Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, Vol. 20, No.

2, 1998

Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Multi-Attitude

Suicide Tendency Scale
Anne H. Hagstrom1 and Peter M. Gutierrez1,2
Accepted: March 11, 1998

This paper reports an examination of the factor structure of Orbach's

Multi-Attitude Suicide Tendency Scale (MAST) utilizing confirmatory factor
analytic techniques. Participants were 215 undergraduate students ranging in
age from 18 to 20 who completed the MAST, the Reynolds Adolescent
Depression Scale, the Suicide Ideation Questionnaire, and a self-harmful
behavior scale. Support was found for the original factor structure, reliability,
and validity of the MAST. A correlated model fit the data significantly better
than an uncorrelated model. The results of this study indicate that the MAST
is a valid and reliable measure appropriate for use with college-aged individuals
for research purposes. Because the correlated model fit the data better than
the uncorrelated, we suggest that future studies should attempt to replicate this
finding, which would lead to a reexamination of the theory which underlies
the MAST.
KEY WORDS: suicide; risk assessment; psychometrics; college students.

INTRODUCTION

Attitudes about life and death have been posited as having an impor-
tant role in adolescent suicidality (e.g., Gutierrez, King, & Ghaziuddin,
1996; Orbach, 1988). However, there is a lack of reliable measures available
for use in assessing these attitudes (Orbach et al., 1991). Based on his pre-
vious research and theoretical work, Orbach et al. (1991) developed the

1 Northern Illinois University.

2To whom correspondence should be addressed at Department of Psychology, Northern Illinois
University, DeKalb, Illinois 60115-2892.

173
0882-2689/98/0600-0173$15.00/0 © 1998 Plenum Publishing Corporation
174 Hagstrom and Gutierrez

Multi-Attitude Suicide Tendency Scale for Adolescents (MAST) to measure

attraction to and repulsion by life and death in an attempt to address this
gap in measurement tools. Although the four attitudes are seen as inter-
related, they are unique in that they are believed not to be points on a
single continuum. Repulsion by life (RL) reflects such experiences as pain
and stress, and attraction to death (AD) represents religious convictions
or perceptions that death is a superior way of being. Attraction to life (AL)
is based on the degree of satisfaction with life and a sense of well being
and repulsion by death (RD) reflects fears of death (Orbach et al., 1991).
An exploratory factor analysis with orthogonal rotation was conducted and
four factors, comprised of 30 items, emerged accounting for 52% of the
variance. The internal consistencies for the four factors were reported with
alpha levels ranging from .76 to .83. Each item is scored on a scale of 1
(strongly agree) to 5 (strongly disagree), with each factor score computed
as the mean of the items for the factor (Orbach et al., 1991).
A majority of Orbach's work on developing the MAST has been con-
ducted with Israeli children and adolescents, which raises concern about
the usefulness of this measure with other populations. However, two recent
studies have examined the reliability and validity of the MAST with U.S.
samples and found support for the factor structure and the ability of the
measure to distinguish suicidal from nonsuicidal youth (Osman, Barrios,
Grittmann, & Osman, 1993; Osman et al., 1994). Osman and colleagues
(Osman et al., 1993, 1994) utilized principal-components analysis to evalu-
ate the orthogonal factor structure of the MAST in two samples of youths
in the United States. In their study of college students (Osman et al., 1993),
factor analytic results revealed that the factor structure closely matched
that found by Orbach et al. (1991) with the exception of three items that
did not load significantly. Good internal consistency was found for the four
subscales, ranging from .71 to .89. Three of the subscales (AL, RL, and
AD) significantly distinguished those students who reported no or brief sui-
cidal ideation from those students who reported seriously considering or
previously attempting suicide. Correlations with two measures of suicidality
suggested strong concurrent validity for all subscales of the MAST except
the RD scale (Osman et al., 1993).
In their subsequent study with a younger adolescent sample, explora-
tory factor analysis again supported the structure of the MAST with the
exception of two items failing to load as expected (Osman et al., 1994).
Internal consistency was evidenced by alphas ranging from .74 to .91. Group
differences were found for the AD, RL, and AL scales. Specifically, non-
suicidal psychiatric and high school groups, compared with the suicidal
group, had significantly higher scores on the AL scale. The suicidal group
had significantly higher scores than the nonsuicidal control groups on the
MAST Factor Analysis 175

