An added benefit of encouraging
denitrification by PAOs is that less oxygen is required since the nitrate-nitrogen
produced in the process is used as the oxygen source for the PADs, rather than
dissolved oxygen. In short, "don't let those PADs breath oxygen". To maximize
nutrient removal, make them use nitrate-nitrogen rather than dissolved oxygen.

NRCY

o 0 o 0 o 0
o 0 o 0 o 0
o o o
o 00 o 00 o 0 0
00
c:::=J c:::=J c::=:J

RAS

Figure 4. Traditional Biological Phosphorus and Nitrogen Removal Process. ARCY

refers to Anoxic Recycle and NRCY refers to Nitrified Recycle.
Nature of the PAOs and Alternate Pathways
Early research identified organisms of the genus Acetinobacter as potentially
responsible for phosphorus removal in BPR systems (Sedla14 1992). More recent
work as demonstrated clearly that a broader range of organisms are capable of BPR
(Bond, et al., 1995; Wagner, et al., 1994). The recent application of advanced
microbial techniques to representative BPR systems, including full-scale systems, has
demonstrated that Acetinobacter may not be the genus of organisms primarily
responsible for BPR in full-scale systems. This is significant to our fundamental
understanding of the BPR process as it suggests that a broad range of microorganisms
may be responsible for BPR. However, since much of our process understanding is
based on mixed culture results using natural populations, this does not compromise
our process application knowledge.
In addition, there is growing evidence of additional pathways which can
operate in the anaerobic zone of a BPR process. Recent research verifies the presence
of glycogen accumulating organisms (GADs) which can take up and store VFAs and
carbohydrates under anaerobic conditions and store them as PHAs and as glycogen
(Cech and Hartman, 1990). The energy and reducing power required for these

Advances in Water and Wastewater Treatment

 ADVANCES IN WATER AND WASTEWATER TREATMENT 109

processes is provided from glycogen using pathways such as the EMP pathway, as
illustrated in Figure 2. The presence of these organisms is detrimental to BPR as they
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do not contain Poly-P and. consequently, do not contribute to enhanced phosphorus

removal. Moreover, they compete for carbon with the desirable PAOs and, thereby,
result in reduced selection of these desirable microorganisms. Evidence is also
beginning to accumulate that some of the PAOs are able to uptake and store
carbohydrates as glycogen in the anaerobic zone of a BPR process Carucci, et al.,
1998). Reducing power is not needed for this transformation, but energy (which is
supplied by stored Poly-P) is required. The fact that a broader range of readily
biodegradable organic matter can be used by the PAOs is encouraging as it suggests
that fermentation of all of the readily biodegradable organic matter to VFAs may not
be required to maximize BPR.
So. in summary, "new actors are entering the fray" in BPR processes. The
carbon storage processes and types of organisms currently thought to be present in the
anaerobic zone of a BPR process are presented in Figure 5 (From Carucci, et al.,
1998). In fact, they have been there all the time, we just did not understand it.
However, this improved understanding helps us to better separate the cause and effect
relationships occurring in such systems and to determine how.to optimize process
performance.

Figure 5. Possible anaerobic mechanisms for the uptake

and storage of substrates In the preience or not of eBPR

Process Modeling
The process models used to characterize the performance of biological
nutrient removal processes must evolve as our understanding of the process evolves.
Three principal models have been used to characterize biological nutrient removal
processes:

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 110 ADVANCES IN WATER AND WASTEWATER TREATMENT

1. Activated Sludge Model Number 1 (ASM1) for carbon oxidation, nitrification,

and denitrification was developed by the International Association on Water
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Quality (IAWQ) (Henze, et al., 1987).

2. AMS2, also developed by the IAWQ, which also incorporates biological

phosphorus removal (Henze, et al., 1995).

3. The model of Dold for carbon oxidation, nitrification, denitrification, and

biological phosphorus removal (Barker and Dold, 1997 alb).

Recently the task force responsible for developing the IAWQ models has
published two new models in draft format. One is called ASM2d, and it simply adds
the flexibility to allow PAOs to denitrify (Henze, et al., 1998). As described above,
since it is now evident that these organisms can denitrify, this is a necessary addition.
The other is called ASM3, and it incorporates carbon oxidation, nitrification, and
denitrification (Gujer, et al., 1998). However, it is significantly different in that it uses
fundamentally different model components and processes than used in the original
ASMI. An entire paper would be required for a detailed comparison of ASMI and
ASM3. But, some of the more important differences are:
• Readily biodegradable organic matter is redefined to include both truly dissolved
organic matter and finely divided colloidal organic matter.

• All readily biodegradable organic matter is assumed to first be transported into the
cell where it is stored, and then the microorganisms grow on the stored organic
matter.

• The lysis/regrowth model used in ASMI for endogenous metabolism was

abandoned and replaced with a tradition decay model.

Time will required to determine which of these modifications are useful, and
which ones are not. However, this proliferation of models does indicate the lack of
consensus which exists relative to the most appropriate model to use to characterize
these processes.

Fermentation Systems
Both existing process theory and full-scale results clearly demonstrate that the
performance of full-scale BPR processes is enhanced by fermentation of the influent
wastewater (Skalsky and Daigger, 1995). Given this fact, it is surprising that more
fermenters have not been incorporated into full-scale BPR facilities. The reasons for
this appear to be primarily cost and operational, rather than technical. The
incorporation of fermentation into a BPR facility certainly increases its cost, results in
additional facilities to operate, and it increases the potential for odor emissions.
Moreover, several highly successful full-scale fermentation system examples exist.
Fortunately, excellent guidance exists for the process engineer to evaluate
fermentation options for a particular application (WEF, 1994).

