Electro-Optic Imaging and Tracking Systems

Mark A. Richardson and David B. James

Department of Informatics and Sensors, Cranfield University, Shrivenham, UK

2 IR HOMING MISSILE SEEKERS

1 Introduction
2 IR Homing Missile Seekers
3 Platform Survivability
4 Laser Applications
5 Conclusions
References
Further Reading
1 INTRODUCTION
In the Soviet/Afghan conflict, 250 soviet aircraft (fixed and
rotary wing) were lost to IRSAMs and the Mojahedin com-
batants were poorly trained in their use. It is even claimed that
up to 80% of all combat aircraft losses are due to IR missiles
(SAMs and air-to-air missiles) (Jane’s International Defence
Review, 2004).
In 1973 two Soviet made IRSAMs (SA-7) were discovered
in Rome and their alleged target was an Israeli commercial
aircraft. Since then it is claimed that 30 civil aircraft have been
lost to IRSAMs, with the loss of nearly 1000 lives (Jane’s
International Defence Review, 2004).
In February 2003 a US Congressional Report claimed that
the global inventory of shoulder launched SAMs stood at
more than 500 000 and that 27 different militia and terror-
ist organizations possess them (Jane’s Intelligence Review,
2003; DelBoca, 2003; Hunter, 2002).
1
1 2.1 First generation seekers
6
Figure 1 is a block diagram showing the basic layout of a
6
first generation seeker system. This type of system is often
12 referred to as a spin-scan seeker and is commonly found in
12 older generation IR seeking missiles which pose a significant
12 threat.
Infrared radiation from the scene passes through the dome
and is imaged via the cassegrain telescope onto a spinning
(rotating) reticle. The detector (usually uncooled lead sul-
fide) then converts this chopped IR signal into an electrical
signal. A pick-off is used on the reticle to enable phase sen-
sitive detection to allow the error signal to yield pitch and
yaw. An automatic gain control (AGC) is used to prevent
saturation of the electronic amplifiers and filters. The gim-
baled head allows fields of regard (FOR) typically in excess
of 90◦ .
Several different reticle designs have been developed to
optimize their tracking capability with the one of the simplest
referred to as the rising-sun reticle, see Figure 2. It consists of
a null-phase portion that only transmits 50% of the radiation,
to set the AGC within the seeker and generate the phase with
respect to the pick-off. The other section alternates between
100 and 0% transmission to produce an amplitude modulated
carrier. The closer the image is to the axis the smaller the
amplitude of the square wave produced. Hence this produces
a time-referenced waveform that provides spatial information
of the image with respect to the optical axis of the seeker
(center of the reticle).
Legitimate targets are distinguished from background
IR sources by the degree of amplitude modulation. Large
sources, such as clouds, produce little (if any) modulation,

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DOI: 10.1002/9780470686652.eae283
 2 Radar

Figure 1. Block diagram of first generation (spin-scan) seeker.

as no single hot spot can be identified as the reticle rotates impact fuse and has a minimum engagement altitude of 50 m.
through its target sensing section. These types of weapon are often referred to as a man-portable
The uncooled lead sulfide detectors usually used in this air defense systems (MANPADs).
generation of seekers have a peak sensitivity at <3 ␮m. These Once this type of seeker has maneuvered the missile body
systems therefore typically operate in the near IR 2–2.7 ␮m so that the target is in the center of its field of view (FOV),
atmospheric window, which tends to limit such missiles to it suffers from axial insensitivity and starts to hunt back and
rear engagements as the detector can only discern the hot forth. This is a result of the seeker effectively losing all fine
metal parts of the engine and the hotter water emission in the directional information on the target because of a lack of
plume. amplitude modulation at the center of the reticle. This leads
Improvements to the rising-sun design included adding
curved radials to the reticle to reduce the chance of being
spoofed by straight edge IR emitters such as the horizon (see
Figure 3).
An example of a first generation IR missiles is the Strela-2
(SA-7 “Grail”). Originally fielded by the Soviet military in
1968, the SA-7 is one of the simplest versions of this type of
weapon (see Figure 4). Widely proliferated, it poses a major
threat to aircraft without any countermeasure (CM) systems,
although, it is limited to rear aspect engagements. It has an

Figure 2. Rising-sun reticle. Showing amplitude modulation and

null-phase sector. Adapted from Hudson (1969)
c John Wiley &
Sons, Ltd. Figure 3. Improved first generation reticle.