RL and AD scales. Correlations with two measures of suicidality again sug-

gested strong validity for all subscales of the MAST] except for RD (Osman
et al., 1994).
The validity of the MAST has been supported by a study examining
the interrelationship of gender, attitudes, and suicidality in U.S. college stu-
dents which found that the combination of the RL and RD subscales of
the MAST-A (Adolescent) accounted for approximately 25% of the vari-
ance in scores on a measure of suicidality (Payne & Range, 1995). Gender
differences were found for the AD subscale such that females showed
greater attraction to death than males. Women also reported higher levels
of suicidality than men (Payne & Range, 1995).
Gutierrez et al. (1996) provided further support for the validity of the
MAST in their study of psychiatric inpatient adolescents. Results indicated
that adolescents who reported greater suicidal ideation showed strong at-
traction to death and repulsion by life while showing low attraction to life.
Similar findings emerged with regard to level of depression. In addition,
adolescents who reported a history of suicidal behavior, compared to ado-
lescents who reported no history, expressed strong repulsion by life and
attraction to death but low attraction to life.
The primary purpose of the present study was to confirm the factor
structure of the MAST derived by Orbach et al. (1991) using confirmatory
factor analytic techniques. Researchers have begun to use confirmatory fac-
tor analysis as a follow-up to, or in lieu of, exploratory factor analysis be-
cause of the limits of exploratory factor analysis in answering questions
regarding structural validity (Bryant & Yarnold, 1995). While exploratory
factor analysis can suggest a factor structure of attitudes about life and
death, confirmatory factor analysis allows the investigators to test the good-
ness of fit of the proposed model. An additional goal of this study was to
examine the psychometric characteristics of the MAST with a sample of
college students to provide further support for the reliability and validity
of the scale and to assess possible group differences.

METHOD

Participants and Procedures

Two hundred twenty-nine undergraduate psychology students from a

medium sized Midwestern university completed the study materials and re-
ceived course credit for their participation. However, due to age restrictions
of several of the measures used (e.g., the RADS and SIQ are not appro-
priate for individuals older than 20), 14 subjects were dropped from the
176 Hagstrom and Gutierrez

analyses after participant ages were calculated. The final sample was com-
prised of 113 male and 102 female introductory psychology students. The
sample was composed of 72.1% freshmen, 26.0% sophomores, and 1.9%
juniors. The racial composition of the sample was primarily Caucasian
(72.1%), 14.0% were African American, 6.5% were Asian American, 4.2%
were Latino, and 3.2% were members of other racial groups. Participants
ranged in age from 18 to 20 years with a mean of 18.89 years (SD = .65
years). The materials were administered to small groups of participants and
took approximately 1 hr to complete.

Measures

Multi-Attitude Suicide Tendency Scale (MAST; Orbach et al., 1991). The

MAST is a 30-item scale which measures attitudes on four components-
attraction to life/death and repulsion by life/death (Orbach et al., 1991).
Each item is presented on a 5-point scale from 1 (strongly agree) to 5
(strongly disagree). To be consistent with previous research (A. Osman, per-
sonal communication, May 2, 1997) and to facilitate interpretation of data
analyses, the items for each subscale were reverse scored. A mean item
response is calculated for each of the four attitude subscales, with higher
scores reflecting greater agreement. Reliability and validity for the MAST
have been supported (Orbach et al., 1991; Osman et al., 1993, 1994).
Reynolds Adolescent Depression Scale (RADS; Reynolds, 1987a). The
RADS is a 30-item self-report measure designed to assess the level of de-
pressive symptomatology in adolescents. Each item is rated on a four point
scale from 1 (almost never) to 4 (most of the time). The RADS demon-
strates good internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha ranging from .90 to
.96), acceptable test-retest reliability (Davis, 1990), and moderately high
item-total correlations (r=.40 to r=.70; Reynolds, 1987a). Convergent va-
lidity is evidenced by correlations with other measures of depression (Davis,
1990).
Suicide Ideation Questionnaire (SIQ; Reynolds, 1987b). The SIQ is a
30-item self-report measure which provides a reliable and valid estimate
of an individual's current level of suicidal ideation. Each item is rated on
a 7-point scale from 6 (almost every day) to 0 (I never had this thought).
The SIQ demonstrates good internal consistency (alpha = .97) as indicated
by both Reynolds (1987b) and Pinto, Whisman, and McCoy (1997). The
SIQ also demonstrates adequate concurrent validity as evidenced by sig-
nificant differences in scores between adolescent psychiatric controls and
both suicidal ideators and attempters (Pinto et al., 1997). Construct validity
is evidenced by moderate correlations in the expected directions between
MAST Factor Analysis 177