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 ADVANCES IN WATER AND WASTEWATER TREATMENT 111

New Process Modlftcatlons

Work continues on the development of new biological nutrient removal
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technologies. Focus in this section will describe developments in step feed nutrient
removal technology and briefly list other new technologies being evaluated.
Step Feed Nutrient Removal TecbDology
Step feeding has been used historically in activated sludge processes to
redistribute the influent wastewater to minimize localized low dissolved oxygen
zones and to redistribute the mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS) inventory to
reduce secondary clarifier influent MLSS concentrations and solids loading rates.
However, recent results indicate that it can be adapted easily to biological nitrogen
removal (Kayser, et al., 1992; Fillos, et al., 1996), and that it can also be adapted to
biological phosphorus removal (Newbry, et al., 1997; Nolasco, et al., 1995; Nolasco,
et al., 1993).
Figure 6 illustrates a four pass step feed bioreactor configured for biological
nitrogen removal. Nitrogen removal is accomplished simply by providing an anoxic
zone at each step feed point. As is typical with all step feed processes, RAS is added
only to the first pass. In this example, influent wastewater (assumed to be primary
effluent [PE]) is fed to each pass. Denitrification occurs in the anoxic zone at each
feed point using carbon contained in the influent wastewater and nitrate contained in
the upstream mixed liquor flow, or from the RAS in case of the most upstream step
feed point. Nitrification occurs in the aerated portion of each pass.

NItrification (TYP) Denitrification (TYP)

PE
RAS'"...-
... 00 "'" '" \

\ ~ .-
PE
00 --
PE
-~
..
ML ~ .-
PE
.-
- 00 --
Figure 6. Step Feed Nitrogen Removal Process.

Step feeding offers some significant advantages in nitrogen removal

applications, including reduced bioreactor volume and elimination of the requirement
for mixed liquor recirculation. The bioreactor volume is reduced because a high

Advances in Water and Wastewater Treatment

 112 ADVANCES IN WATER AND WASTEWATER TREATMENT

average MLSS concentration can be maintained in the bioreactor without overloading

the downstream secondary clarifier. This is not different than for any other step feed
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process. However, the required bioreactor volume will be lower than for other
biological nitrogen removal processes not incorporating step feeding capabilities.
Mixed liquor recirculation is not required because the periods of nitrification and
denitrification are created sequentially within the bioreactor.
Although this configuration naturally encourages biological nitrogen removal,
it makes biological phosphorus removal difficult. This occurs because the mixed
liquor entering the anoxic zone contains nitrate-nitrogen. Thus, a special
configuration is required at each step feed point to minimize nitrate-nitrogen addition
to the anaerobic zone. This configuration is illustrated in Figure 7. As illustrated in
Figure 7, the step feed point is divided into anoxic (ANX) and anaerobic (ANA)
zones. Mixed liquor (which contains nitrate-nitrogen) passes from the upstream pass
into the anoxic zone where denitrification occurs. The main portion of the mixed
liquor then passes from the ANX zone into the downstream aerobic (AER) zone. But,
some of the denitrified mixed liquor is recirculated (this requires a low head pump)
into the anaerobic zone where it is contacted with the influent wastewater (FE). The
effiuent from the ANA zone passes into the ANX zone, where residual organic matter
can be used for denitrification. In this example the ANX and ANA zones are staging
by dividing them each into two cells in series.

ANXZone

AERZone
PE

Figure 7. Step Feed Point Configuration Required to Obtain Effective Biological

Phosphorus Removal.

Step feed systems are being increasingly used for nitrogen removal
applications on limited sites, and step feed nitrogen and phosphorus removal
processes are receiving attention.

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 ADVANCES IN WATER AND WASTEWATER TREATMENT 113

Other Process Options

A number of other process options are being actively investigated, as follows:
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• Fixed film bioreactors for biological nitrogen and biological phosphorus removal.

• Combined suspended and attached growth processes, especially for biological

nitrogen removal but also for biological phosphorus removal.

• Process configurations which encourage simultaneous nitrification/denitrification,

and even biological phosphorus removal.

• The use of process instrumentation to control biological nutrient removal

processes.

The reader is encouraged to continue to monitor the literature as these process

options continue to be evaluated.

Acknowledgements
This paper was presented at the Sth United States Environmental Protection
Agency (USEPA) National Wastewater Treatment Technology Transfer Workshop,
Kansas City, MO, May 18-20, 1998. Funding for this paper was provided by CH2M
HILL

Author
Glen T. Daigger, Ph.D., P.E., DEE is a Senior Vice President with CH2M
HILL, 100 Inverness Terrace East, Englewood, CO 80112 USA. His e-mail address is
gdaigger@ch2m.com.

References
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Barker, P. S. and P. L. Dold, "General Model for Biological Nutrient Removal
Activated-Sludge Systems: Model Application," Water Environment Research, 70,
985-991, 1997.
Bond, P. L., P. Hugenholtz, J. Keller, and L. L. Blackall, "Bacterial Community
Structures of Phosphate-Removing and Non-Phosphate-Removing Activated Sludges
From Sequencing Batch Reactors," Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 61,
1910-1916, 1995.

Advances in Water and Wastewater Treatment

 114 ADVANCES IN WATER AND WASTEWATER TREATMENT

Bortone, G., R. Saltarelli, V. Alonso, R. Sonn, J. Wanner, and A. THche, "Biological

Anoxic Phosphorus Removal - The Dephanox Process," Proceedings, 18 th IAWQ
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Biennial International Conference, Singapore, 102-109, 1996.

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