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DOI: 10.1002/9780470686652.eae283

Figure 4. SA-7 a first generation seeker system.
to poor hit probabilities for engagements with even a small
level of crossing rate. This axial insensitivity was removed by
rotating the optical axis as used in second generation systems.
2.2 Second generation seekers
Second generation seekers (often referred to as Con-Scan)
used a stationary reticle with a rotating optical system to yield
a square wave on axis and hence remove the axial insensitivity
of the first generation systems. This can be seen in Figure 5,
where the secondary mirror is tilted and the primary and sec-
ondary mirror are rotated. This yields a nutation circle image
motion on the stationary reticle.
Figure 5. Second generation seeker schematic.
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Electro-Optic Imaging and Tracking Systems 3
Figure 6. Wagon wheel reticle showing frequency modulation out-
puts.
The reticle in the second generation system is usually
referred to as a wagon wheel reticle and can be seen in
Figure 6.
When the target is on-axis a centered nutation circle is
produced, yielding a constant square wave (with no frequency
variation – this is the tone played into the earpiece of many
systems). As the target moves off-axis a frequency modulated
waveform is produced. Again a pick off from the rotating
optical system is used to enable the computation of the axial
error in terms of pitch and yaw.
More sensitive detector materials were also introduced to
facilitate all-aspect tracking. These cooled detectors, used
 4 Radar
Figure 7. AIM-9L a second generation seeker system.
materials such as indium antimonide for detection in the mid-
IR 3–5 ␮m atmospheric window (see Figure 3). Operating at
longer wavelengths allowed cooler parts of the engine, hot
parts of the airframe, and the cooler CO2 emissions in the
exhaust plume to be detected, thus allowing wider angles of
engagement. There are many options for cooling the detector,
arguably the most common method is via a Joule-Thomson
(JT) cooler with a small bottle of argon or nitrogen or dry air.
An example of this second generation system is the ubiq-
uitous AIM-9L (Sidewinder) see Figure 7.
Other examples of this type of system in the MANPAD
role are the US Redeye and basic Stinger and the Soviet
Strela-3 (SA-14). The Chinese QW-1 (Vanguard) is also prob-
ably this type of generation system, as is the Pakistani-built
version Anza Mk 1.
There is however another type of second generation (con-
scan) seeker as typified by the French MANPAD Mistral.
This still uses a nutation circle but does not have a reticle and
instead has four detectors arranged in an open-cross forma-
tion to yield the FM output (see Figure 8). Again when the
Figure 8. Open-cross detector showing frequency modulation outputs.
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Axis of
Rotating Detect
Figure 9. Risley prisms to generate pseudo image scanning.
target is on axis, the system produces a square wave (four
equi-spaced detector outputs); where as when the target is
off axis, a frequency modulated square wave is produced
(unequal spacing of the detector outputs).
The Soviet Igla (SA-16 Gimlet) and Igla-1 (SA-18 Grouse)
are possibly this type of seeker as is the Chinese QW-2 and
the Pakistani-built Anza Mk 2.
2.3 Third generation seekers
The third generation seeker systems are often referred to as
Pseudo Imaging Systems as they rely on creating a simulated
image of the target by moving the IR signal over the detector.
This is achieved by rotating a couple of offset mirrors or
Risley prisms (see Figure 9) to produce a specified pattern on
the detector. The shape of the scan pattern varies according
to the relative rotation rate and direction of rotation of the
mirrors or prisms.
Scan patterns are optimized to meet various specifications
although the most widely used is the Rosette scan due to
its re-visiting the axis after each petal of the rosette (see
Figure 10).
The major advantages of this type of system are increased
lock-on range and robustness to CMs in part due to the smaller
instantaneous FOV of the detector.
An example of a third Generation IR missile is the MAN-
PAD Stinger-RMP (reprogrammable microprocessor). It has