the SIQ and measures of hopelessness, depression, and self-esteem, con-

structs that are considered highly related to suicidal behavior (Reynolds,
1987b).
Self-Harmful Behavior Scale (SHB). This scale was developed by the
second author (P.M.G.) to assess the degree to which participants had en-
gaged in potentially dangerous and self-harmful activities. Five general
questions were aimed at assessing history of suicidal behavior as well as
other forms of dangerous behavior which may not have been directly sui-
cidal in nature but where a potential for self-harm existed. If a participant
endorsed any of the items, subsequent information was gathered for each
endorsed item regarding number of times the participant engaged in the
target behavior, age at which the behavior occurred, who was told about
the target behavior, and responses by others to the behavior (e.g., medical
attention, reactions from people). Data from the SHB scale were not used
directly in this study but were used by the authors to rate the participants'
lifetime history of suicidal behavior on the Spectrum of Suicidal Behavior
Scale (Pfeffer, Conte, & Plutchik, 1979; see below).
Spectrum of Suicidal Behavior Scale (SSB; Pfeffer et al., 1979). The SSB
is a 5-point clinician rating scale which was used to score participants' life-
time history of suicidal behavior on a continuum from nonsuicidal to serious
suicide attempts. Information drawn from the Self-Harmful Behaviors Ques-
tionnaire was used to make the SSB ratings. Coding of the SSB for the
current study was conducted by the authors (A.H.H. and P.M.G.). Interrater
reliability for the two raters was .96, with all discrepancies decided by con-
sensus. Interrater reliability for the SSB in previous studies has been found
to range between .70 and 1.0 (Pfeffer, Plutchik, Mizruchi, & Lipkins, 1986).
With this scale, a score of (1) indicates no history of suicidal behavior, (2)
indicates a history of suicidal ideas, (3) indicates a history of suicidal threats,
(4) indicates a history of mild suicidal acts, and (5) indicates a history of at
least one serious attempt. For the purposes of data analysis and to be con-
sistent with previous studies (Pfeffer et al., 1986; Weiner & Pfeffer, 1986),
the 5-point scale was collapsed into a 3-point scale. With the revised scale,
a score of 1 indicates no history of suicidal behavior, 2 indicates a history
of suicidal ideas and threats, and 3 indicates a history of suicidal attempts.

RESULTS

The descriptive statistics and internal consistencies for the four factors
of the MAST are presented in Table I. Overall, these data are similar to
those reported by Orbach et al. (1991) and Osman et al. (1993) and suggest
178 Hagstrom and Gutierrez

Table I. Descriptive Statistics and Internal Consistencies for the Four Factors of the
30-Item MAST
Correlation among factors
Factor Mean (SD) a RL AD AL AD
RL 1.94 (0.63) 0.76 1.00
AD 2.80 (0.61) 0.57 0.07 1.00
AL 4.44 (0.51) 0.77 -0.50 -0.04 1.00
RD 2.26 (0.88) 0.88 0.08 -0.13 -0.09 1.00
Note. MAS
MAST,
T, Multi-At titude Suici
Multi-Attitude Suicide Tendency Scale; RL,
de Tendency RL, irepulsion
repulsion by life; AD, aattraction
ttraction to
AL,, attraction to life; RC
death; AL RD,i. repulsion
remilsion 1by
3v death.

that three of the four subscales of the MAST have good internal consistency
for an American sample of young adults.
In our evaluation of the factor structure of the MAST, we selected
four models to test using confirmatory factor analysis. The first was an or-
thogonal model based on previous research conducted by Orbach and col-
leagues (e.g., Orbach et al., 1991). The second model was an oblique model,
proposed by the authors based on their hypothesis that although the factors
may be measuring distinct attitudes, these attitudes must shift to some ex-
tent in opposition to one another. For example, an increase in attraction
to life could be expected to correspond to some decrease in repulsion by
life. Finally, Bagozzi and Heatherton (1994) noted that it is common to
have a less than satisfactory fit when the measurement model has more
than four or five items for each factor and a large sample size. When this
is the case, inadequate fit may be related to high levels of random error
found in typical items, in addition to the many parameters that must be
estimated. In an attempt to address this issue, Bagozzi and Heatherton
(1994) proposed a method in which subsets of the items within each factor
are summed to create aggregate variables (a partial disaggregation model).
Therefore, we chose to also test both an orthogonal and an oblique partially
disaggregated model given that the composition of the original factors were
based on a large number of items with a relatively large sample.
To understand fully the rationale behind our tests of the model, it is
necessary to review briefly the original underlying theory as proposed by
the creators of the MAST Orbach et al. (1991) were guided in their re-
search on the structure of the MAST by the hypothesis that the four atti-
tudes are interrelated, but unique. Thus, their factor analyses of the MAST
were conducted using orthogonal rotation. In an attempt to confirm the
Orbach et al. (1991) findings, confirmatory factor analysis was performed,
using LISREL 8 (Joreskog & Sorbom, 1993), by constraining each of the
30 items to load only on its associated factor, and the factors were not
MAST Factor Analysis 179

allowed to correlate. The covariance matrix for the 30 items was used to
perform the analysis and parameter estimates were made using the maxi-
mum-likelihood method. Carmines and Mclver (1981) suggest that the chi-
square value in a x2/df ratio should be two to three times greater than the
number of degrees of freedom. As shown in Table II, the chi-square value
was significant and the x2/df ratio indicated a modest fit of the model to
the data. However, due to the sensitivity of the chi-square statistic to sam-
ple size (Bentler & Bonett, 1980), we selected three other fit indices that
have been shown to be resistant to sample size. The comparative fit index
(CFI; Bentler, 1990) compares improvement of the fit of the model to the
baseline of the null model where all of the items are independent and no
common factors are possible. The CFI ranges from 0 to 1 with values
greater than .90 generally accepted as representing an acceptable fit and
values between .80 and .90 indicating a moderate fit of the model to the
data. The root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA; Steiger,
1990) is a measure of discrepancy per degree of freedom, with values of
.05 or less indicating very close fit and values approaching .08 representing
reasonable errors of approximation. The goodness-of-fit index (GFI; Ben-
tier, 1983) is an absolute fit index which measures the relative amount of
variance and covariance that is accounted for by the proposed model. Val-
ues typically range from 0 to 1, with values greater than or equal to .90
indicating acceptable fit. Examination of these additional fit indices for the
orthogonal model suggest that the model provides only a modest fit to the
data (see Table II for fit statistics).
Although Orbach (1988) suggested that these four attitudes are unique
and relatively stable, he believes that a fundamental shift occurs when an
individual is placed under extreme stress or in the presence of certain psy-
chiatric illnesses. When one's attitude on a dimension shifts, the other three
also shift in order to compensate for the change. We hypothesized that
although the factors are distinct, they are not independent. We examined
the factor correlations which indicated that some level of relationship exists
among the factors. Therefore, we chose to compare an oblique model with