Figure 10. Risely scan patterns. (a) Linear; (b) rosette; (c) circular; and (d) spiral.
more robust flare rejection mechanism including using a dual
mode IR/UV detector in its rosette scan. The UV detector
looks for a negative contrast signal as the airframe blocks
the Rayleigh scattered solar radiation. The IR signal from the
plume has to coincide with the recovery of the UV signature
for a valid target enable. The IR detector is JT cooled with
argon and is operational in less than 5 s. See Figure 11.
It is also claimed by some that the Soviet SA-16/SA-18
are also an example of this generation of seeker by virtue of
the fact that a UV detector is used in its CM (guard) channel.
2.4 Fourth generation seekers
The fourth generation of seekers are characterized by multi-
element detectors that produce an image of the target on the
focal plane. Often referred as Imaging Infrared (I2 R) seekers,
the individual detectors can either be arranged linearly, with
a scanner to produce an image, or as a staring focal plane
Figure 11. Stinger-RMP a third generation seeker system.
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Electro-Optic Imaging and Tracking Systems 5
array. A further development of this technology is likely to
see the use of multi-color infrared seekers thus increasing
their defense against CMs. Although more robust and less
susceptible to jamming, array seekers are currently far more
expensive to produce than all the earlier generations and have
not proliferated to the same extent. Image size and computing
power is also an issue with this generation of seeker. Obvi-
ously the smaller the number of pixels in the image the easier
the computation task but the poorer the resolution on the tar-
get. Figure 12 is an illustration of a typical target at range on
a starring array.
There are many examples of fourth generation IR mis-
siles being produced. On the MANPAD front, the US Stinger
Block 2, which was to be fielded circa 2000, was to con-
sist of a 128 × 128 or 256 × 256 3–5 ␮m indium antimonide
staring focal plane array, primarily to increase its acquisition
capability (especially in ground clutter). This program was
essentially put on hold due to cost implications. It is how-
ever reasonable to assume that such a MANPAD could be
fielded relatively quickly (5 years) as evidenced by a similar
hold on the US anti-tank Javelin program. This has a staring
focal plane array in the seeker, and despite the hold has now
entered service with the US army.
Currently though, it is fair to say that most fourth genera-
tion systems are in the air-to-air role, for example:
Figure 12. Illustration of a typical target on a staring array.
 6 Radar
r The German IRIS-T allegedly uses a scanning array of two
staggered 64 element linear rows of indium antimonide
detectors working in the 3–5 ␮m mid-IR region. It has an
180◦ FOR and an active laser fuze.
r The Israeli Python 4 has a stabilized seeker slaved to the
pilots helmet mounted sight with 60◦ off-boresight capa-
bility and allegedly uses a two color all aspect IR staring
array. (Python 5 is claimed to be a Hughes 128 × 128
staring focal plane array in three IR bands).
r The UK ASRAAM uses a 128 × 128 staring array of
indium antimonide detectors working in the 3–5 ␮m mid-
IR region. It has an 180◦ FOR, can be cued by the pilot’s
helmet and has demonstrated the ability to select an aim
point on the target aircraft. It has an impact and active
laser fuze.
r The US AIM 9X (Sidewinder-Next Generation). Cur-
rently in its last year of Engineering and Manufacturing
Development. It is alleged to have the same staring array
as ASRAAM and is cued by the pilot’s helmet sight. It
claims its adaptive and advanced processing gives it supe-
rior target acquisition and IR CM rejection capabilities.
3 PLATFORM SURVIVABILITY
The are obviously many things that can be done to or
attempted by the aircraft platform in order to reduce the
threat of attack and to mitigate any effects of such an attack.
This concept is usually termed Survivability. Some of the
options/concepts of survivability are shown in Figure 13.
3.1 Signature control
Clearly the reduction in infrared signature, in the waveband
in which the seeker is operating, could reduce the likely
success of the IRSAM. However most aircraft, especially
Figure 13. The concept of platform survivability.
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commercial aircraft, are built with little to no considera-
tion of their infrared signature. Also the aircraft currently
in-service (legacy platforms) are likely to remain in-service
for many years to come. Hence any modifications are likely
to be appliquétechniques or require significant re-fit work.
Any such techniques must also have little to no impact on
engine efficiency, mass and aerodynamic performance, oth-
erwise any fuel consumption issues would be viewed in a
poor light by operators who are already working in a highly
competitive commercial environment.
3.2 Maneuver
In the military context this can clearly be a significant factor.
However, for commercial aircraft the ability to maneuver is
severely restricted. The standard final approach of a 3◦ glide
path and standard departure profiles means that the threat
footprint is extremely large and can be measured in tens of
kilometers along the flight path direction7 .
3.3 Weapons
Again in the military context, the location of the threat and
the use of counter-fire may be an applicable technique, but
clearly this is not appropriate in the commercial world.
3.4 Defensive aids system (DAS)
This is the area where the feed through from the military to the
commercial sector may have the most benefit. Military sys-
tems could be adapted and fitted to commercial aircraft which
could significantly reduce the likely effects of an IRSAM
attack. There would still clearly be issues in terms of cost,
maintenance and maintenance time, mean time between fail-
ure, and any aircraft performance issues.
4 LASER APPLICATIONS
The variety and capabilities of lasers, since there first devel-
opment with the Ruby laser (λ = 693.4 nm) in 1960, have
increased dramatically the years. Lasers now occupy a place
in practically every home from the lasers in home entertain-
ment systems to laser pointers. However, it was with their
military applications that lasers are possibly best known. In
the following sections the common applications of lasers will
be presented.

Laser Telescope Laser light out
Photodiode
Range counter Amplifier
Gate
Oscillator
Amplifier
Detector Laser light in
Figure 14. Schematic of a laser range finder.
4.1 Range finding (LRF)
Prior to the development of laser rangefinders in the 1960s
range finding to targets was performed with relatively crude
techniques using marks on a reticule within a sight or by
ballistic means using a secondary weapon with well charac-
terized flight properties (usually guns). With the advent of
the laser rangefinder it is possible to determine the range to
an object to within a few meters.
Laser range finding employs a pulsed laser (usually pulses
of <50 ns duration). A range finder schematic is given in
Figure 14.
The laser pulse is emitted and the light is directed through
a telescope, often to reduce the initial divergence of the laser.
A small portion of the laser light (<1%) is sampled from the
beam using a beam splitter and direction onto a photodiode.
The signal generated is amplified and used to start a counter.
The emitted pulse is incident upon the object of interest
and the light is scattered from the object. Some of the light
will be directed back to the rangefinder which incorporates a
detector. The signal from the detector is amplified and used
to stop the counter.
Hence the system has determined, via the counter, the time
taken for light to travel to and from the target. From this, and
the velocity of light it is possible to determine the range, R,
to the target.
c(T1 − T0 )
R=
2 This radar related problem may be solved by the use of the
Where c is the velocity of light, T0 and T1 are the times
at which the laser pulse is emitted and detected respectively.
The factor of 2 is used to take account of the double path, that
is, out to the object and back again.
Pulsed lasers are used for range finding due their high peak
intensities and the short duration of the pulse improves the
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Electro-Optic Imaging and Tracking Systems 7
range accuracy. Most modern range finders use ns duration
pulses and contain autocorrelation algorithms to ensure that
it is the peak to peak time that is measured, further improving
accuracy. Typical rangefinder characteristics are:
r Moderate repetition rates, ∼1 Hz
r <50 ns pulse length
r Divergence <0.3 mrad
r Nd:YAG technology, λ = 1064 nm
r Laser energy ∼50 mJ, ranges ∼kms.
The beam divergence is a key parameter when applied to
range finding. Divergences of <0.3 mrad are vital in order
to ensure that the desired object is the only surface illumi-
nated. 0.3 mrad corresponds to an increase in beam size of
0.3 m km−1 of range. Hence, at 3 km the beam has grown by
nearly 1 m. Any larger divergence and the risk of over and
under spill become significant, potentially providing false
signals from foreground and background surfaces.
The first range finders used the Ruby laser (λ = 694.3 nm),
but this has been replaced by the mature Nd:YAG laser
(λ = 1064 nm). Further developments in laser technology
have led to the development of rangefinders using the Erbium
laser and Raman shifted Nd:YAG, both operating at 1.54 µm.
This has been done since the human eye is particularly vul-
nerable to laser induced damage from pulsed lasers if the laser
wavelength is transmitted by the eye, and hence focused onto
the retina.
4.2 Light detection and ranging (LIDAR)
The primary difference between lidar and radar is that lidar
uses a laser as the electro-magnetic radiation source and
hence, uses much shorter wavelengths. When using radar
wavelengths objects which possess a dielectric discontinuity
reflect the transmitted wave. Hence metallic objects normally
produce strong reflections.
Conversely non-metallic objects and materials produce
weaker radar reflections and some materials may produce
no detectable radar reflection at all, and are thus effectively
invisible at radar wavelengths. This is particularly true for
very small objects such as aerosols (smokes, clouds, etc.).
(1)
shorter laser wavelengths which are more readily “reflected”
from smaller objects. In reality the light is not actually
reflected, but more accurately scattered from the objects of
interest.
The relatively narrow beam width and divergence of a laser
and the potential to use short pulse lengths (down to 10−9 s in
most range finding applications) means that physical features
 8 Radar
Figure 15. Schematic of a LIDAR system used to scan a scene.
can be “mapped” with very high resolution compared to
radar.
A simple LIDAR system relies upon the principle of laser
range finding (already described above). The laser is used to
scan a scene and range measurements are taken at specific
angle intervals. This is shown in the schematic of Figure 15.
In the case of very small objects, such as smokes, par-
ticulates, droplets, and so on, the scattering process used is
referred to generically as backscatter since the light detected
is scattered back toward the laser source (and detector). The
scattering processes are more accurately:
r Rayleigh scattering
r Mie scattering and
r Raman scattering.
Doppler LIDAR (also known as LADAR) is used to mea-
sure velocities by detecting the small Doppler shifts in the
frequency of the back scattered laser light. The frequency of
light “reflected” from a moving object is given by:


v
f = f0 1 ± (2)
c
Where f0 is the frequency of the laser source, c the velocity
of light and v is the velocity of the object. The ± is present
since “+” indicates the object is moving toward the source,
“−” indicates away. It should be noted that v  c, and hence
f is small. That is, for visible light (λ = 500 nm) and a target
traveling at 800 ms−1 (toward the laser), then f = 6 × 1014 Hz,
and f = 6.000 016 × 1014 Hz. Hence f = 1.6 × 109 Hz.
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Figure 16. A Paveway laser guided bomb.
4.3 Target designation
Laser designation is the process whereby a munition is guided
onto a target using laser light scattered from that target. Laser
designation was first employed operationally in 1968 by the
USAF during the Vietnam War using a ruby pulsed laser to
designate the target and modified bombs with seekers and
canards to detect the laser light and so attack the target. A
typical modern example is the Paveway laser guided bomb
(LGB), shown in Figure 16.
The designation process involves a laser beam directed at
the chosen target; this may be mounted on the aircraft carrying
the bomb, or remotely located either on another aircraft or on
the ground. Normally the bomb is released and allowed to
freefall (or more accurately “glide”) in the general direction
of the target. The target is illuminated by the laser as the
bomb approaches. Pulsed lasers are used due their very high
peak intensities. A detector mounted on the bomb responds to
the laser illumination scattered from the target and steers the
bomb by activating canards on the bomb so that it “glides”
toward to laser point. LGBs are not powered, nor are they
directed “down the beam.” They respond to light scattered
off the target. A typical engagement sequence is shown in
Figure 17.
Typical laser designator parameters are:
r High repetition rates, up to 20 Hz
r Divergence ∼ 0.1 mrad
r ∼15 ns pulse length
r Nd:YAG technology, λ = 1064 nm
r Laser energy 100 mJ +
r Ranges ∼ 10 km.