Tiible II. Fit Sitatistics for the 30-Item Models Exsimined

Model X2 df X2/df CFI GFI RMSEA
Null 2409.19* 435 5.54 0.00 0.42 0.15
Orthogonal 886.90* 405 2.19 0.76 0.78 0.08
Oblique 806.00* 399 2.02 0.79 0.80 0.07
Note: *p < .001. CFI, comparati'YC fit index; GFI, goodnicss-of-fit irulex; RMSEA, root mean
square error of approximation.
180 Hagstrom and Gutierrez

the orthogonal model to examine whether the oblique model would sig-
nificantly improve the fit.
The oblique model was submitted to LISREL 8 (Joreskog & Sorbom,
1993), constraining each of the 30 items to load only on its associated fac-
tor. In this model, the factors were allowed to correlate. The covariance
matrix for the 30 items was used to perform the analysis and parameter
estimates were made using the maximum-likelihood method. As shown in
Table II, the chi-square, value and additional fit indices again suggest only
a modest fit of the model to the data. However, we can examine whether
one model fits better than another by examining the difference between
the chi-squares of the two models with degrees of freedom equaling the
difference between the degrees of freedom for the two models (Hayduk,
1987). The difference between the chi-squares of the orthogonal and
oblique models indicate that the oblique model provides a significantly bet-
ter fit [Ax2(6)=80.9, p < .001].
Finally, the partially disaggregated models were tested. Bagozzi and
Heatherton (1994) suggested that it is appropriate to use the partially dis-
aggregated model if the factors are composed of more than four or five
items and the sample is large. The original composition of the MAST fac-
tors included seven to nine items for each factor. Bagozzi and Heatherton
suggest that for seven to nine items per factor, it is appropriate to have
two to three aggregate variables for each factor. For our analyses, we
formed three subsets of items for each factor (see Table III for the item
composition of the aggregate variables).
The fit indices of the orthogonal, partially disaggregated measurement
model for the twelve aggregate variables suggest that the model provides
only a modest fit to the data (see Table IV for fit statistics). However, the
fit indices of the oblique partially disaggregated model indicate that the
model provides a satisfactory fit to the data. Examination of the change in
chi-square indicates that the oblique model fits the data significantly better
than the orthogonal model [Ax2(6)=73.3, p < .001].

Table III. Item Composition of the 12 Aggregate Variables

Subscale Agg. 1 Agg. 2 Agg. 3
AL 1,5,6 13,18 25,28
RL 2,9,14 15,16 21,30
AD 8,17,19 22,23 26,27
RD 3,4,7 10,11,12 20,24,29
Note. RL, repulsion by life; AD, attraction to death; AL, attraction
to life; RD, repulsion by death.
MAST Factor Analysis 181

Table IV. Fit Statistics for the Partially Disaggregated Models with 12 Aggregate Variables
Model X2 df X2/df CFI GFI RMSEA
Null 948.96* 66 14.38 0.00 0.53 0.25
Orthogonal 156.91* 54 2.91 0.88 0.90 0.09
Oblique 83.61* 48 1.74 0.96 0.94 0.06
Note. *p < .001. CFI, comparative fit index; GFI, goodness-of-fit index; RMSEA, root mean
square error of approximation.

Validity of the MAST was examined in several ways. Convergent va-

lidity of the four subscales of the MAST was assessed by examining whether
each aggregate variable had a statistically significant factor loading on its
specified factor (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988). Examination of the factor
loadings for each of the aggregate variables on its specified factor reveals
highly significant loadings, with t values ranging from 3.76 to 15.52. Table
V shows the factor loadings along with the associated t values.
Convergent validity was also assessed by examining Pearson correla-
tions between the MAST subscales and measures of suicidal ideation and
depression. The AL, RL, and AD scales were significantly correlated with
the SIQ total score, while the RD subscale was not. The AL, RL, and RD
subscales were also significantly correlated with the RADS total score,
while the AD subscale was not (see Table VI). Spearman correlations were
calculated to examine the relationship of the MAST subscales and a meas-
ure of lifetime suicidal behavior (SSB). The RL and AD scales were sig-