Figure 17. A typical laser designation and attack sequence.
Although the repetition rate is given as typically 20 Hz it is
common for the laser pulse train to be encoded, either by rep-
etition rate and/or by the number of pulses within a “burst.”
Each LGB is then set to respond to a single encoded desig-
nator beam. By so doing it is possible to employ many LGBs
within the same environment without the risk of them attack-
ing each other’s targets. A typical LGB engagement may last
for approximately a minute or more as the bomb approaches
the target, however, the laser designator is typically only used
for the last 5–12 s of the bombs flight. As with rangefinding
it is desirable to use a laser with a relatively low divergence
in order to ensure that the target is properly illuminated by
the laser as opposed to the foreground or background.
For the reasons already discussed relating to laser
rangefinders, there has been a general move away from the
Nd:YAG (λ = 1064 nm) to the “eye safe” 1.54 ␮m wave-
length.
4.4 Target marking
Laser target marking is the simple process of indicating an
object to friendly forces, without actually ranging or direct-
ing munitions onto the point where the laser is incident. This
is commonly done in the visible band using laser pointers
and in the near IR using laser pointers in conjunction with
image intensifiers (night vision goggles). These techniques
have utility where, for example, ground troops, equipped with
an IR pointer wish to mark a target to accompanying aircraft
whose pilots are using NVGs, but no laser guided munitions
are available. The key requirement is that the electro-optic
(EO) systems employed have a response at the laser wave-
length in use. The technique has been employed where the
enemy is known not to process appropriate EO systems to
detect the laser light. Hence, although technically an active
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Electro-Optic Imaging and Tracking Systems 9
process there is a low probability of intercept (LPI) and the
technique may be considered to be covert.
4.5 Dazzle
If an EO sensor is employed by a system then it is possible
that laser light may be used to cause dazzle within that sys-
tem. The requirement is that the laser light be in-band to the
sensor/detector. That is to say; that the sensor has a response
at the laser wavelength in use. Typical EO systems have the
wavelength responses given in the table below.
Approximate response
EO system region (␮m)
Human eye 0.4–0.7
Image intensifier (night vision 0.5–1 (actual response varies
goggles) depending upon type)
Missile seeker (mid IR) 2–5
Thermal imager (far IR) 8–12
It should be noted that the systems listed may still allow
laser light to be transmitted to the sensor across a wider
wavelength band, but it is the systems response to the laser
wavelength that is required. Hence, the human eye will trans-
mit light of wavelengths up to ∼1.4 ␮m, but the response is
generally confined to the 0.4–0.7 ␮m region of the spectrum.
Hence, light of wavelength 1 ␮m will be transmitted by the
human eye, but the observer will not see the light.
The process of dazzle, or veiling glare, is simply the sat-
uration of a detector by incident light, be it laser or ambient.
In the case of most detectors dazzle thresholds of only a few
␮W cm−2 on the detector/sensor are necessary to cause some
level of saturation. These levels are very low in the range
of available laser outputs and it is reasonable to assume that
laser dazzle will be caused by relatively low output contin-
uous wave (or CW) lasers, such as laser pointers and some
CW laboratory systems. It should also be realized that daz-
zle is a temporary effect. Once the laser source is removed
from the scene the image should return to normal with no
permanent, or lasting effects. In the case of the human eye, a
non-permanent after image may remain for several minutes,
even hours, after exposure.