Table V. LISREL Loadings (t Ratios) for the 12 Aggregate Variables of the Correlated
MAST
Aggregate MAST factor
variable
AL RL RD AD
AL1 0.78 (12.11)
AL2 0.60 (08.97)
AL3 0.85 (13.57)
RL1 0.72 (10.83)
RL2 0.77 (11.73)
RL3 0.69 (10.20)
RD1 0.80 (13.44)
RD2 0.88 (15.52)
RD3 0.87 (15.24)
AD1 0.33 (03.76)
AD2 0.91 (05.76)
AD3 0.42 (04.38)
Note. Completely standardized loadings. AL, attraction to life; RL, repulsion by life; RD,
repulsion by death; AD, attraction to death.
182 Hagstrom and Gutierrez

nificantly positively correlated with the SSB score. The RD and AL scales
were not significantly related to past suicidal behavior (see Table VI).
Finally, we examined several group mean differences. Planned com-
parisons were made to determine if any gender or ethnic differences (Cau-
casian American vs. Non-Caucasian American) existed for the four
subscales of the MAST A 2 (Gender) x 2 (Ethnic Status) multivariate
analysis of variance (MANOVA) that used the four MAST subscales as
dependent variables resulted in no significant main or interaction effects.
Males and females did not differ in their attitudes of attraction to and
repulsion by life nor attraction to and repulsion by death. Similarly, Cau-
casian American and non-Caucasian American students did not differ in
their attitudes as measured by the MAST

DISCUSSION

The present study extends previous research on the factor structure

and psychometric properties of the MAST in an American sample. The
findings in the current study suggest that even though the MAST was de-
veloped with a circumscribed sample (i.e., Israeli youth), the factor struc-
ture of attitudes about life and death are relatively similar in groups of
individuals with very diverse life experiences. These findings are supported
by means and standard deviations as well as reliability coefficients and fac-
tor correlations that are comparable with those of previous studies (Orbach
et al., 1991; Osman et al., 1993, 1994).
The primary purpose of the current study was to confirm the factor
structure of the MAST derived by Orbach et al. (1991). Previous studies

Table VI. Correlation Coefficients of Attitudes, Depression,

and Suicidality
Factor RADS SIQ SSB
AL -0.58*** -0.41*** -0.11
RL 0.66*** 0.47*** 0.30***
RD 0.20** 0.09 0.03
AD 0.00 0.27*** 0.16*
Note. Spearman correlation coefficients provided for SSB
Pearson correlation coefficients provided for RADS and SIQ.
*p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001. AL, attraction to life; RL,
repulsion by life; RD, repulsion by death; AD, attraction to
death; RADS, Reynolds Adolescent Depression Scale; SIQ,
Suicide Ideation Questionnaire; SSB, Spectrum of Suicidal
Behavior Scale.
MAST Factor Analysis 183

conducted with U.S. samples (Osman et al., 1993,1994) examined the factor
structure of the MAST in an exploratory fashion resulting in a model simi-
lar to that found by Orbach et al. (1991) with the exception of a few items.
We attempted to strengthen the findings of Osman and colleagues by ap-
plying confirmatory factor analytic techniques to MAST data collected from
a sample of college students.
Although the model proposed by Orbach et al. (1991) suggests that
the four factors of the MAST are unique (i.e., factor analyses were ortho-
gonally rotated), we hypothesized that the MAST subscales are distinct,
but related to one another. Based on this hypothesis, we compared the
original, uncorrelated model with one in which the factors were allowed
to correlate. Even though the uncorrelated model provided a modest fit
to the data, results suggest that the correlated model fit the data signifi-
cantly better. The improved fit of the correlated model over the uncorre-
lated model suggests that some degree of association is present among the
factors such that a shift in one attitude will lead to compensatory shifts in
the other attitudes.
The validity of the MAST was supported by correlations of the factors
with measures of depression, suicidal ideation, and lifetime suicidal behav-
ior. The strong correlations of the RL scale with measures of suicidal idea-
tion, lifetime suicidal behavior, and depression suggest that the more
repulsed by life an individual is, the greater the likelihood the individual
will express suicidal ideation and depressive affect and report that she/he
has engaged in suicidal behavior in his/her life. The AL scale was strongly
correlated with suicidal ideation and depression, but in a negative direction.
Specifically, the more attracted to life an individual is, the less suicidal idea-
tion and depression expressed by the individual, suggesting that attraction
to life may serve as a protective factor against self-destructive thoughts and
feelings. The AD scale was significantly correlated with suicidal ideation
and lifetime suicidal behavior, suggesting that the more attracted to death
an individual is, the greater the likelihood that she/he will express suicidal
ideation and will have engaged in suicidal behavior sometime in her/his
life. The lack of a significant correlation between AD and depression may
be a result of the measure used or it may be that when an individual is
depressed, she/he is not focusing on the positive aspects of anything, in-
cluding death. According to the cognitive triad theory, depressed individu-
als form negative views of the self, the world, and the future (Beck, Rush,
Shaw, & Emery, 1979). This theory may be applied to suggest that because
a depressed person's entire outlook is negative we might not expect him/her
to be attracted to anything.
The RD scale was significantly related only to a measure of depression
and in the opposite direction than would be expected. This finding is dif-
184 Hagstrom and Gutierrez