Under dazzled, or saturation, conditions the detector sys-
tem will be unable to detect any changes in the ambient light
levels in the region of the saturation since the laser light i
much more intense than the ambient background. As the
incident dazzling power is increased the level and size of
the saturated region will increase, though the nature of this is
dependent upon the type of detector in use.
 10 Radar
Figure 18. Dazzle of a thermal imager in the far IR (8–12 ␮m).
Figure 18 shows a dazzled scene taken using a thermal
imager. The laser in use to achieve such dazzle might be a
CO2 laser, since the output wavelengths would be detected
by the thermal imager. The image shows clearly the saturated
region within the FOV and the loss of scene and detail is
apparent.
In Figure 19 dazzle of a color camera is shown using
a green laser pointer. This is of particular interest since
this scene is similar to that which a person may perceive
when the human eye is dazzled. However, under these
conditions it should be realized that the human aversion
response may take effect and the laser light may be painful to
observe.
Figure 19. Dazzle of a color camera using a green laser pointer.
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With the proliferation of inexpensive cw laser pointers
and their ease of use attacks on the airborne platforms have
become increasingly common across the world. To date hun-
dreds of pilots, both civil and military, have reported laser
“incidents” where they have been dazzled by laser sources
from the ground. For safety reasons these events have been
of significant concern, though no events to date have resulted
in the loss of any aircraft.
4.6 Damage
The very high peak intensities associated with pulsed lasers
means that they are prone to producing permanent damage
in EO systems including the human eye. EO systems rely on
collecting light from a scene and focusing that light onto a
detector/sensor. This focusing process means that the light
intensity on the objective lens may increase by a factor of up
to 105 on the sensor; hence the sensor (or other focal plane
optics) may be vulnerable to laser damage effects.
Unlike dazzle (where the incident light must be “in-band”
to the detector) for damage to occur all that is required is for
the pulsed laser light to have access to the detector/sensor
– response at the laser wavelength is not required. For the
laser pulse length regions most commonly encountered (10−6
to 10−9 s) the laser damage threshold of most materials is
∼1 J cm−2 . The damage process itself is dependent upon
the material and is most commonly thermally driven, that
is, the amount of laser energy absorbed as heat causes a
expansion in a material over a very localized region. The
resultant thermal discontinuity causes damage or the temper-
ature rise may be sufficient to cause vaporization of a portion
of the material. This effect may be observed in the case of
retinal damage. Pulsed laser light is so hazardous that it is
required to be strictly controlled by safety standards, particu-
larly where exposure to the human eye may be an issue. The
human eye is particularly vulnerable to laser damage due to a
layer within the retina called the retinal pigmented epithelium
(RPE). This layer contains light absorbing melanin particles
in order to reduce stray scattered light within the eye. How-
ever, the RPE layer also absorbs incident laser light. Hence,
the melanin particles become heated and explode. The sever-
ity of the injury varies dependent upon exposure but 1 mJ
of laser light, focused within the eye onto the retina, will
cause a major hemorrhagic lesion. Such an injury is shown in
Figure 20.
The result of the injury of Figure 20 may be considered as
permanent, irrecoverable, blinding – though some peripheral
vision may remain. In the example shown the fovea and mac-
ula (where the photoreceptors – cones and rods are located)
at the center of the image gathering retina have suffered a

Figure 20. A major hemorrhagic lesion caused by a pulsed laser.
massive injury. Whilst the injury will subside photoreceptors
are permanently destroyed.
4.7 Laser retro-reflection detection
Of increasing interest is the process of retro-reflection detec-
tion. This is simply the “cat’s eye” effect.
All optical systems incorporate a detector or sensor. This is
invariable located at a focal plane within the optical system, to
ensure that the image or scene is in focus when viewed. Imag-
ine now that as light (photons) are incident upon that sensor
that a portion of them, rather being absorbed and detected,
are instead reflected from the detector surface. If this is the
case then imaging optics, such as lenses, will re-collect this
reflected light and direct it back to the source. This is shown
schematically in Figure 21.
Figure 21 shows a simple optical system comprising an
objective lens, imaging lenses, and a detector. In addition an
optical element is located at an intermediate focal plane. In
reality this might be a graticule, aiming marks, or similar,
within the sight. In the Figure 21a the laser illumination (the
black solid line) is on-axis, hence the laser is in the center of
the systems FOV. The “rays” can be easily traced as a reflec-
tion (the grey solid line) arises from each focal plane surface.
In the lower figure the laser illumination is now off-axis, that
is, at the edge of the FOV. Despite this the light reflected from
the focal plane elements is still directed back to the source.
This is the key difference between retro-reflection and “nor-
mal” specular reflections: in the case of retro-reflections the
incident light is directed back to the source. This process is
used to advantage in reflective studs in the center and edges
of road carriageways. The military utility of retro-reflection
Encyclopedia of Aerospace Engineering, Online © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article was published in the Encyclopedia of Aerospace Engineering in 2010 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9780470686652.eae283
Electro-Optic Imaging and Tracking Systems 11
(a) Objective lens Focal plane Imaging lenses Detector
(b)
Figure 21. The phenomenon of retro-reflection: (a) on axis; and (b)
off axis.
detection is apparent. All military platforms use EO sensors
retro-reflection detection may provide a simple counter to
camouflage. It should be kept in mind that retro-reflection
detection itself is an active process and that if the laser wave-
length in use is in-band to the EO device detected then the
laser itself may be detected in turn. This lack of covertness
may not be an issue where the site/region being defended is
itself not covert. Also of concern is the fact that in order to
detect a sight the sight must first be looking in the general
direction of the detection system, albeit probably anywhere
in the FOV. Hence, a “coincident FOV” scenario is required.
Almost all optical systems/sights exhibit a retro-reflection
to some degree since any surface close to a focal plane
will act as a source of retro-reflections (see Figure 22).
The detectability of optical systems is given by the retro-
reflection cross-section. Retro-reflection cross-section, s, is
defined as the ratio of the reflected light per unit solid angle
and the incident light per unit area. Hence s = IR (W str−1 )/
I0 (W m−2 ). Hence the units of retro-reflection cross-section
are m2 sr−1 .
Figure 22. Retro-reflections from alligator eyes due to the camera
flash.
 12 Radar
The typical retro-reflection cross-sections of optical sys-
tems might be:
r Human eye: 0.001 m2 sr−1
r Sight (low): 10 m2 sr−1
r Sight (high): 500 + m2 sr−1
r CCD array camera: 750 + m2 sr−1
r Image intensifier: 1000 + m2 sr−1
Signatures of specific sights are classified but this can be
taken as a guide. Nowadays it is likely that the signature of a
sight may be specified during procurement and so measures
may be taken to reduce the sights signature.
Besides the obvious military utility of the technique there
has been increasing interest within the commercial world
including counter paparazzi, VIP protection, general counter-
surveillance, and even to detect concealed cameras in cinemas
used to produce “pirated” films.
5 CONCLUSIONS
Since their first development in the 1950s IR seekers for
missile applications have demonstrated their viability. Their
evolution from spin-scan reticle seekers to more advanced
and robust imaging seekers has been presented, and the dif-
ferences between each technology type has been presented.
In addition the principles of the common laser roles of range
Encyclopedia of Aerospace Engineering, Online © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article was published in the Encyclopedia of Aerospace Engineering in 2010 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9780470686652.eae283
finding, LIDAR and target designation for laser guided muni-
tions has been presented. The more novel laser applications
such as laser dazzle has been discussed, as well as laser dam-
age. The laser also has a role to play in counter-surveillance,
where incident laser light may be retro-reflected from inter-
nal, near focal plane surfaces within a sight.
REFERENCES
DelBoca, R. (2003) (Vice-president of Infrared Countermeasure
Systems for Northrop Grumman Corporation) (March 2003)
Testimony to the House Transportation and Infrastructure
Committee – Aviation Subcommittee.
Hudson, R.D. (1969) Infrared Systems Engineer Ring, Wiley.
Hunter, T.B. (2002) The proliferation of MANPADS, Jane’s.
Jane’s International Defence Review, April 2004.
Jane’s Intelligence Review, January 2003.
FURTHER READING
Anderberg, B. et al. (1993) Laser Weapons: The Dawn of a New
Military Age, Plenum Publishing.
Hock, Richardson, Butters, Walmsley, Ayling, and Taylor (2005)
The MANPAD Threat to commercial aircraft. Battlefield Tech-
nol., 8(2).
Richardson, M.A. et al. (1997) Surviellance and Target Acquisition
Systems, 2nd edn, Brassey’s.