ficult to interpret because it directly contradicts the theory on which the

MAST was developed. Given the weakness of the correlation and the lack
of relationship with suicidal ideation or behavior, we are reluctant to draw
any conclusions from this finding. The observed relationship, while statis-
tically significant, may be too small to be clinically important. The RD scale
and the measure of suicidal ideation may not have been significantly cor-
related because adolescents who are thinking about suicide may be focusing
on thoughts about dying and not on reasons to fear death. It is also possible
that the RD subscale does not adequately measure the assumed construct
in U.S. samples. Orbach (personal communication, August 16, 1997) has
suggested that cultural and religious factors may have influenced the re-
sponses of the Israeli subjects on whom the MAST was developed. The
relative weakness of this subscale may therefore be due to measurement
issues and not lack of importance of repulsion by death in explaining suici-
dality. Refinement of this particular subscale appears warranted due to its
lack of correlation with similar measures and its modest internal consis-
tency.
Several limitations of the current study should be considered in guiding
future research using the MAST The overall ethnic diversity in the sample
was not large, although it was representative of the overall student body
from which participants were recruited. Additionally, the sample was com-
prised of relatively high-functioning individuals (i.e., college students) and
thus no direct comparison to clinical samples can be made. To increase the
generalizability of the MAST, future studies should examine individuals
from diverse ethnic backgrounds who vary in their level of suicidality from
never suicidal to recent serious suicide attempts as well as depressed, non-
suicidal individuals.
In conclusion, the current study provides further support for the factor
structure and psychometric properties of the MAST and suggests that it is
an adequate measure for use in research. Future studies should confirm
that the correlated factor structure does indeed provide a better fit to the
data. Additionally, given the findings of Osman et al. (1993, 1994), others
may wish to assess whether a more parsimonious form of the MAST pos-
sesses better reliability and structural validity than the 30-item version used
in this study. Problems with the RD subscale may be addressed by revising
the individual subscale items to be more culturally and religiously relevant
to U.S. participants. It appears that the subscales of the MAST are related
to each other and should be interpreted in terms of an overall attitude
profile rather than focusing on the score for a particular subscale. Addi-
tionally, the current scoring system for the MAST is confusing for both
research participants and researchers attempting to interpret the subscales
scores. We therefore recommend reversing the scoring system prior to ad-
MAST Factor Analysis 185

ministration such that low scores on any given item represent weak agree-
ment and high scores represent strong agreement.
Given the nonclinical nature of our sample we can only make assump-
tions about the expected attitude profile of a clinically depressed and/or
suicidal sample from the variations seen in our sample. It appears that in-
dividuals who are reporting less depression and suicidal ideation are mod-
erately to strongly attracted to life, moderately repulsed by death, mildly
attracted to death, and mildly to moderately repulsed by life. Individuals
who report more depression and suicidal ideation and behavior are more
repulsed by life and attracted to death and less attracted to life.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would like to thank Stephen Wagner and David Valentiner for their
comments and suggestions on previous drafts of this work. Portions of this
paper were presented at the 31st Annual Conference of the American As-
sociation of Suicidology, Washington, DC, April 15-19, 1998.

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